A Brief Introduction to Ancient

Indian Architecture

From ancient South Indian temples to the finest Mughal ruins, Indian
architecture is as old as civilization itself. The earliest traces of
recognizable building activity in India can be traced back to the
settlements of the Indus Valley. India is home to a myriad of temples,
Baroque, and modernistic structures that tell the stories of their era.
UNESCO lists 830 World Heritage Sites, 26 of which are on Indian soil.

India has seen a variety of architectural styles emerge over the course of
its history. Some examples include temple architecture, Mughal
architecture, Dravidian architecture, Sikh architecture, and cave
architecture. Many early Indian buildings were made of wood, which was
often decayed, burned, or brick that has been removed for reuse. Over
millennia, it has progressed from small rock-cut cave shrines to huge
temples that have extended across the Indian subcontinent and beyond,
forming a style that is now seen in contemporary Hindu temples across
the world.
In the first century CE, buildings were constructed to house a holy
symbol of a certain deity, which could then be adorned with sculptural
figures of them to remember their mythological adventures and provide a
place for worshippers to leave offerings and perform rituals. As a god’s
home, the temple was considered a holy place where heaven and earth
met, supplying them with a magnificent palace. Temple architecture has
a long history in India. It has developed in all regions of the country.
Despite the fact that the style’s roots are the same, there is a significant
distinction and variation in architectural styles in temple architecture.
This variation is primarily due to India’s geographical, climatic, racial,
ethnic and historical diversity. There are three broad styles of Indian
temple architecture: Nagara (northern style), Vesara (mixed style), and
Dravida (southern style). Each of these types has its own distinct cultural
influences and lineages. Hindu temple architecture represents a fusion
of arts, dharmic ideas, convictions, traditions, and the Hindu way of life.
Mughal architecture is a distinct Indo-Islamic architectural style that
evolved in Northern and central India from the 16th to the 18th century
under the patronage of Mughal emperors. It’s a stunning symmetrical
and decorative style of Persian, Turkish, and Indian architecture. Some
of the most unforgettable Mughal architecture was created during Akbar
the Great’s reign (1556-1605) and under the vision of Shah Jahan
(1628-1658). Many palaces, mosques, gardens, and mausoleums were
built by Akbar the Great. His architecture is notable for the use of
sandstone on a grand scale, as well as vast enclosed courtyards and
doomed shallow prayer halls. One of Akbar’s most stellar achievements
was the construction of his father Humayun’s tomb in Delhi. Humayun’s
Tomb, commissioned by Humayun’s wife in 1562 and designed by a
Persian architect, was the first garden tomb on the Indian subcontinent
and the first building to use red sandstone on such a large scale. It is the
first building in India to use the Persian double dome with an outer layer
supporting the white marble exterior, a previously unseen material. This
decorated facade style was a significant contribution to Mughal
architecture in the future.
Shah Jahan’s vision brought a delicate beauty and detail to Mughal
architecture. The Taj Mahal is without a doubt Shah Jahan’s most
famous achievement. The Taj Mahal, located in Agra, is a white marble
mausoleum constructed between 1632 and 1648 in memory of his third
wife, Mumtaz Mahal. The palace, which reflects the Islamic garden of
paradise and was built by 20,000 men, is generally considered as the
greatest accomplishment in Mughal architecture. The pristine
architectural masterpiece represents the best of Mughal artistic heritage
in India and is widely recognized as a symbol of life, attracting about 7-8
million visitors per year.
Dravidian architecture is a temple style that originated in South India in
the ninth century. It was built by the Dravidian peoples and is mostly
made up of pyramid-shaped temples called Kovils. Kovils rely on
intricately carved stone to construct a step pattern that includes
numerous sculptures of deities, warriors, kings and dancers. Many
temples in Tamil Nadu are immersed in mythology and antiquity, dating
back centuries to when numerous powerful dynasties dominated
southern India and beyond. The Dravidian architectural style has its
origins in the reign of the Pallava dynasty. The Pallava architecture’s
crowning achievement is the rock-cut Group of Monuments at
Mahabalipuram, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This group includes
excavated pillared halls with no exterior roof other than the natural rock
and monolithic shrines where the natural rock is completely cut away
and carved. The monuments are a combination of faith, religion, history,
and mythology, formed by rocks or boulders, combining nature and
sculpture.
Sikh architecture is another popular architectural style in India. Sikh
architecture is a world-renowned architectural style that is distinguished
by qualities such as progressiveness, elegance, intricacy, austere
simplicity, and flowing lines. It is increasingly expanding into new
branches of new contemporary styles as a result of its modern
progressive approach. While Sikh architecture was built within Sikhism
300 years ago, its beauty has led to its use in many non-religious
buildings today. The gurdwara is a religious structure in Sikh architecture
that houses the Guru of the Sikhs. Sikh temples are massive
commemorative structures associated with the ten Sikh Gurus or with
historical sites and events. Gurudwaras have entrances on all sides,
indicating that they are accessible to all people without any distinction.
This attribute represents the fundamental tenet of Sikh religion, which
hails God as omnipresent.
The cave architecture in India is suspected to have begun during ancient
times, when Buddhist and Jain monks used the structures for worship
and residence. Early examples of architectural craftsmanship on such
structures include rock-cut patterns carved on overhanging rocks. Caves
excavated from massive rocks gradually evolved due to their longevity in
contrast to other structural materials such as wood. Some of the most
important caves in India include Ellora Caves, Ajanta Caves, Badami
Caves, Karla Caves, and Elephanta Caves. The Ellora Caves, a
UNESCO World Heritage Site, are among the world’s largest rock-cut
caves. The site contains over 100 caves that house monasteries and
temples. It exhibits Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism art and
architecture from 600 CE to 1000 CE. The caves were carved out of
volcanic basalt cliff rock in the Charanandri hills with Cave 16 of Ellora
being the world’s largest monolithic rock excavation in the form of a
chariot called the Kailasha temple. In the eighth century, King Krishna I
commissioned the temple, dedicating it to Lord Shiva. The cave has
been around for over a century and houses deities and mythologies from
Shaktism and Vaishnavism.
For millennia, Indian architecture has gained notoriety. It has been
categorized into various styles and forms, each with its own individuality
and speciality. Indian architecture is deeply rooted in the country’s
heritage, culture, and religion. It contains elements that have flourished
over centuries and continue to be influential in the modern era. Indian
architecture encompassess areas that have been designated as
UNESCO World Heritage Sites, emphasizing the significance of their
protection.
Engineering in Ancient India

