R. A.

PODAR COLLEGE OF COMMERCE & ECONOMICS (AUTONOMOUS) MUMBAI

2023-24
SEMESTER-I

COURSE INTRODUCED UNDER IKS AS PER NEP 2020

INDIAN TRADITIONAL APPROACH IN

CONSERVATION AND SUSTAINABILITY

Module-I
CONVENTIONAL TRADE & COMMERCE AND ENVIRONMENT

Table of Contents:

1. Introduction and overview of Indian Knowledge System

1.1. Indian disciplinary knowledge system in different fields:
1.1.1. Architecture
1.1.2. Science & technology
1.1.3. Nature
1.1.4. Astronomy
1.1.5. Agriculture
1.1.6. Health & medicine
1.1.7. Defense
2. Traditional commercial activities & trade practices with reference to environmental conservation
2.1. Agricultural trade
2.2. Silk, Cotton and Textile industry,
2.3. Spices
2.4. Metallurgy, etc.
3. Transportation and its modes
3.1. Grand Trunk road
3.2. Boat & ship-building,
4. Energy efficiency in the transport sector: a current scenario
4.1. Ecomobility. Impact of transport on climate
4.2. Impact of climate on transport

1. Introduction and overview of Indian Knowledge System

“We owe a lot to the ancient Indians, teaching us how to count. Without which most modern scientific
discoveries would have been impossible”
~ Albert Einstein

India's extraordinarily large body of intellectual texts, the largest collection of manuscripts in the world,
and its well-documented legacy of texts, thinkers, and schools in a variety of subject areas are all proof
that the civilization placed a high priority on knowledge. India has a vast history of learning that has
persisted uninterrupted for centuries. The goal of all inquiry has been acquiring knowledge, as evidenced
from the ancient Vedas, Upanishads to more recent Sri Aurobindo.

Indian knowledge systems have developed through thousands of years and have a solid foundation in
Indian culture, philosophy, spirituality, and science. Ayurveda, Yoga, Vedanta, and the Vedic sciences are
all knowledge systems that have applications in the present world. Learning more about the Indian
Knowledge System will actively contribute in spreading the rich heritage of our country and traditional
knowledge in the field of Arts and literature, Agriculture, Basic Sciences, Engineering & Technology,
Architecture, Management, Economics, etc.

1.1. Indian disciplinary knowledge system in different fields:

1.1.1. Architecture:

Architecture is the study of designing and making buildings. It also includes the style or design of those
buildings.

Ancient Indian architecture:

•It is as old as the civilization itself.

•It has a variety of architectural styles.
•UNESCO lists 830 World Heritage Sites, 26 of which are on Indian soil.
•It is usually related to religions, but other non-religious forms are also seen.
Religious architecture includes:
1. Hindu: Temples (Nagara: Northern style, Vesara: Mixed style and Dravida: South Indian style),
caves
2. Islamic: Mosques, tombs, Dargahs
3. Christian: Churches, chapels, Cathedrals
4. Sikh: Gurudwaras
5. Buddhist: Viharas, caves, Stupas, Chaityas
6. Jain: Temples, Caves

Design of a Stupa, Nagara style and Dravid style temple:

Non-religious architecture includes:
1. Forts
2. Wells and other water reservoirs
3. Palaces
4. Gardens
5. Residences
6. Royal and public baths, etc.

Together, the ancient Indian architecture can be studied in two manners: either by its style or by the
period in which it was constructed. For the ease of understanding, we shall study the ancient Indian
architecture by clubbing the styles and periods together. For example, since major developments of
Buddhist architecture happened during Mauryan period, Buddhist style and Mauryan architecture shall be
studied together.

a. Harappan architecture:
The architecture of the Harappan culture stood out in comparison to other recent civilizations. The Indus
Valley Civilization spans throughout Northwestern India, and displays numerous works of art, including
seals, sculptures, pottery, jewelry, etc. The famous Indian Architecture sites related to the Harappan
civilization include Harappa and Mohenjo Daro, which are in Pakistan today. However, the spread of
Indus valley civilization in the mainland of India was evident with the excavation of the sites like:
➔ Balathal and Kalibangan in Rajasthan
➔ Surkotda, Lothal and Dholavira in Gujarat
➔ Rakhilgarhi and Banawali in Haryana
➔ Ropar or Rupnagar in Chandigarh,
➔ Alamgirpur in UP, etc.
Features of Indus Valley Architecture:
● Two major sites, Harappa and Mohenjo Daro, are the earliest and finest examples of urban civic
planning. There exists a planned network of roads, houses, and drainage systems.
 ● The Harappan towns were designed in a rectangular grid pattern. They cut each other at right
angles.
● For construction, baked mud bricks of standard size have been used.
● The city was divided into 2 parts- the upraised citadel and the lower part of the city.
● Granaries were also constructed to store grains with features like strategic air ducts and a raised
platform.
● Another important feature was the prevalence of Public baths. It shows the importance of
ritualistic cleansing.
● The lower part of the city had small one-roomed houses. The remains of stairs indicate the
presence of double-storied houses. Most buildings had properly ventilated bathrooms and private
wells.
● The most outstanding feature was an advanced drainage system. The drains were interconnected.
For regular cleaning and maintenance, drains were covered loosely.
● Earliest known temple was excavated at: Baghor Shakti temple (M.P.)
b. Mauryan architecture:
By the 4th century BCE, the Mauryas had solidified their dominance. The architecture and sculpture
created under the patronage of the Mauryans reached its peak and glory. Along with the temple
architecture, major Buddhist stupas were constructed, as this period underlines the spread of Buddhism in
the Indian subcontinent.
Significant features of Mauryan architecture:
● Palaces: Principle material used in ancient Mauryan architecture was primarily wood. Ashoka’s
palace at Kumrahar was massive. It had a three-story wooden structure decorated with sculptures
and carvings. The Achaemenid palaces in Iran inspired Chandragupta Maurya’s palace.
● Pillars: Pillar inscription was a symbol of state or to commemorate battle victories and to
propagate sermons. The average height of the pillar was 40 feet; made up of chunar sandstone and
had four parts. A single piece of stone or monolith was used. Example: Lauria Nandangarh pillar
at Champaran, Sarnath pillar.
● Stupa: In the Buddhist tradition, the nine stupas were built after the death of Buddha. Eight of
them had relics of Buddha at their Medhi, and the ninth had a pot where the relics were originally
deposited. Example: Sanchi stupa in Madhya Pradesh, Piprahwa stupa in UP is the oldest.

● Cave Architecture: During the Ancient Indian architecture period, rock-cut cave architecture
emerged. They were generally used as viharas by Jainas and Buddhist monks. These caves were
marked by the highly polished finish of interior walls and decorative gateways. Example: Barabar
and Nagarjuna caves in Bihar were formed by the Dasharatha king.
● Sculpture: These were mainly used to decorate stupas in Torana and Medhi. The famous sculpture
of ancient architecture during the Maurya period is Yaksha and Yakshi. Jainism, Buddhism, and
Hinduism used them as an object of worship. Example: Didargunj Yakshini.
● Pottery: Northern Black polished ware (NBPW) was generally used. They were made of fine
alluvial clay and had peculiar luster and brilliance, distinguishing them from other polished
wares. Black-painted lustrous were luxury items for use during the Ancient Indian period.
c. Post Mauryan Architecture:
After the fall of the Mauryas in the second century BC, other dynasties sprang up. They were Shungas,
Kanvas, and Guptas in the North and parts of central India. The Satavahanas, Ikshavakus, Abhiras, and
Vakataks took control in southern and western India.
Parallely, in Southern India, dynasties like Pallavas, Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras were established. They
had their individual influence on the architecture in their regions.
Significant features of post-Mauryan architecture:
Rock-Cut Caves:
● The term “rock-cut architecture” refers to constructions such as houses and sculptures that were
carved out of a single, solid natural rock exactly where it was located.
● Two types of rock caves developed during the Ancient Indian Architectural period, Chaitya and
Vihara.
● Viharas consist of a veranda, a hall, and cells around the walls of the halls.
● Chaitya halls were mainly used as prayer halls. Examples: Karle Chaitya hall, Ajanta caves,
Udayagiri, and Khadagiri caves in Odisha.
● During the Gupta period, mural paintings were used on the walls of caves. The finest example can
be found in Ajanta and Ellora caves. Ajanta Caves has 29 caves, of which 25 are Viharas and 4
are Chaityas or prayer halls. Ellora Caves developed during the 5th and 11th centuries AD and
has 34 caves- 17 Hindu, 12 Buddhist, and 5 Jain. Other examples include Bagh caves, Junagadh
Caves, Nashik Caves, Mandapeshwar Caves, etc. which were developed during the Gupta period.
Stupa:
● Stupas became larger and more decorative as all four gateways were carved with beautiful
sculptures.
● Instead of wood and brick, stones were used.
● Shunga introduced beautiful decorative gateways, also called Torans. They were evident in
Hellenistic influence.
● Example: Bharhut stupa in Madhya Pradesh, ‘toranas’ at Sanchi stupa.
● Despite the Gupta period experiencing a decline in the development of the stupa, the Dhamek
stupa at Sarnath is the finest example of this period.
Sculpture:
Post-Mauryan Ancient Indian Architecture had following prominent schools i.e. styles –
● Gandhara School was developed in the western frontiers of Punjab, near Peshawar and
Afghanistan, and is also known as the Greco-Indian School of Art. Greek and Roman sculpture
influenced the local tradition.
● Mathura School developed during the 1st and 3rd centuries BC on the banks of the Yamuna
river. It was influenced by all three religions – Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism. Its
characteristic feature is the use of symbolism in the images.
● Amaravati School flourished on the banks of the Krishna river. Satvahana rulers gave patronage
to this tradition. Its characteristic feature is the use of dynamic images or narrative art and the use
of Tribhanga posture.
● Sarnath school was developed during the Gupta period. Its characteristic features were the use of
cream-colored sandstone, the use of metal, the absence of nakedness, dressed sculptures, and a
decorated halo around the head of Buddha. Example: Sultanganj Buddha of 7.5 feet in height.
South Indian Architecture (Dravida style):
All temple buildings in ancient Indian architecture included decoration as a key component. Ancient
Indian temples' elaborate architectural features and figurative sculptures were primarily concerned with
ornamentation.
● For instance, each temple had a garbha-griha, also known as a sanctum sanctorum, where the
deity of the building resided.
● A path for circumambulation surrounded each garbha-griha. Gates, sikharas, and gopuras were
some of the additional features.
Indo-Islamic Architecture:
Indo-Islamic architecture is the architecture of the Indian subcontinent produced by and for Islamic
patrons and purposes. India was introduced to Islamic style architecture after the
establishment of Delhi Sultanate (Dynasty).

