U-2 Tools & techniques of TQM

7 (QC)Statistical Tools
• Kaoru Ishikawa, a Japanese professor of
engineering, originally developed the seven
quality tools (sometimes called the 7 QC tools) in
1950s .
• The 7QC Tools, also known as the Seven Basic
Quality Tools, are graphical techniques tailored
for data visualization and problem-solving.
• These 7 basic tools of quality helps businesses to
systematically categorize and analyze
quality-related issues, pinpoint root causes, and
implement solutions.
1. Check sheet (or tally sheet)
• Check sheets can be used to collect
quantitative or qualitative data.
• When used to collect quantitative data, they
can be called a tally sheet.
• A check sheet collects data in the form of
check or tally marks that indicate how many
times a particular value has occurred.
• Collects data in real-time, allowing for quick
analysis and action.
• Ex: A hotel uses a check sheet for room
cleaning, ensuring all tasks are completed and
maintaining room quality.
2. Histogram

• Karl Pearson introduced the Histogram in 1891.

• A histogram is one of the quality management tools in project
management whose structures are similar to bar graphs.
• There is a collection of bars where each bar represents a
different group.
• The heights of the bars showcase the frequency of the data
within that group.
• In addition, data of frequency can be easily broken into
categories like sample size, months of the year, age, physical
measurements, and others that can be represented in
numerical or chronological order.
• Furthermore, Histogram helps in analyzing and interpreting the
actions of various data sets to control quality.
Inference

• After analyzing the histogram of food delivery times,

the restaurant draws the following conclusions.
• The histogram reveals a bimodal distribution, featuring
two distinct peaks.
• One peak represents orders that were promptly
delivered (around 15-20 minutes), contributing to
higher food quality and customer satisfaction.
• The other peak indicates orders with longer delivery
times (around 25-30 minutes), which can lead to lower
customer satisfaction due to extended wait times.
Scenario of using a Histogram

• A restaurant chain is committed to enhancing both food quality and

customer satisfaction. They believe that improving the efficiency of
food delivery times can contribute significantly to achieving these
goals.
• The restaurant collected data on food delivery times for the past
month to evaluate their impact on both food quality and customer
satisfaction.
• They recorded the time it took for each order to be prepared and
delivered to the customer's table, measuring it in minutes.
• Sample data includes
• Order 1: 18 minutes
• Order 2: 22 minutes
• Order 3: 15 minutes
• Order 4: 30 minutes
• Order 5: 25 minutes
• ... (additional orders)
3. Scatter diagram
• The graph uses dots to display the values of two different numeric
variables.
• The numerical data is paired from one variable on each axis, i.e., the x-axis
and y-axis, to find their relation.
• We have to join dependent values on the Y-axis and independent values on
the X-axis where every point showcases a common intersection point.
• The dots or points will fall along the curve or line if there is any correlation
found between the variables.
• If the correlation in the diagram is stronger, the relationship between the
two variables will also be stronger.
• The stronger the correlation, the closer the dots will be to the line. The
correlations can be observed through a scatter diagram: positive, negative,
and no correlation (none).
• In quality management, the scatter diagram helps identify relationships
between two variables to understand the quality defects, possible causes
(personnel, activity, environment, or other variables), and their effects on
the system or process.
• After establishing the relation, professionals can start working toward
finding the solution to the problems.
• Professionals can use any number of independent and dependent
variables to create a scatter plot.
4. Pareto chart (80-20 rule)
• A Pareto diagram, also known as a Pareto chart or Pareto
analysis, is a bar graph that helps identify the most important
problems or causes in a process.
• It's a key tool in total quality management (TQM) and six sigma
methodologies
• A Pareto Chart is a combination of a bar graph and a line graph
• As a quality control tool, the Pareto chart operates according to
the 80-20 rule.
• The Pareto chart is a quality improvement tool that is based
upon the Pareto principle, the principle that 80% of an outcome
comes from 20% of its inputs.
• A combination of a bar and line graph, the Pareto chart depicts
individual values in descending order using bars, while the
cumulative total is represented by the line.
• It Highlights the most significant factors in a data set, allowing
focus on critical issues.
• Each bar usually represents a type of defect or problem.
• The height of the bar represents any important unit of measure —
often the frequency of occurrence or cost.
• The bars are presented in descending order (from tallest to
shortest). Therefore, you can see which defects are more frequent at
a glance.
• The line represents the cumulative percentage of defects.
Pareto charts can be used in several different ways, including:
• To analyze the frequency of problems or defects in a process
• To analyze broad causes by examining their individual components
• To help focus efforts on the most significant problems or causes
when there are many
• To help communicate the significance of problems or causes to
others
• Ex: A restaurant identifies that 80% of complaints are about slow
service and cold food. They prioritize these issues for resolution.
• Ex:In transportation, 80% of the delays might result from 20% of the
possible causes.
• EX:In business, 80% of the revenue might come from 20% of the
customers or 20% of the products
5. Control Charts
• A control chart is a graph which displays all the process
data in order sequence.
• It consists of a centre line, the upper limit and lower
limit.
• Centre line of a chart represents the process average.
• Control limits (upper & lower) which are in a horizontal
line below and above the centre line depicts whether
the process is in control or out of control.
• Control limits are based on process variation.
• Ex: A bakery ensures that the baking time for bread
remains consistent, ensuring the same taste and texture
every time.
• Types of control charts
• Attribute data – When your data is in the form of an
attribute or count form of data we will use control
charts like
• P chart
• U chart
• C chart
– Attribute data are the number of defects, defective units,
etc.
• Numerical data – When your data is in the form of a
continuous type of data we will use control charts
like
• X bar chart
• R bar chart
• S bar chart
– Examples like measurement of length, weight,
temperature, etc.
6. Cause and Effect Diagram (Fishbone/Ishikawa)
• The Fishbone or Ishikawa Diagram is also known
as the cause-and-effect diagram, introduced by
Kaoru Ishikawa.
• It helps users to identify the causes or factors of
the effect or problem and solve them accordingly.
• Ishikawa Diagram looks like a fish’s skeleton with
the fish head to the right of the diagram and the
bones branching off behind it to the left.
• It helps in identifying the root cause of the
problem and improving the business process by
finding the solution to the effect.
• The ‘effect’ is the problem you are working on,
for example ‘waiting time’.
• The tool can help you identify major causes
and indicate the most fruitful areas for further
investigation.
• The tool quickly helps to fully understand an
issue and to identify all the possible causes –
not just the obvious.
• If we know the cause of the delay, we are then
better placed to implement the solution.
7. Regression Analysis
• Regression analysis is a statistical method
that can help manufacturing teams
understand how variations in the
manufacturing process affect the quality of
the final product.
• It is a tool that identifies root causes of
defects, errors and waste.
• Regression analysis estimates the impact
variables have on each other as well as the
final product.
• It is an accepted concept that the output of
your process is dependent upon the quality of
your process inputs.
An industry example of regression
• The Six Sigma Black Belt (BB) was interested in
the relationship between the sales of one of
the company’s major products and the amount
of money spent on advertising.
• She then used simple linear regression to
predict potential sales if the company spent
$250,000 in advertising.
• The predicted sales were a sufficient multiple
of the advertising spend, so the company
decided to run the new advertisements.
 Q. 5 Why’s in TQM