1. Introduction
From the Stone Age to the modern age we have come to know that the human being is
reflective, curious and inventor Means explorer. In modern civil engineering science has done
never to be forgotten progresses and made dreams come true which was beyond of our
imaginations. At present science has uncovered secrets. Even everything is before us but it
seems that there is body but not the spirit. There is an adage “Old is Gold”. Today after
uncovering secrets, using modern machines we could not rise civil engineering to the point
where our ancestor had left. Despite of reaching to the highest point in the field of architecture
still we found ourselves speechless watching the ancient structures. So many question rises
even about the gratefulness or in the context of firmness or strength or in the context of lively
instantiation. As the law is incomplete without evidence in the same way our memory is
incomplete without history. History means our past.
2. Analysis
Science has accepted that the human DNA is continue from one to another human being that’s
why human is curious and the ancient architecture is a sign which proves that we had
knowledge of science and architecture . But in which form? In ancient time the same science
was linked to culture, society, civilization and religion by our ancestor. It won’t be hyperbolically
to call them “Arya”.
For example:
1. In Indians our elders always told us not to sleep with our head in south direction.
Whereas dead body is kept in that way. Now the science behind this is that the earth
acts as a magnet.
2. in villages elders advised children not to go near ficus and banyan tree sometimes elder
scares kids saying ghost are there, but science says these trees produces Co2 at night
which is not good for health
3. It is told to Indians that keep your face in north direction. now scientific reason behind
this is that magnetic waves flow from north to south direction. this magnetic energy
activates the brain cells and increase the memory power.