The features of Indo-Islamic Architecture includes:

● Influence of Central-Asian dynasties (Turkish, Persian, Afghani, etc.)
● Large buildings
● The exteriors were topped by large domes
● Extensive use of arches was done
● Single large space under a high dome
● No figurative sculpture
● Adopted Indian ways of construction in many structures, e.g. bricks were replaced by stones
● A major aspect of Mughal architecture is the symmetrical nature of buildings and courtyards. It
was also a mix of Islamic, Persian, Arabic, Central Asian and native Indian architecture. Major
contributions of Mughal architecture includes:
○ Tombs: Taj Mahal, Akbar's Tomb, Bibi ka Maqbara, Safdarjung Tomb and Humayun's
Tomb
○ Forts: Red Fort, Lahore Fort, Agra Fort and Idrakpur Fort
○ Mosques: Jama Masjid of Delhi, Badshahi Masjid and Moti Masjid
○ Gardens: Shalimar Gardens, Bagh-e-Babur and Verinag Garden
○ Saraies (Guest Houses on trading routes): Akbari Sarai and Bara Katra
○ Bridges: Shahi Bridge, Mughal Bridge, Athpullah and Barapullah
○ Milemarkers: Kos Minar

Examples of Architecture of Indo-Islamic period:

1. Qutb Complex:
Comprising a mosque and a massive victory tower, the famous Qutb Minar, this structure was built in
Iranian (Persian) style, but has strong Indian influence in the form of arches. The surfaces are elaborately
decorated with inscriptions and geometric patterns.

2. The Tomb of Iltutmish:

This structure has intricate carvings.

3. The Tomb of Balban:

This structure possibly has the first true arches and domes. Also, the first possible introduction of
Indo-Islamic architecture to a contrasting combination of colours with red sandstone and white marble
was seen for the first time here. Mesh like stone carving was also seen for the first time.

4. Main mosque in the Gulbarga fort:

This structure has small and shallow domes, except for one large one.

5. The Charminar:
The Charminar was constructed at the intersection of the historical trade route that connects the city to
international markets through the port city of Machilipatnam. This structure incorporates Persian styles of
architecture.

6. Taj Mahal:
Probably the finest example of Indo-islamic architecture, Taj Mahal was built by Shah Jahan.

Indo-Christian Architecture:

Indian Christian architecture during the British Raj has expanded into several different styles as a result of
extensive church building in different parts of the country. Most Protestant cathedrals and churches in
India conform to the Neo-Gothic and Gothic Revival architecture styles. The adaptation of European
architectural elements to the tropical climate in India has resulted in the creation of the Indo-Gothic
style.French and Danish influences on Christian art and architecture in India can be seen in their
respective colonies.

The features of Indo-Christian Architecture includes:

● Tall walls
● Presence of tower and bell
● Specious interiors
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1.1.2. Science and Technology:

Since ancient times, India has had a glorious culture of education, science, and technology, and has made
significant contributions in the fields of astronomy, arithmetic, geometry, metallurgy, the ayurvedic
system of medicine, and surgery.

1. Mathematics:

The Idea of Zero: Mathematician Aryabhata was the first person to create a symbol for zero and it was
through his efforts that mathematical operations like addition and subtraction started using the digit, zero.
The concept of zero and its integration into the place-value system also enabled one to write numbers, no
matter how large, by using only ten symbols. Aryabhata is also credited for approximation of Pi,
The Decimal System: India gave the ingenious method of expressing all numbers by means of ten
symbols – the decimal system. In this system, each symbol received a value of position as well as an
absolute value. Due to the simplicity of the decimal notation, which facilitated calculation, this system
made the use of arithmetic in practical inventions much faster and easier.

Numeral Notations: Indians, as early as 500 BCE, had devised a system of different symbols for every
number from one to nine. This notation system was adopted by the Arabs who called it the hind numerals.
Centuries later, this notation system was adopted by the western world who called them the Arabic
numerals as it reached them through the Arab traders.

Fibonacci Numbers: The Fibonacci numbers and their sequence first appear in Indian mathematics as
‘mātrāmeru’, mentioned by Pingala (300 BCE) in connection with the Sanskrit tradition of prosody. Later
on, the methods for the formation of these numbers were given by mathematicians Virahanka, Gopala and
Hemacandra, much before the Italian mathematician Fibonacci introduced the fascinating sequence to
Western European mathematics. Pingala was also the first one to describe the binary number system in his
book Chandahśāstra.

Trigonometry: Bhaskara-I has major contribution towards approximation of sine function.

Square and square root: Baudhayana (800 BCE) contributed to approximation of the square root of 2
and the statement of a version of the Pythagorean Theorem.

2. Physics:

A Theory of Atom: One of the notable scientists of ancient India was Kanad who is said to have devised
the atomic theory centuries before John Dalton was born. He speculated about the existence of anu or
small indestructible particles, much like an atom. He also stated that anu can have two states — absolute
rest and a state of motion.
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1.1.3. Nature:

Ancient Indian ideas about the conservation of nature:

● “Paryavaranam” is a Sanskrit word for environment that was prevalent in ancient India, thousands
of years before the advent of modern science.
● In Indian consideration, the environment is not a physical and lifeless being but a very living and
active mechanism and human beings are just one among the various other creatures that inhabit
the earth.
● The concept of oneness between the living and nonliving entities on the earth is also seen in the
ancient text references.
● Early Vedic period mentions the worshiping of natural forces such as sun, water, air, soil, earth,
plants, trees, animals.
 ● The concept of panchamahabhutas (five great elements) i.e. the earth (prithvi), water (apah), fire
(teja), air (vayu) and space (vyoma) also underlines the importance of nature and its power over
the human beings.
● These moral values displayed a genuine love for nature and instilled the idea of sustainable
consumption of resources and wasting them was considered a sin.
● Ancient Indian thoughts about plants and trees: Medicinal qualities of many plants and trees
established a religious value for them. For example, Tulsi plant, Banyan tree, pipal find a mention
in ancient Vedic text and their conservation is emphasized.
● Ancient Indian thoughts about animals and birds: A religious practice of daily offerings of
foods to animals, birds and other creatures leads to maintaining an ecological balance in the time
of lack of food due to severe climatic change. Many animals and birds were automatically
protected due to their connection to a deity, e.g. peacock, elephant, etc.

Harappan civilization:

● They had acute awareness about hygiene and sanitation as evident from their construction of
ventilated houses, orderly streets, numerous wells, bathrooms, public baths and covered
underground drains. These structures were constructed keeping water conservation in mind.
● Several tablets found at the site show their love for trees as a form of worshiping tree goddesses.

Buddhist and conservation of nature:

● For thousand years, the Buddhist forest monasteries have manifested a harmonious living with
nature, being established in the mountains and in the forest.
● Tranquil life in the forest helped Bhuddhist practitioners to improve their inner minds and at the
same time, they also worked for the protection of animals and flora and fauna in the area.