So our tradition and science both mean same to protect human beings and to ameliorate but
their way is different our ancestor selected the way so we Indians and all the peoples of our
community of different classes even if they are illiterate or literate, rich or poor, can easily
understand and that was our culture but now we thinkt it is limitation or obstacle for us .

It is well acknowledged that we were familiar to science just time is changed and the same thing
is in front of us in new form
Our ancient saint and scholars were able to measure the distance between the sun and earth
which is written in the “hanuman chalisa” as जग ु सहस्त्र जोजन पर भानु (jug sahastr jojan par
bhanu)[1] which is proven right by “Nasa” and whole world then accepted
The concept of zero, square roots, cube roots, values of π were known to Indians. A book
“vimanashastram” shows the procedures to make an aeroplane .some other facts are:

1. The iron pillar of delhi is famous Indian place it has 99% resistance to corrosion and
almost 1600-1700 years old. A study concluded that a corrosion-resistance agent iron
hydrogen phosphate was applied on it which shows advanced chemical knowledge of
our ancestors.[2]
2. Harappa and mohanjo-daro are best examples of this architecture and mature urban
civilization. in Harappa civilization the underground drainage system was from

Pottery

Pottery or ceramics or ceramic art refers to the creation

of objects that are made up of hard brittle material
produced from non-metallic minerals by moulding them
while the material is wet and then firing them at high
temperatures. They are often made up of clay, porcelain,
steatite, etc.

Pottery plays an important role in studying culture and

reconstructing the past. Historically with distinct culture, the
style of pottery changed. It reflects the social, economic
and environmental conditions a culture thrived in, which
helps the archaeologists and historians in understanding
our past. It holds significant value in understanding cultures
where script was either absent or remains undeciphered.
Understanding of presence of fire, cooking, storage,
sedentary or migratory populace, social stratification can all
be developed via studying pottery.

For people, pottery provided opportunity to store, cook,

transport, trade and essentially became an expression of
artistic creativity.

Pottery is majorly of two types

1. Handmade
2. Wheel thrown

Handmade pottery is rather a primitive style pottery

developed in early ages which with time transforms to
wheel thrown. The different motifs drawn on the surface
plays an important role in understanding a culture and its
beliefs.

Evolution of Pottery
I. Neolithic Age

We find the first reference of pottery in this age. Naturally it

is hand-made pottery but during the later period footwheel
is also used.
Features

● Unglazed/unburnished that is having rough surface

● Handmade coarse grey pottery
● Material – clay mixed with mica and sand
● Pottery is devoid of any painting
● In many cases twisted rice husk cords were impressed into
wet clay for decoration
● Found throughout India including the South. Burzahom –
coarse grey pottery
● Included black-burnished ware, greyware and mat-pressed
ware

II. Chalcolithic Age

Chalcolithic Era, the first metal age, is marked by the

occurrence of distinct cultures in various parts of our
country namely – Ahar culture in South Eastern Rajasthan,
Malwa culture in Western MP, Jorwe culture in Western
Maharashtra, etc.

People of this age used different kinds of pottery.

1. Black-and-red-ware Pottery
Black and red ware seems to have been widely used.
Cultures like Ahar-Banas showed the presence of Black
and Red ware pottery with white linear designs.
2. Black-on-red ware

Jorwe ware is painted black-on-red and has a matt surface

treated with a wash.

3. Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP)

OCP people are regarded as the junior contemporaries of

Harappa.

This pottery is identified with the Copper Hoard Culture

that was found in upper Ganga Valley and Ganga Yamuna
doab area.
● The colour of the pottery ranges from orange to red.
● The period covered by the OCP culture is roughly placed
between 2000 BC and 1500 BC.
● Major sites are – Jodhpura (Rajasthan), Attranjikhera (UP)
● Ganeshwar, located near Khetri copper mines, was initially
believed to have OCP but researches have confuted this.

III. Harappan Civilization

Polished Ware Pottery with rough surface

● Both polished and unpolished type of pottery existed

● Pottery generally has a red surface and is wheel thrown
although handmade ones too exist
● Polished wares were well fired.
● Most of the pottery is polychrome meaning more than two
colours are used to colour the pottery.
● Most of the pottery is utilitarian. Such potteries usually have
flat bases
● Geometrical design along with paintings depicting flora
and fauna are observed
● Perforated pottery was also found may be used for
straining liquor.
● Pottery throughout the civilization was uniform (mass
thrown) revealing some form of control and leaving less
space of individual creativity
● Presence of luxurious pottery obtained from certain sites
reveals economic stratification in the society
1. Mature Harappa

Burial Pottery of Harappa

● Burnished and painted pottery

● Burial pottery was specially and distinctly made
● Reveals the Harappan belief in life after death
● Presence or absence of this pottery in the grave goods
reflected social stratification

2. Late Harappa

Ochre Colored Pottery (OCP) – As we know the late

Harappan cultures(1900BC – 1200BC) were primarily
chalcolithic. Some specific chalcolithic sites show the
elements of late Harappan(like use of burnt bricks, etc).
These sites have OCP.

Black-grey burnished ware produced on slow wheel –

Found in Swat Valley. This resembles the pottery from
north Iranian plateau.

Black-on-red painted and wheel turned pottery – Also

found in Swat Valley. This shows a connection that Swat
Valley was associated with Harappa.

Grey-ware and Painted Grey Ware, generally associated

with Vedic people have been found in conjunction with
some late Harappan pottery. It has less intricate designs as
compared to the early and mature periods suggesting a
dilution of the rich culture.
IV. Vedic Era – PGW

The Vedic Era saw the emergence of Painted Grey

Ware(PGW) Culture.

The Rig Vedic sites have PGW but iron objects and cereals
are absent. Hence it is considered a pre-iron phase of
PGW. On the other hand, the Later Vedic sites are
considered iron-phase of PGW.

This pottery is an Iron Age pottery found in Gangetic

plain and Ghaggar – Hakra valley, lasting from roughly
1200 BC – 600 BC. Mathura was the largest PGW site.
● Characterized by a style of fine, grey pottery painted with
geometric patterns in black.
● Are confined to few geographical locations, namely –
Punjab, Haryana and upper Ganga Valley. This culture is
associated with village and town settlements (but without
large cities)

V. Later Vedic Era – NBPW

The later Vedic people were acquainted with 4 types of

pottery – Black-and-red ware, black-slipped ware, painted
grey ware and red ware.
VI. End of Later Vedic Era – NBPW

Towards the very end of Later Vedic Age around 6th

century BC, we see the emergence of 2nd phase of
urbanization(1st being Indus Valley Civilization). This era
marked the beginning of the Northern Black Polished
Ware (NBPW).
Map showing areas where NBPW pottery was found
● Glossy, shining type pottery.
● Made of fine fabric and served as tableware for richer class.
Considered deluxe pottery only found with the elites
revealing societal stratification which was a result of
Brahmanical hegemony.
● This pottery continued to exist during the Mahajanapada era.
● Found in Ahichatra, Hastinapur (both in UP), Navdatoli
(Madhya Pradesh)
● Classified into two groups – bichrome and monochrome
● Monochrome pottery has a fine and thin fabric. Potted on
fast wheel and have a strikingly lustrous surface. 90% of
 this type is jet black, brownish black and bluish black and
10% have colours like pink, golden, brown among others.
● Bichrome pottery is found less. It shows all the features of
monochrome except that it shows combination of two
colours.

A Bichrome pottery with two colours

VI. Megalithic Era

This culture is placed between- 3rd Century BC to 1st

Century AD. Megaliths refers to monuments constructed of
big (mega) stones (lith). This culture is particularly known
for its large stone graves. In the South this age is
characterized by the use of iron.