Jainism and conservation of nature:

● Compassion and non-violence are the basis of ancient Jain philosophy.
● The concept of Jainism restricts its followers to harm any creature and eventually leads to limited
consumption as well as help in protecting the environment.

Kautilya Arthashastra and the Mauryan period:

● It is a treatise that enumerates on jurisprudence of various aspects with regards to administration
and governance, including conservation of resources.
● As mentioned in the Arthashastra, during the Mauryan period, environmental guidelines had to be
followed even in the affairs of the state.
● Special importance was attached to the animal sanctuaries called abhayaranya or abhayavna
which implies ‘forest that is free from fear’. This was so that the animals and trees could live
without fear of slaughter.
● Even trees and other plants that were grown in the municipal area deserved protection and a fine
was imposed for causing harm to them.
 ● It describes the maintenance of public sanitation and preservation of the environment, forest And
wildlife. Even in the affairs of the state, the administration was directed to preserve and promote
environmental welfare.
● ‘Superintendent Of Forest Produce’ was appointed by the state for each forest zone to be
responsible for maintaining the health of the forests, protecting forests to assist wildlife such as
Elephants (Hastivana), but also protecting forest products to satisfy economic needs, products
such as Teak, Arjuna, Sal, Birch, Bamboo, Fodder, Firewood, Bulbous Roots and fruits for
medicines, flowers, etc.
● Kautilya also prescribed a post of a Forest Superintendent and penalties were given for poaching
and causing damage to forests, especially productive ones..
● Water was regarded as a collective and not a private commodity. It was considered extremely
precious. Fines were prescribed for a number of acts that negatively affected water bodies, such
as obstruction or diverting a water course, damaging river banks,
etc.___________________________________________________________________________
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1.1.4. Astronomy:

The ancient Indian astronomers used the stars and planets to create astrological charts, developing
sophisticated mathematical models and many intriguing theories, many of which were passed down to the
Middle-East world and Europe.
This time period witnessed the exchange of ideas between Indians, Babylonians, Greeks, and Persians.
This exchange of theories and philosophy was critical to the advancement of astronomy.
Contribution of ancient Indian Astronomers:
Aryabhatta (476–550 CE):
● He was the first of the major mathematician-astronomers from the classical age of Indian
mathematics and Indian astronomy. His works include the Āryabhaṭīya and the Arya-siddhanta.
● In his works named ‘Aryabhatiya’, proposed a computational system based on a planetary model
in which the Earth was assumed to be spinning on its axis and the periods of the planets were
given with respect to the Sun. Many astronomical constants, such as the periods of the planets,
times of solar and lunar eclipses, and the instantaneous motion of the Moon, were precisely
calculated by him.
● He also gave nearly accurate values of sidereal rotation, i.e. the rotation of the earth around itself
as 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4.1 seconds;the modern value is 23:56:4.091. Similarly, his value for
the length of the sidereal year at 365 days, 6 hours, 12 minutes, and 30 seconds (365.25858 days)
is an error of only 3 minutes and 20 seconds over the length of a year (365.25636 days).
Bhaskara II (1114-1185 CE):
● He was the head of the astronomical observatory in Ujjain.
● He composed the Siddhanta Siromani, which is divided into two parts: Goladhyaya (sphere) and
Grahaganita (mathematics of the planets).
● He also calculated to 9 decimal places the time it takes the Earth to orbit the Sun.
Varahamihira (505-587 CE):
● Varahamihira was a Ujjain-based ancient Indian astrologer, astronomer, and polymath.
 ● The Brihat Samhita, an encyclopedic work on architecture, temples, planetary motions, eclipses,
timekeeping, astrology, seasons, cloud formation, rainfall, agriculture, mathematics, gemology,
perfumes, and many other topics, was one of Varahamihira's most notable works.
● Varahamihira proposed that objects must be held stationary by an attractive force.
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1.1.5. Agriculture:

India has a long, old history of agriculture since time immemorial in the Indus valley civilization. The
status of India as an agrarian economy still remains in today’s times.

Key features of ancient Indian agriculture:

of the oldest water regulating structures in the world isGrand Anicut dam on river Kaveri (1st-2nd
Century CE) .
● Indian agriculture began by 9000 BCE as a result of early cultivation of plants, and domestication
of crops and animals. Settled life soon followed with implements and techniques being developed
for agriculture.
● Double monsoons led to two harvests being reaped in one year.
● Indian products soon reached the world via existing trading networks and foreign crops were
introduced to India.
● Plants and animals—considered essential to their survival by the Indians—came to be worshiped
and venerated.

Harappan agriculture:
● Land and water management systems were developed
● Wheat, barley and jujube were domesticated in the Indian subcontinent by 9000 BCE.
● Domestication of sheep and goat soon followed. This period also saw the first domestication of
the elephant. BCE-4th millennium BCE.
● A variety of tropical fruits such as mango and muskmelon are native to the Indian subcontinent.
● The farmers of the Indus Valley grew peas, sesame, and dates. Sugarcane was originally from
tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia.
● Many wild species of Rice were cultivated in the Indus Valley Civilization.
● Mixed farming was the basis of the Indus valley economy.
● Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilization by around 4500 BCE.

Vedic period:
● Jute was first cultivated in India, where it was used to make ropes and cordage
● Some animals— thought by the Indians as being vital to their survival—came to be worshiped.
● Trees were also domesticated, worshiped, and venerated—Pipal and Banyan in particular. Others
came to be known for their medicinal uses and found mention in the holistic medical system
Ayurveda.
● Cultivation of a wide range of cereals, vegetables, and fruits is described in the Vedic texts.
● The soil was plowed several times. A certain sequence of cropping were practiced.
 ● Cow dung provided the manure.
● Irrigation was practiced.

The Mauryan Empire (322–185 BCE):

● In this period farmers categorized soils and made meteorological observations for agricultural
use.
● Other Mauryan facilitation included construction and maintenance of dams, and provision of
horse-drawn chariots—quicker than traditional bullock carts.
● Early Common Era – High Middle Ages (200–1200 CE)
● The Tamil people cultivated a wide range of crops such as rice, sugarcane, millets, black pepper,
various grains, coconuts, beans, cotton, plantain, tamarind and sandalwood.
● Jackfruit, coconut, palm, areca and plantain trees were also known.
● Systematic ploughing, manuring, weeding, irrigation and crop protection was practiced for
sustained agriculture.
● Water storage systems were designed during this period. Kallanai (1st-2nd century CE), a dam
built on river Kaveri during this period, is considered as one of the oldest water-regulation
structures in the world still in use.
● The Cholas also had bureaucrats which oversaw the distribution of water—-particularly the
distribution of water by tank-and-channel networks to the drier areas.
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1.1.6. Health and Medicine:

Indians have made a significant contribution to modern medicine and health. It is amazing that the sages
of old discussed intricate knowledge of the causes of disease and even described the likelihood of
hereditary transmission pathways. Many ancient texts, including the Atharvaveda, which has sections on
longevity, the treatment of ailments, cures for particular diseases, eradication of germs, antidotes to
poison, prudent food habits, and healthy lifestyle, mention the importance of good diet, hygiene, and
mental and physical health. In order to achieve a healthy body and mind, asanas (yoga positions),
pranayama (regulation of breathing process), and meditation are all recommended by Patanjali in his
Yoga Sutras, as well as Samadhi (meditative contemplation to achieve higher awareness). Ayurveda
viewed human health in terms of three doshas (fundamental energies or governing principles of the body),
each of which is composed of five elements: Vata (air (Vayu) + space/ether (Aakash), Pitta (fire (Agni),
and Kapha (earth (Prithvi) + water (Jala), an imbalance of which results in illness and calls for remedy.
The Pancha Mahabhutas (5 big elements) and the doshas, which regulate bodily processes, were seen as
constituting the universe. The seven basic principles or tissues that make up the human body are known as
the sapta dhatus: Rasa (tissue fluids), Rakta (blood), Mamsa (muscle), Meda (fat), Asthi (bones), Majja
(marrow), and Shukra (reproductive tissue).

With such a deep and vast knowledge system, ancient Indians were able to achieve greater heights in the
field of medicine, health and overall well-being.
Significant contribution of ancient Indians towards Health and Medicine:
1. Ayurveda:
Ayurveda, India’s traditional medicine, has been in practice for close to 3,000 years and has been serving
the health-care needs of millions of Indians.
Key features:
● The word Ayurveda derived from AYU and VEDA. AYU means life, VEDA means science or
knowledge, Ayurveda means the science of life.
● Ayurveda has both preventive and curative aspects.
● The treatment approach in the Ayurveda system is holistic and individualized, having
preventive, curative, mitigative, recuperative and rehabilitative aspects.
● The principal objectives of Ayurveda are maintenance and promotion of health, prevention of
disease and cure of sickness.

2. Yoga:

Yoga is an ancient practice that originated in ancient India and has been gaining immense popularity
worldwide. It encompasses a holistic approach to well-being, integrating physical, mental, and spiritual
aspects of health.

Key features:

● ‘Yoga’ has its roots from the Sanskrit word ‘yuj’ which means to join or unite. The very origin
of the word speaks volumes. It aims to connect your mind and body and to help them work
together in peace and as one.
● It encompasses various principles and techniques that contribute to its therapeutic benefits. Key
elements include:
○ Asanas: Asanas are physical postures that promote strength, flexibility, and balance.
Through a series of poses, asanas enhance physical fitness, improve body awareness,
and promote overall well-being.
○ Pranayama: Pranayama involves breath control exercises that regulate and manipulate
the breath. It improves respiratory function, enhances energy flow, and promotes
relaxation and mental clarity.
○ Dhyana: Dhyana, or meditation, involves focusing the mind and cultivating
mindfulness. It promotes mental calmness, emotional stability, and self-awareness.

Significant contributors towards ancient wisdom in Health and Medicine:

Sushruta
● Surgery was a well-established medical speciality in India by the time of Sushruta, even though
in a less-advanced form.
● He made significant contributions to the creation of numerous surgical methods (such as the use
of an ant's head to sew sutures), mentioning almost 120 different surgical tools, which were later
modified in the Western world.
● One of the most thorough texts on ancient surgery is Sushruta Samhita, which he wrote in the
sixth century BC.
 ● The work covers a wide range of ailments, botanicals, preparations, and treatments, as well as
sophisticated surgery procedures.
Charaka
● A key work on the antiquated discipline of Ayurveda, the Charakasamhita, was authored by
Charaka long before Hippocrates.
● Known as the father of Indian medicine, Charaka was the first to mention the ideas of immunity,
metabolism, and digestion.
● The ancient preventative medicine text written by Charaka endured as a standard work for two
millennia and was translated into numerous foreign languages, such as Arabic and Latin.
● Ayurveda was seen by Charaka as a complete medical system that addressed both the preventative
and curative aspects of healthcare, despite the fact that he had studied every aspect of medicine,
including the logic and philosophy that underlie the Indian medical system.
Jivaka
● Under the supervision of Atreya, he learned Ayurvedic medicine.
● Lord Buddha's and the Sangha's personal Physician.
Nagarjuna
● He is thought to have been an alchemist who used mercury frequently and advocated using
chemical remedies rather than herbal and vegetable concoctions.
● He gave a thorough explanation of the circulatory system and called blood rakta dhatu.
● He also made use of Bhasmas, a group of specially created substances with therapeutic potential.
__________________________________________________________________________

1.1.7. Defense:

Defense was the chief means by which territory was annexed or rulers defeated in ancient India which
was divided into multiple kingdoms, republics and empires. The king or emperor was supposed to be a
great warrior, capable of defeating enemies on the battlefield and protecting their own kingdom. The idea
of digvijaya (i.e. victorious campaign in all directions”) so that a ruler could become a chakravarti samrat
i.e. “emperor whose chariot wheel rolls unobstructed”) was always emphasized even in ancient literature.
throne. Buddhism and Jainism, despite their advocacy of non-violence, also understood the role of war
and warfare in the prevailing political system and especially for the defense of one's kingdom against
invaders.

Warfare techniques in ancient India:

Army:
● The army was composed of four arms (chaturanga sena) —infantry (soldiers who fought on foot),
cavalry (army that fought on horses), chariots (army that used chariots run by horses) and
elephants.
● They were all deployed in the field of battle in formation (vyuha), as decided by the commanders.
● Great concern was shown to the training of men and animals.
● The kings and princes were well-trained in the arts of war and leadership, personally led armies
and participated in the defense of forts.
 ● Wooden battle chariots (sangramika) were used as command vehicles.
● Around the 6th century BCE, elephants replaced the chariots as the elite arm. They were
considered as being invaluable owing to their huge destructive power. They acted as command
vehicles and provided shock value, i.e., the psychological impact on the enemy. Their other
functions included clearing the way for marches, fording rivers, guarding the army from the front,
sides and behind and battering down fort walls.
● The Rajput rulers in north, central and western India, used camels as well.

The fighting techniques:

● Fighting could take place on low grounds, in open battle, ambuscades, under the cover of
entrenchment, from heights and even during the night.
● The footsoldiers fought also in forests, hilly and inaccessible regions.

Weapons:
● Arms included bows and arrows, swords, double-handed broadswords, oval, rectangular or
bell-shaped shields (often of hides), spears, javelins, lances, axes, pikes, clubs and maces.
● Bows were the primary weapon for the infantry, chariot and elephant warriors and even the
commanders.
● Armour included helmets, turbans, covers for neck, torso, sleeved/sleeveless coats of varied
length, wrist-guards and gloves.
● There was also armour made from hides, hoofs and horns of certain animals like tortoise,
rhinoceros, bison, elephant or cow or chainmail.

Command structures:
● The emperor or king was always the supreme commander, followed by the crown prince
(yuvaraja) and the general or commander-in-chief (senapati).

Fortification:
● Forts held a key position in ancient Indian warfare.
● Forts were also treated as centres for administrative units. They were built in border regions, at
the extreme ends of the kingdom, and in different terrains—islands, hills (giridurga), deserts and
forests (vanadurga).
● There were moats, ramparts, parapets, towers, turrets and positions for archers, passages for flight
and exit doors along with multiple gates, secret land ways and waterways.
● The forts were also well-stocked with the number and amount of resources necessary for
withstanding long sieges, such as food and weaponry.
● There were moats, ramparts, parapets, towers, turrets and positions for archers, passages for flight
and exit doors along with multiple gates, secret land ways and waterways.
● The forts were also well-stocked with the number and amount of resources necessary for
withstanding long sieges, such as food and weaponry.

Naval warfare:
 ● The navy was used to transport troops to distant battlefields, participate in actual warfare and was
primarily meant for protecting the kingdom's trade on sea and navigable rivers and the maritime
trade routes by destroying pirates.
● The ancient Indians preferred to fight on land and fights on sea were not given much importance,
except in a few cases where destroying the enemy navy became crucial.
● The ships were mostly used to conquer islands, which was seen in the case of the campaign led by
Gupta emperor Samudragupta (335 CE – 380 CE), or for fighting seafaring peoples as the
Satavahanas ( 1st century BCE – 2nd century CE) did.
● The Cholas (4th century BCE to 13th century CE) conducted expeditions even to Southeast Asia.

Case study of Rani Abbakka:

Rani Abbakka Chowta was the first Tuluva Queen of Ullal who fought the Portuguese in the latter half
of the 16th century. She belonged to the Chowta dynasty who ruled over parts of coastal Karnataka (Tulu
Nadu), India. Their capital was Puttige.The port town of Ullal served as their subsidiary capital. The
Portuguese made several attempts to capture Ullal as it was strategically placed. But Abbakka repulsed
each of their attacks for over four decades. For her bravery, she came to be known as Abhaya Rani (The
fearless queen).She was also one of the earliest Indians to fight Eurochristian colonialism and is
sometimes regarded as the 'first woman freedom fighter of India'.

The Portuguese, clearly upset by Abbakka's tactics, demanded that she pay them tribute but Abbakka
refused to yield. In 1555, the Portuguese sent Admiral Dom Álvaro da Silveira to fight her after she
refused to pay them tribute. In the battle that followed, Rani Abbakka once again managed to hold her
own and repulsed the attack successfully.
In 1557, the Portuguese plundered Mangalore and laid waste to it. In 1568, they turned their attention to
Ullal but Abbakka Rani resisted them yet again. João Peixoto, a Portuguese general and a fleet of soldiers
were sent by the Portuguese Viceroy António Noronha. They managed to capture the city of Ullal and
also entered the royal court. Abbakka Rani, however, escaped and took refuge in a mosque. The same
night, she gathered around 200 of her soldiers and mounted an attack on the Portuguese. In the battle that
ensued, General Peixoto was killed, seventy Portuguese soldiers were taken prisoners and many of the
Portuguese retreated. In further attacks, Abbakka Rani and her supporters killed Admiral Mascarenhas
and forced the Portuguese to vacate the Mangalore fort.
The Portuguese captured Mangalore fort again and Kundapur (Basrur). Despite these gains, Abbakka
Rani continued to remain a source of threat. With the help of the queen's estranged husband, they
mounted attacks on Ullal. Furious battles followed, but Abbakka Rani held her own. In 1570, she formed
an alliance with the Bijapur Sultan of Ahmed Nagar and the Zamorin of Calicut, who were also opposing
the Portuguese. Kutty Pokar Markar, the Zamorin's general, fought on behalf of Abbakka and destroyed
the Portuguese fort at Mangalore, but was killed by the Portuguese on his return. Following these losses
and her husband's treachery, Abbakka lost the war, was arrested, and went to jail. However, even in
prison, she revolted and died fighting.