Megalithic Pottery found in Kerala

● Well baked and durable

● Wheel thrown
● Bulk of these are plain however, a sherd from Koldihawa
reveals black painting on the surface.
● It has been excavated throughout India but majorly from the
South. Mostly in Vindhyas.
 ● They were used as grave goods revealing belief in life after
death.

Coinage of India: Coins used in Ancient

India

The study of coinage in history is called numismatics. This article is an

attempt to capture the significant evolutionary changes the ancient Indian
coinage experienced.

The beginning of ancient Indian coinage can be traced between 1st millennium
BCE to 6th Century BCE. This stage comprised of coins that were made of
copper and silver.

The coins found in ancient Indian history were mainly stamped bars of metal.
The metal stamped bars were inspired by the currency that was in circulation
during the Janpadas in the early historical phase and evolved further with the
emergence of different dynasties.

Prehistoric and Bronze Age

In the Indian context, no significant evidence is found to conclude that people
in Stone age used currency or they conducted exchange in barter.

The Indus Valley Civilization seems to have conducted an extensive trade on a

wide network, but it was predominantly conducted around the barter system.
However, the Harappans also used metals like silver of fixed weight for trade
and mercantile activities.

Coins in the Vedic Period

The Rigveda has references to nishka (gold) and nishka greeva (ornaments of
gold) but it is not sure if these could be understood as coins.

However, the later Vedic texts had references to nishka, suvarna, shatamana,
and pada. But scholars are of the opinion that these terms do not indicate a
wide circulation of conventional coins.

Coinage during Janapadas

The most definite literary and archaeological evidence that suggests the
usage of coins in the subcontinent, dates around 6th-5th Century BCE. It was in
the context of the emergence of states, urbanisation, and rising trade
activities that the Buddhist texts and Panini’s Ashtadhyayi refer to terms like
kahapana/karshapana, nikkha/nishka, shatamana, pada, vimshatika,
trinshatika, and suvanna/suvarna.

It is interesting to note the basic unit of the weight of the Indian coins was the
red and black seed of gunja berry (Abrus precatorius).

In South India, the standard weight of the coins was ascertained by

calculating the relationship between the weight of two kinds of beans- the
manjadi (Odenthera pavonia) and Kalanju (Caesalpinia bonduc).

Punch-marked coins
The most conventional system of coinage emerged with the circulation of
punch-marked coins, that were mostly made of silver, and sometimes even
copper. They were sometimes square, or round but mostly rectangular in
shape.
The symbols on these were hammered using punches and dies. That is why
we know them as punch-marked coins.

A standard punch-marked coin often weighed around 32 rattis or about 52

grains (1 grain = 64.79 mg).

Punch marked coins are found across the subcontinent and were popular till
the early centuries CE.

The Punch marked coin series can be further divided into four categories: The
Taxila-Gandhara type, the Kosala type, the Avanti type, and the Magadhan
type.

With the expansion of the Magadhan Empire, the coins that belonged to the
Magadhan category replaced the other three types. It must be noted that
these coins do not have any legends inscribed on them which could convey
the details of the kingdom.

Coins of Kuru Janapada

Coins of Magadha Janapada

Coinage and the Mauryas

The Mauryan Empire used the punch-marked coins but with royal standard to
make sure of their authenticity.

The liberty to use two different metals for coins was granted, and hence coins
in silver and copper were very popular.

Hoards mostly
of Mauryan coins
Coinage by the Indo-Greeks
The next prominent range of coins that were issued belongs to 2nd/1st century
BCE by the Indo-Greeks. The Indo-Greeks system of coinage becomes
significant because the minting was executed in a more refined manner.

The coins were mostly made of silver, usually round, with exceptions to few
rectangular or circular) bore the name of the issuing ruler along with depicting
legends.

For example, the coins of Menander and Strabo I show them passing through
different stages of life, suggesting their long reigns.