_________________________________________________________________________________
2. Traditional commercial activities & trade practices with reference to environmental conservation
Trade is an act of buying, selling, or exchanging goods and services.​
Types of trade:​
● Domestic Trade: Domestic Trade refers to any trade that occurs between individuals or
organisations within the country
● International Trade: International Trade refers to any trade that occurs between two or more
countries.
Importance of trade:
● Trade is an engine of growth that creates jobs, reduces poverty and increases economic
opportunity.
● Countries that are open to trade and investment are more prosperous than countries that restrict
individuals’ freedom to decide how to spend and invest their money.
● International trade between different countries is an important factor in raising living standards,
providing employment and enabling consumers to enjoy a greater variety of goods.
● International trade has occurred since the earliest civilisations began trading, but in recent years
international trade has become increasingly important with a larger share of GDP devoted to
exports and imports.
● International trade plays an important role in improving living standards and reducing poverty
levels.
Key features of ancient Indian trade:
● Trade has been believed to exist in India since 600 BC. This involved the export of spices, metals,
and even textiles from India to other parts of the world.
● All major towns were situated along various trading routes. Towns such as Pataliputra (on
riverine routes), Ujjain (land route), and Puhar (oceanic route) were valued for being trade
centers.
● Several routes were introduced in order to facilitate trade across cities and countries. These
include the most famous Silk Route, that connected India to China and the Roman Empire.
● Two major routes concerning India are mentioned in several ancient literature, Uttarapatha
(northern route of the currency Grand Trunk Road) and Dakshinapatha (southern route within the
Deccan plateau).
● Trading also helped promote the growth of Indian culture to east Asia as well as western world.
● Trading was done:
○ Over land into Central Asia
○ Overseas from ports into the Arabian Sea to East and North Africa and West Asia, and
through the Bay of Bengal to Southeast Asia and China.
● Rulers often attempted to control these routes by offering protection for a price.
● A wide range of goods were transported like salt, grain, cloth, metal ores and finished products,
stone, timber, medicinal plants, etc.
● In terms of currency, the Gupta period was perhaps the first to use coins that were punch-marked,
made with silver and copper.
● There is evidence that maritime (Overseas) trade continued on a major scale in the Vedic
(1500-800 BCE), Mauryan (324-187 BCE), Kushana (30-375 CE) and Gupta periods. Buddhist
literature, including Jataka stories, are also replete with the accounts of sea voyages, shipwrecks
and missionaries going overseas.
2.1. Agricultural trade:

● Agriculture continued to flourish and prepared the strong and stable backbone for the rise of
urbanization in the valleys of the rivers Sarasvatī and Indus (Sindhu) around 2600 BCE.
● The mature Phase of this civilisation (2600-2000 BCE) proved beneficial for agriculture as well
as the climatic conditions were very favourable.
● There were two kinds of crops- those which were grown during the rainy season and those which
were cultivated in the winter season.
● Wheat, barley, green peas, mustard, millet, sesame and cotton were some of the noteworthy crops,
which were traded mostly in the domestic markets.
● Small quantities of sugarcane were also grown by the ancient Indians. In fact, the first account of
crystallization of sugar are from ancient Indian trades.
● Many wild species of rice were cultivated and traded, again mostly in the domestic market.
● Large trading with other civilizations happened with the spices and textiles. Like cotton and wool.

2.2. Silk, Cotton and Textile industry:

Silk trade in ancient India:

The Silk Route, also known as the Silk Road was a network of ancient trade routes that connected China,
India, Central Asia, and the Mediterranean. It was dubbed the Silk Route because of the heavy silk trading
that took place during that period.
What is silk:
It is a valuable fabric that originated in China, which initially had a monopoly on silk production until the
secrets of its creation spread to other regions.
Key features of the silk route:
● It was a historic trade route that dated from the second century B.C. until the 14th century A.D. It
stretched from Asia to the Mediterranean, traversing China, India, Persia, Arabia, Greece, and
Italy.
● The original Silk Route was established during the Han Dynasty by Zhang Quian, a Chinese
official and diplomat.
● In addition to silk, the route facilitated the trade of other fabrics, spices, grains, fruits and
vegetables, animal hides, wood and metal work, precious stones, and other items of value.
● Silk route also facilitated trading into Central Asia through the passes of the Himalayas consisting
of food grains, cotton, dyeing material, gunny bags, utensils, etc dry fruits, silk, saffron, shawls
and works of arts from the Western Himalayas and precious and semi precious stones, herbs, gold
dust, musk, salt, borax and pack animals from Tibet.
● In the initial times, a trade agreement was done by using a piece of wood or stone broken into two
pieces marked with their identity retained by each party in order to be tallied to ensure the trade
contact. This method was later replaced by a written promissory note.
● Travelers used camel or horse caravans and stayed in guest houses or inns typically spaced one
day’s travel apart.
● Travelers along the Silk Route’s maritime routes could stop at ports for fresh drinking water and
trade opportunities.
 ● Places where the trade actually used to take place: Fairs, festivals and periodical marts were the
main centers of commercial gathering and marketing.
Silk route in India:
The monuments and sites located along this road comprises of prehistoric settlement, Harappan sites,
Buddhist Stupas & Monasteries, Temples, Forts, Tombs, Pavilions , Bridges, Gardens, Sarais (halting
places), Kos minars (milestones), Baolis (wells) etc. These remains survive till date and some of them
have also been excavated providing a cultural continuity from prehistoric to modern times.
In India, the ancient Silk Road covered seven main states – Bihar, Jammu and Kashmir, Maharashtra,
Puducherry, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and present-day Uttarakhand. In total, there are 12
main sites in the above states:
1. Ruins of Ancient Vaishali (Bihar)
2. Remains of Vikramshila Ancient University (Bihar)
3. Buddhist remains of Kushinagar (UP)
4. Sravasti (UP)
5. Kaushambi (UP)
6. Ahichhatra (UP)
7. Ancient Site and Buddhist Stupa (Punjab)
8. Arikamedu (Puducherry)
9. Excavated Remains of Kaveripattinam (Tamil Nadu)
10. Ancient monastery and stupa at Harwan (Jammu and Kashmir)
11. Burud Kot (Maharashtra)
12. Indraprastha (Delhi)
Other important parts of the silk route:
1. Ladakh is a great example of this cultural exchange. The region of Ladakh was an important
crossroads on the Silk Route between India and Central Asia. The Silk Route passed through
Ladakh via the ancient trade routes of the Indus Valley, which connected the Indian
subcontinent to Central Asia. The town of Leh was an important center of trade on the Silk
Route. The region was also an important center of Buddhism and today, many Buddhist
monasteries and cultural sites can be found in Ladakh that were connected to the Silk Route.
2. Similarly, Gartang Gali in Uttarkashi, Uttarakhand, was a part of the ancient trade routes of the
Silk Route. It was an important route for the trade of goods such as silk, spices, tea, and precious
stones between India and Tibet. The pass is also known for its strategic importance, as it was
used by armies and conquerors to invade India from the north.
3. Some of the other important historical places lying on this road are Kabul, Peshawar, Attock,
Lahore, Attari (Wagha border), Amritsar, Jalandhar, Ludhiana, Ambala, Karnal, Kurukshetra,
Delhi, Mathura, Agra Kanpur, Allahabad, Benaras, Sasaram, Patna, Dhanbad, Burdwan and
Kolkata.
There are four corridors which link India with ancient Silk Route:
1. The road through high Tibetan plateau and down to the Ganges – to Sravasti
2. The Road through valleys and mountains of western Nepal to the fertile valleys of the Ganges
3. The Silk Roads through the Karakoram via Srinagar, Leh and Sangju Pass covering Western
Himalaya
4. The road down the Ganges – Delhi to Chandraketugarh in West Bengal.
Consequences of silk route:
 ● The opening of the Silk Route brought many other products, like gunpowder and paper, which
would have a big impact on the West.
● Paper was especially important, as it eventually led to the invention of the printing press, which
gave way to newspapers and books.
● The Silk Route was a means to exchange goods and cultures. It also served in the development of
science, technology, literature, the arts, and other fields of study.
● It also helped missions by Buddhist and European monks and was instrumental in spreading
Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and other religions throughout the regions served by
the routes.
____________________________________________________________________________________
Cotton and Textile industry:
What is cotton:
Cotton is one commodity that is available virtually everywhere proving its utility. It is a form of textile
that has been generating significant employment for both skilled and unskilled labour, thus helping
strengthen the country’s economy.

Current scenario of cotton production in India:

● Today, the cotton sector in India is considered the second most developed sector in the textile
industry after man-made fibres.
● At 18% of the global total, India is the world’s largest producer of cotton. It also has the largest
area under cotton cultivation in the world, representing about 25% of the world’s area under
cultivation.
● The states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are the major cotton producing areas in India.

Ancient Cotton Textile Industry in India:

Indian civilization had been ruling the global cotton production and trade for about 3,000 years - from
1500 B.C. to 1500 A.D. It held this position till the 19th century when the British Raj started affecting the
native cotton textile production.

Harappan civilization:

● Evidence from excavations in the Indus Valley dating back to about 4,500 years ago shows that
Indians had already developed the technology to weave cotton into cloth at that time.
● Cotton was cultivated by the Harappans at Lothal, Rangpur & Alamgirpur.
● Seeds of cotton were found in association with Indus coins, proving the presence of cotton
trading.
● Routes of the cotton trade between India and Mesopotamia (today’s Iran, Iraq, Syria etc.), were:
Sea-routes with the help of boats as well as through land routes (via Afghanistan).
● There is evidence that in Mesopotamia and Greece, the cotton was called ‘sindon’, which might
have its origin in the word ‘Sindhu’.
● Shawl and dhoti were supposed to be the main clothes of Harappans.
 ● From the discovery of many spindles and spindle whirls in the houses of the Indus Valley, it is
evident that spinning of cotton and wool was very common.
● The presence of dyers’ vats (i.e. buckets carrying fabric colours and dyes) on the Harappan
excavation sites indicate that dyeing was practiced.
● Herodotos (484-425 BCE), a Greek historian states that Indians have a wild tree that carries wool
(cotton).
Mauryan period:
● The Mauryan period is known as the period of expansion of cotton industry and commerce
because it was the age of second urbanization.
● This was probably the time when Indians established first contact to the islands of Burma, Malaya
and Indonesia.
● During this period, there were forests of a special variety of silk like cotton trees. Besides these
natural forests, cotton was cultivated also.
● It appears that this industry was very much governed by soil and climate.
● Mathura, Saurastra, Kashi, Kalinga, Vanga, Kausambi, etc. were the important centres of cotton
clothes traders.
● There was a great demand for Indian cotton clothes in the Roman empire during this period.
● Megasthenes (350-290 BCE), a Greek historian who spent a considerable time in India during the
Mauryan period, says that most people wore a white cotton dress.
● Trade was both foreign and inland, sea-borne, river-borne, export & import.
● The eastern sea-borne trade was extended as far as China, and led to an extensive colonization.
The Kushana period:
● In the Kushana period, cotton trade flourished on the silk route from the Roman empire to China
through central Asia.
● Roman gold began to pour into this country in payment for silk, cotton, spice and gems.
● Traders and merchants used to come to these mercantile centres from various parts of the country.
● The inland trade was wide-spreaded, as between Taksasila and Varanasi.
● The Chinese vessels, silken cloths, cotton cloths, and spices were exported to the Roman empire
through the paths, under the Kusanas.
● Barbaricum and Bharukaccha (Bharuch) were the chief port centers of export and import.

The Gupta period:

● In the period of Gupta kings, we know from the texts of Kalidasa and Bana (Sanskrit poets) about
the cotton farming and cotton clothes.
● In Bana’s Harshacharita, not only cotton but other textiles are also mentioned, such as Kshauma
(linen), Badara (cotton), dukula (bark-silk), amsuka (muslin) and netra (short silk).
● Hiuen-Tsang (602-664 CE), a Chinese scholar praised Mathura as a manufacturing centre of
cotton clothes. He mentions the clothing materials of Indians as silk, cotton, linen and wool.
● In an inscription of Mandasore, we get imformation about the ‘pattavaya’ guild (a committee of
the weavers of silk cotton).
● Pataliputra, Tamralipti, Kasi, Mathura, Vaisali, Dasapur etc. were the main trade centres.
● The foreign trade in Gupta period belonged to different countries, such as- Egypt, Rome, Persia,
Seria, Lanka and in southeast Asian countries – Champa, Java, Sumatra, Bali, Malaya and china.
● Even the mummy of ancient Egypt was wrapped with Indian cloth. · The Chola period:
The Chola period:
● ‘Uraiyur’ , the capital of Chola Kingdom, is famous for cotton clothes.
● Foreign countries, such as – Egypt, Arab, Greece, China, Malaya islands etc. took part in the
trade with India in the Sangam age.
___________________________________________________________________________________

2.3. Spices:

Spices are valuable agricultural products, which can be any seed, fruit, root, bark, or other plant substance
in a form primarily used for flavoring or coloring food.

Key features of ancient spice trade:

● Spices were traded through the maritime (Sea) routes.
● The spices consisted of cinnamon, pepper, ginger, cloves and nutmeg and many more, which were
exchanged for valuable commodities like gold and silver.
● The spice routes were established around 3000 BCE and this was two thousand years before the
Silk route was established.
● Spice routes linked the east with the west as it stretched from Japan through Indonesia to India to
the Middle Eastern lands to Europe through the Mediterranean, covering a distance of 15,000
kilometers.
● Spices were the most valued medicinal plants and were used for medicinal purposes during the
ancient times. Their use in food became prevalent much later.
● Spices were so valued once that people used to risk their lives just to trade in spices. Arab
merchants who traded in spices, would tell fantastic tales about their adventures in order to reach
spice growing regions. This would ensure high prices for the spicess.
● In the medieval period, food spoiling was a major problem faced by The Europeans as they
lacked refrigeration and general hygiene. In such a situation, species became important as they
helped to preserve the food for a long period of time.
● Other valuable goods were also exchanged across the spice routes such as textiles, metal work,
saffron, incense, etc.
● For almost 5,000 years, Arab traders had a monopoly over the spice trade till the Europeans
searched for new routes to the Far East regions.

Spice trading with respect to ancient India:

● As India was the leading producer of spices, it became the center of the world’s spice trade.
Spices became an important part of India’s trade with Chinese, Egyptian, Mesopotamian and
Arab civilisations. Even today, India tops the list of the spice- producing countries of the world.
Around 70% of the global spices are produced in India.
● Cochin and Malabar coast were the leading producers of the Pepper. In the Coastal regions of Bay
of Bengal, cloves were grown in huge quantities.
● As Kerala produced many important spices, including black pepper (indigenous to Kerala), it
became the hub of cultural and economic exchanges.
 ● In 1498, Vasco da Gama came to India by sea route. This led to domination of spice trade routes
by the Portuguese for a short period of time, which was later dominated by the Dutch and even
later by the British through the East India Company.
● Knowledge about the social and religious life of the people were also transferred through the
trade routes.

_____________________________________________________________________________________
2.4. Metallurgy:

Metallurgy before and during the Harappan Civilization:

The first evidence of metal in the Indian subcontinent Mehrgarh in Baluchistan is small copper bead dated
6000 BCE.
Archaeological excavations show that Harappan metal smiths obtained copper ore from the Aravalli hills,
Baluchistan and beyond.
Harappans discovered Copper + Tin = Bronze.
Harappan craftsmen also invented the true saw, with teeth and the adjoining part of the blade set
alternatively from side to side, a type of saw unknown elsewhere until Roman times.

Spearheads, arrowheads, axes, chisels, sickles, blades (for knives as well as razors), needles, hooks, and
vessels such as jars, pots and pans, besides objects of toiletry such as bronze mirrors; were some of the
metal artifacts produced by Harappans.
 The Dancing Girl of 'Mohenjo daro' made by the Lost Wax
Process

Bronze spiked spear A bronze figurine of a bull (Kalibangan) made by the

Lost Wax Process
After the Harappans in the classical age:

In the classical age, copper bronze smiths supplied countless pieces of art.
Let us mention the huge bronze statue of the Buddha made between 500 and 700 CE in Sultanganj
(Bhagalpur district, Bihar, now at the Birmingham Museum); at 2.3 m high, 1 m wide, and weighing over
500 kg. It was made by the same lost wax technique that Harappans used three millennia earlier.

Bronze Metallurgy:

So were thousands of statues made later (and up to this day) in Tamil Nadu, such as the, among other
famous bronzes.
Beautiful Nataraja statues of the Chola period Highly polished bronze mirrors

Highly polished bronze mirrors are still made in Kerala today, just as they were in Harappan times.

Iron Metallurgy, Iron Pillars and Beams:

The use of Iron appears to have become widespread from about 1000 BCE, and we find in late Vedic texts
mentions of a ‘dark metal’ ( krṣnāyas ), while earliest texts (such as the Rig Veda) only spoke of ayas ,
which, it is now accepted, referred to copper or bronze.