The languages on these coins was Prakrit, inscribed mostly in Kharoshthi

script.

Coin from
the reign of Menander I, Obverse: Menander throwing a spear, Reverse Athena
with the thunderbolt, Legend written: “Of King Menander, the Saviour”.

The Kushana type coins

The Kushanas (1st-4th Centuries CE) were the first dynasty in the subcontinent
that issued a large number of gold coins. The lower denomination was usually
found in copper coins.

The coins usually bore the figure, name, and title of the ruler on the obverse
and the deities on the reverse. The legends are either entirely in Greek, or in
some cases in Kharoshthi on the reverse.

Coin of Kanishka in Greek script, with an illustration of the Buddha on the

reverse

Coinage by the Imperial Guptas

The Imperial Guptas issued well-minted and well-executed gold coins, die
struck with various impressive legends in Sanskrit. These coins, also known
as dinaras, were mostly found in North India.

The obverse has the kings in various poses, mostly in martial mood, but
sometimes even in artistic calibre.
Coins have also shown rulers like Samudragupta and Kumaragupta playing
Vina.

The Gupta coins were issued in gold in large numbers and have been credited
to their fine aesthetic appeal. However, the purity of gold saw a decline during
the later Guptas.

Gold coins of Chandragupta II of Gupta Empire, 400 CE

Post Gupta Coinage

The dynasties like the Gurjaras, Pratiharas, Chalukyas, Paramaras, and the
Palas from circa 530 CE to 1202 CE can be put under a broad category of
Indo-Sassanian styled coinage.

The main features of these coins included the bust of the ruling sovereign in a
simplified geometric style on the obverse and a motif like a fire altar on the
reverse.

Coinage by the Imperial Cholas

The coinage of the imperial Cholas bore semblance to the South Indian
dynastic coins. The Chola coins exhibited a tiger crest. They also suggested
political developments.

The emblems like fish and bow which belonged to the Pandyas and Cheras
suggested a political conquest of these political powers, and also the idea of
co-existence.

Comparison of Coin used in India

S.No. Coin Type Metal Details Script and

inscribed language

1. Punch-mark Mostly silver, Mostly None

ed coins sometimes geometrical

copper shapes, plants,

animals, and

geographical

features
2. Indo Greek Mostly silver Name of the The language was

type issuing ruler Prakrit, mostly in

with depicting Kharoshthi script

legends

3. Kushana Mostly gold, Figure, name, Legends in Greek,

type but also silver and title of the inscribed in

and rarely ruler on obverse, Kharoshthi script

copper and the deities

on the reverse

4. Gupta Mostly gold A figure of the Brahmi

coinage coins were ruler, with a

issued deity

5. Chola coins Gold, silver Legends of the Nagari script

and copper rulers

6. Post Gupta Decline in Names of the Varied with

gold, mostly rulers, and a dynasties.

silver and motif

copper

Table: A brief overview of the numismatic history of early India

Significance of numismatics in history

Coins are an important source of history, as they suggest important historical
processes. Not only the monetary situation, but broader questions related to
economy and polity can be answered through numismatics.

The wide distribution of Kushana coins suggests trading activities, and the
presence of ship motifs on Satvahana coinage reflects the importance of
maritime trade. The inscribed figures of rulers, deities and legends give us an
insight into social and political aspects of various kingdoms.

It must be noted that dates are seen very rarely on early Indian coins. Barring
western Kshatrapa coins which give dates in the Shaka era and some Gupta
silver coins which give the regnal years of kings, coins in early India are mostly
devoid of dates. Dated or undated, coins found in archaeological excavations
often help date the layers of time. An example is a site of Sonkh near Mathura,
where the excavated levels were categorised into eight periods on the basis of
coin finds.

With regard to the later development in coinage, the numismatic history of

later ancient and the early medieval period saw a decline in trade and the
feudal order marked stressed urban centres, and as a result, even though the
circulation of coins did not stop, their purity and aesthetic quality saw
degradation at many levels.