Zinc Distillation and Metallurgy:

● Indian metallurgists were familiar with several other metals, of which zinc deserves a special
mention because, having a low boiling point (907 C), it tends to vaporize while its ore is smelted.
● Zinc, a silvery white metal, is precious in combination with copper, resulting in brass of superior
quality.
● Sometimes part of copper ore, pure zinc could be produced only after a sophisticated ‘downward’
distillation technique in which the vapour was captured and condensed in a lower container.
● This technique, which was also applied to mercury, is described in Sanskrit texts such as the 14th
century ‘Rasaratna Samuccaya’

Wootz Steel:
Process of making wootz steel:

● The Wootz process consisted of the first presteel applied to a high carbon alloy produced by the
Crucible Process.
● The basic pairing sponge (or porous) iron; it was then hammered while hot to expel slag, broken
up
● Then sealed with wood chips or charcoal in closed crucibles (clay containers) that were heated,
causing the iron to absorb appreciable amounts of carbon; the crucibles were then cooled, with
solidified ingots of wootz steel remaining.

Social Context:

● Most of India’s metal production was controlled by specific social groups, including so called
tribes.
● Agarias of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh are reputed iron smiths, and there are still such
communities scattered across Jharkhand, Bihar, WestBengal , Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
● They contributed substantially to India’s wealth, since India was for a long time a major exporter
of iron.
● In the late 1600s, shipments of tens of thousands of wootz ingots would leave the Coromandel
Coast for Persia every year.
● India’s iron and steel industry was intensive till the 18th century and declined only when the
British started selling their own products in India while imposing high duties on Indian products.
● Industrially produced iron and steel unavoidably put a final stop to most of India’s traditional
production.

_______________________________________________________________________
3. Transportation and its modes

3.1. Grand Trunk Road:

The Grand Trunk Road (formerly known as Uttarapath, Sarak-e-Azam, Shah Rah-e-Azam, Badshahi
Sarak, and Long Walk) is one of Asia's oldest and longest major roads. For at least 2,500 years it has
linked Central Asia to the Indian subcontinent. It runs roughly 2,400 km (1,491 miles) from Teknaf,
Bangladesh on the border with Myanmar west to Kabul, Afghanistan, passing through Chittagong and
Dhaka in Bangladesh, Kolkata, Lucknow, Delhi, and Amritsar in India, and Lahore, Gujrat (Punjab region
of Pakistan), Rawalpindi, and Peshawar in Pakistan.

Over the centuries, the road acted as one of the major trade routes in the region and facilitated both travel
and postal communication. The Grand Trunk Road is still used for transportation in the present-day Indian
subcontinent, where parts of the road have been widened and included in the national highway system.
Contribution of rulers who built the Grand Trunk Road:

● The Mauryan empire: The highway was built along an ancient route called Uttarapatha in the
3rd century BCE, extending it from the mouth of the Ganges to the north-western frontier of
India. (Ancient Hindu and Buddhist texts use Uttarapatha as the name of the road in the Northern
part of present-day North India. The Buddhist literature and Indian epics such as Mahabharata
provide the existence of the Grand Trunk road even before the Mauryan Empire and was called
Uttarapatha or the "Northern road". The road connected the eastern region of India with Central
Asia and Ancient Greece). The initial stages of the road which exists today were encouraged by
Chandragupta Maurya. Its construction was inspired by the Persian Royal Road. The Mauryas
had maintained this very ancient highway from Takshashila to Patliputra (present-day Patna in
India). Chandragupta Maurya had a whole army of officials overseeing the maintenance of this
road as told by the Greek diplomat Megasthenes who spent fifteen years at the Mauryan court.
Constructed in eight stages, this road is said to have connected the cities of Purushapura (Today’s
Peshawar, in Pakistan) Takshashila (today’s Taxila in Pakistan), Hastinapura, Kanyakubja
(today’s Kannauj in U.P), Prayag, Patliputra (today’s Patna in Bihar) and Tamralipta (Tamluk
town in today's West Bengal), a distance of around 2,600 kilometers (1,600 mi). Ashoka made
further improvements to this road. He mentioned in his edict about having trees planted, wells
built at every half kos (a measurement of distance in ancient times) and many rest-houses built
along the route for the travelers.
● Sher Shah Suri: The old route was realigned and rerouted by Sher Shah Suri to Sonargaon and
Rohtas. Sher Shah Suri was the founder of the Sur Empire in India (In today’s Bihar). He also
repaired the road extensively and also widened it. He initiated the construction of ‘sarai’
 (rest-houses), kos minars (pillars to count distance in kos), baolis (wells) and gardens alongside
the road. Those who stopped at the sarai were provided food for free. His son Islam Shah Suri
constructed an additional sarai in-between every sarai originally built by Sher Shah Suri on the
road toward Bengal. This road was referred to as "Sadak-e-Azam'' by Suri.
● Mughal empire: More sarais were built under the Mughals. Jahangir under his reign issued a
decree that all sarais be built of burnt brick and stone. Broad-leaved trees were planted in the
stretch between Lahore and Agra and he built bridges over all water bodies that were situated on
the path of the highways. This road was referred to as "Badshahi Sadak" by the Mughals. A
picture of Mughal era Kos Minar along GT road at Sonipat, India:

● Mahmud Shah Durrani: He rebuilt the Afghan end of the road. Mahmud Shah Durrani was the
Prince and later ruler of the Durrani Empire (Afghanistan) between 1801 and 1803.
● British empire: They rebuilt the road considerably between 1833 and 1860. In the 1830s the East
India Company started a program of metalled road construction, for both commercial and
administrative purposes. The road, now named the Grand Trunk Road, from Calcutta (present day
Kolkata), through Delhi, to Kabul, Afghanistan was rebuilt at a cost of £1000/mile.

Present-day Scenario:

The Indian sections of the Grand Trunk Road coincide with NH 19 and NH 44 of the National Highways
in India. NH 19 was previously referred to as Delhi–Kolkata Road and is one of the busiest national
highways in India. After renumbering national highways, Delhi to Agra route is now national highway 44
and Agra to Kolkata route is numbered national highway 19.

3.2. Boat and Ship Building:

The maritime (ship-building and navy) history of Indian shipbuilding dates back to the time of Harappan
civilization. In fact, the English word ‘Navy’ has its origin in the Sanskrit word ‘Nau’ which means ship.
References of ship building in ancient times:
● The Rig-Veda: It mentions different parts of a vessel (ship) in Sanskrit. Also, other detailing about
the ancient marine industry is documented in the
● Arthashastra: It gives details of the ancient marine industry
● Matsya-yantra: It was a compass used for navigation in the 4th and 5th century CE.
● Indian folk-lore: Many Indian folk-lores have mentions of ships.

Materials used for ship building:

● Wood: Wood was used in the initial period of ship building. Since the boats of that era were built
of wood, there were stringent specifications and protocols laid down for the materials to be used.

History of ship building in India:

The history of shipbuilding in India dates back to ancient times, with a rich maritime heritage that spans
several centuries.
Indian shipbuilding skills were well-known and highly regarded in the ancient and medieval world,
leading to significant maritime trade and exploration.
Harappan Civilization:
Ancient Indians were skilled shipbuilders and navigators. The Harappan civilization (around 2600-1900
BCE) had access to the Arabian Sea and the Indus River, facilitating maritime trade with neighboring
regions.
● Excavations at Lothal, a major Harappan port city, have revealed the existence of a
sophisticated dockyard with evidence of shipbuilding.
● A certain caste held a monopoly on the technology of shipbuilding, which was an inherited
trade that was passed down from father to son.
● The units of measurement utilized by the native builders were their hands, fingers, and
feet.
● Flat-bottomed boats were designed to dock and service ships on both the big seas and
domestic rivers. Around 60 tonnes of weight may be carried by these boats.
● Additionally, the Harappans constructed a tidal dock for berthing and maintaining ships at
port cities. This is seen to be a special development since it was the first tide dock ever
built.
● Thus, from 3000 BCE to 2000 BCE, India had a sophisticated civilization centered around
shipbuilding.
The earlier Vedic period (2000-600 BCE) saw a slowdown from the advancement of the Harrapan culture
and hence is called the dark age for ship building in India.
The later Vedic period (600-200 BCE) saw the revival of maritime activity.
Maurya and Gupta Empires:
During the Maurya (322-185 BCE) and Gupta (320-550 CE) periods, India continued to be a significant
maritime power. The Indian Ocean was a thriving network of trade routes, connecting India with Africa,
the Middle East, and Southeast Asia.
● During the Mauryan Era, a Superintendent of Ships was appointed for the building and
maintenance of boats.
● Ocean-going ships capable of accommodating 700 passengers were built.
 ● There are records of boats with up to 30 oars having been built in Punjab for Alexander’s
fleet implying that the shipbuilding culture had started taking shape during the Mauryan
Era.
● The Post-Gupta period had vessels with single, double, treble, and four masts also with as
many sails, were built.
● The wood used to build ships was mainly Malabar teak as it was found to be more durable
than Oak which was used in other parts of the world to manufacture vessels.
The advent of sails
Multi-oared ships were entirely overshadowed by sail ships.
● In 756 CE, Pushyadeva, the king of Sindh, repulsed ferocious Arab Navy assaults,
displaying the maritime prowess and superior shipbuilding skills of the period.
● The historical work Yukti Kalpataru (1100 CE) addresses shipbuilding and goes into great
detail about the many kinds of ships constructed at this time.
● Boats used for different tasks were referred to by distinct names, such as Samanya,
Madhyawa, and Visesha for ferrying people across the river, hauling merchandise, and
fishing, respectively.
● The ships had excellent seaworthiness, could sail even at extremely high wind speeds, and
could withstand the huge swell caused by cyclones.
Since the Mauryan and Gupta times, the ships were mostly built at Calicut, Cochin, Kaveripattinam,
Masulipatnam, and Calcutta.
Two types of ships were built – the Monoxylon and the Colandiophonto.
● The Monoxylon (western name), as the name suggests, was cut out of a single log to
accommodate about 100 to 150 persons. It was raised with planks crossways to the ship in
tiers. They were used in coastal traffic.
● The Colandiophonto (western name), however, were ocean-going vessels and were
proportionately larger and sturdier weighing more than 1,000 tonnes.
Medieval India:
Indian shipbuilding reached new heights during the medieval period. Arab and Chinese travelers
documented India’s flourishing maritime trade and advanced shipbuilding techniques.
Indian ships, known as “dhows,” were used for both trade and naval purposes. These dhows were
well-designed and efficient vessels, capable of navigating long distances across the Indian Ocean.
This period for the first time saw several Indian ships being built specifically for at-sea combat.
● These Indian ships could fire incendiary throwers and catapults. The construction of
warships in India changed when cannons were added to them when the Portuguese arrived
in 1498 CE.
● The Marathas also boosted the Indian shipbuilding sector. The Marathas established
shipbuilding yards in Vijaydurg, Swarndur, and Kolaba throughout the 17th century.
● The ships built here were noted for their maneuverability in restricted waters and superb
sailing qualities.
● One of the oldest designs in ship construction was the Baghalah which traversed along the
Gujarat coast.
● The main features of the Baghalah were that it had a length of 74 feet and a width of 25
feet. It weighed 150 tonnes and had a depth of about 11 feet.
 ● The Baghalah was used for about 87 years from 1750-1837 CE. Thus, we see that India
had a long shipbuilding heritage even before the British arrived.
Colonial Era:
With the arrival of European colonial powers in the 15th century, Indian shipbuilding changed due to the
influence of foreign technologies and shipbuilding practices. The British East India Company established
shipyards in India for its trade and naval needs.
_________________________________________________________________________
4. Energy efficiency in the transport sector: a current scenario

4.1. Ecomobility and Impact of transport on climate:

EcoMobility:

Ecomobility is a term used to describe travel through integrated, socially inclusive, and environmentally
friendly options: namely walking, cycling, wheeling and public transport options.

Characteristics of Ecomobility:

1. It integrates environmentally sustainable forms of mobility.

2. It combines non-motorized means of transport with the use of public transport.
3. It allows everybody to move in their local environment.
4. It reduces the use of privately owned motorized vehicles.
5. It reduces the pollution

Examples of non-motorized transport include:

● walking
● cycling
● wheeling (wheelchairs, non-motorized scooters, walking aids, skates, push scooters, trailer, hand
carts, shopping carts/ trolleys, carrying aids)

Examples of public transport include:

● buses
● trams
● subways
● light rail
● trains
● ferries
● collective taxis
● taxis (if low-emission)

There are mainly four stakeholders for ecomobility:

1. Governmental organizations and political institutions: They set the ground rules for and
incentives for other stakeholders to follow.
 2. Businesses and public or private operators: They provide technological solutions and
transport services. For example: manufacturing a vehicle with eco-friendly feature
3. Experts’ organizations and academic institutions: They influence other involved
stakeholders, such as governments, by raising attention for certain topics.
4. Users or “consumers”: They are crucial since they determine the success of decisions and
programs by choosing how to move.

Mutual relationship between mobility and socio-economics:

The relationship between mobility and social-economic conditions is a mutual one. They influence each
other. On the one hand, the transport infrastructure influences the social-economic development of a
region or state. For example, the lack of proper transportation ways will slow down economic growth.
On the other hand, the socio-economic characteristics of people in the given territory or household also
influences transport choices and mobility behavior by them. The main variables affecting mobility
choices are:
● Gender
● Age
● Marital status and household composition
● Income and profession

Impact of transport on climate:

Mobility has an indispensable role in society and the economy. An efficient and accessible transport
system is essential for the quality of life of citizens and for planetary health.
However, this sector remains one of the biggest environmental challenges that we are facing.
In fact, transport is responsible for 24 % of direct carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions due to the burning of
fossil fuels, according to the International Energy Agency (IEA), with three-quarters of these emissions
being produced by road vehicles.
Furthermore, far from declining, the number of emissions resulting from transport is continuing to rise. In
Europe, for example, while most economic sectors, such as energy production or industry, have reduced
their emissions since 1990, emissions resulting from the transport sector have continued to rise.
This is despite the progress that has been made in roads and vehicles going electric (the number of electric
cars on the road in the world surpassed seven million in 2019). According to the IEA, this is due to two
main reasons:
● We are increasingly buying larger and heavier vehicles.
● There has been an increase in e-commerce, requiring road transport in order to deliver orders.
We already know the implications that CO₂ has on global warming. It is essential to reduce these gas
emissions in order to curb climate change and limit the rise in temperatures as much as possible.
In addition, transport is also part of the problem of air pollution, a danger that, according to WHO data, is
responsible for more than seven million premature deaths every year.
The fact is that the transport sector is in a critical transition. Existing plans to increase efficiency and
reduce energy demand must be extended and be more ambitious so that countries are able to comply with
Agenda 2030 and the Paris Agreement.
4.2. Impact of Climate on Transport:
Climate change may affect transportation at local, regional, and national scales. Three key impacts are
described in this section.

1. Impacts on System Safety and Function:

In many regions, sea level rise, changes in precipitation, extreme weather, and heat pose risks to the
transportation system. These hazards may affect system performance, safety, and reliability. In coastal
regions, rising sea levels and more extreme storms can lead to more storm surge and flooding, which can
damage roads, bridges, railways, ports, and coastal airports. Increased local flooding can affect roadways
and tunnels, weaken roadway materials, and cause traffic congestion. As a result, people may have trouble
getting to their homes, schools, stores, and medical appointments.

Across inland regions, heavy rains can cause flooding and mudslides, affecting ighways, railways, and
bridges. Lack of rain can also be a concern. Drought combined with extreme heat increases wildfire risk.
Wildfires can damage transportation networks and impair drivers’ visibility.
Rising temperatures can affect transportation in many regions. These impacts can be both immediate and
long-lasting. For example, heat affects runways, and hotter air can make it more difficult for airplanes to
take flight. Heat can also damage rail tracks and cause cracks in roads. In addition, heat can pose safety
risks to transportation workers and travelers. For example, vehicles can overheat and roadway joints can
buckle, leading to accidents.
Warmer temperatures can also cause permafrost (in and near the polar regions) to thaw. Permafrost
currently supports roads, airport runways, pipelines, and railroads in Alaska. Thawing permafrost can
weaken this critical infrastructure.

In Alaska, thawing permafrost has severely damaged airport runways, railroads, and pipelines.

2. System Costs and the Economy:

Climate change can have both positive and negative impacts on transportation system costs. For example,
milder winters in some regions could cut the costs of winter road maintenance. However, other areas may
see more damage to roads, bridges, and transit systems from heat, weather, and rising sea levels. As a
result, costs to maintain, repair, and replace infrastructure are likely to increase.
Climate change impacts on transportation can also have wide economic effects. One positive impact is
that warmer weather could lengthen the shipping season for some northern ports. Damage to the
transportation system, however, can interrupt the supply chain at local, regional, and national levels.
In some coastal areas, more flooding is occurring as the sea level rises. Urban areas where there is a lot of
pavement or where sewer systems cannot handle intense rainfall also are prone to flooding. Flooding
disrupts the movement of commuters, tourists, and freight. People also need reliable transportation to get
to their jobs. Extreme weather can disrupt transit options and damage roads, keeping people from getting
to work.
3. Reduced Access to Social Services and Necessities:
Climate-related impacts on the transportation system affects both urban and rural areas. For example, in
urban areas, heavy rains can flood tunnels and underground rail stops, affecting residents’ ability to access
critical services and necessities. However, people in cities may also have other transportation options,
including walking.
In rural areas, there are typically fewer roads and transportation options than in cities. A single damaged
road or bridge can cut off people’s access to services and necessities, such as food or medicine. Rural
communities can also face rebuilding challenges, including being able to bring in construction materials.
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