• The Five Whys method was originally developed by Sakichi Toyota, the founder of
Toyota Industries.
• This method became widely used in Toyota Motor Corporation and is still used
frequently to this day
• The Five Whys Analysis is a simple yet impactful problem-solving method.
• This technique, which encourages asking "Why?" five times, helps identify the root
cause of a problem, facilitating effective and sustainable solutions.
• Five whys (5 whys) is a problem-solving method that explores the underlying
cause-and-effect of particular problems.
• The primary goal is to determine the root cause of a defect or a problem by successively
asking the question “Why?”.
• The number ‘5’ here comes from the observation that five iterations of asking why is
usually sufficient enough to reveal the root cause.
Why The Five Whys?
• The main benefit of the Five Whys is that it is one of the most powerful assessment
methods of all non-statistical analyses.
• It can uncover and trace back to problems that were not very clear or obvious.
EX:

Problem There is a puddle of water on the floor.

Why? The overhead pipe is leaking

Why? There is too much water pressure in the
pipe
Why? There is a faulty control valve.
Why? Control valves have not been tested
Why? Control valves are not on the maintenance
schedule
The Benefits of Five Whys
• Helps identify the root cause of a problem
• Understand how one process can cause a chain
of problems
• Determine the relationship between different
root causes
• Highly effective without complicated
evaluation techniques
how it works:
• Identify the Problem
• Ask Why
• Drill Down with More Whys
• Repeat Until the Root Cause is Identified
• Develop Countermeasures
• The Five Whys Analysis is deeply rooted in the
Japanese philosophy of Kaizen, which focuses
on continuous, incremental improvement.
• The simplicity of the method—asking "Why?"
five times to get to the root cause of a problem
 Q. Five S’s
• 5S Principles are effective tools for reducing
waste, improving quality, increasing
efficiency, promoting safety and encouraging
continuous improvement.
• cost must be controlled and waste must be
avoided or eliminated.
• The 5S steps, when implemented properly,
can identify and reduce many forms of waste
in any process or workstation.
1. sorting.(Separating of the essential from the
nonessential items )
• During sorting the team should go through all
items in the work area including any tools, supplies,
bulk storage parts, etc.
• The 5S team leader should review and evaluate
every item with the group.
• This will help to identify which items are essential
for getting the job done effectively and efficiently.
• If the item is essential for everyday operations it
should be tagged and cataloged.
• If the item is not essential, determine how often it
is used in the performance of work in that area.
2. Straighten (Organizing the essential materials where
everything has its place)
• frequently used tools and supplies should be stored in
the immediate work area close to the operator.
• One effective method commonly used to avoid wasted
time searching for the correct tool is constructing
shadow boards for all essential tools.
• Items that are not used as often should be stored
based on their frequency of use.
• All parts bins should be properly labeled. The label
should include part number, part description, storage
location and the recommended min / max quantities.
• A properly straightened work area allows the operator
to quickly review and verify that they have everything
they need to successfully perform their task at hand.
3. Shine: Cleaning the work area
• The next step is to clean everything in the area and remove
any trash.
• To be effective we must keep the area and any related
equipment clean.
• Dirty process equipment can actually increase the potential
for process variability and lead to equipment failure.
• Lost time due to equipment failure is considered waste and
non-value-added time.
• A dirty area can also contribute to safety issues that have
the potential to cause a worker to be injured.
• Operators should clean their areas at the end of each shift.
• By doing this they will likely notice anything out of the
ordinary such as oil or lubricant leaks, worn lift cables, burnt
out bulbs, dirty sensors, etc.
• The purpose is to reduce waste and improve operator safety
and efficiency.
4. Standardize: (Establishing a system to maintain and
make 5S a habit)
• In this step we must develop the standards for the 5S
system.
• They will be the standards by which the previous 5S
steps are measured and maintained.
• In this step, work instructions, checklists, standard
work and other documentation are developed.
• Without work instructions or standard work,
operators tend to gradually just do things their own
way instead of what was determined by the team.
• The use of visual management is very valuable in this
phase.
• Color coding and standard colors for the surroundings
are sometimes used.
• Schedules should also be developed for regular
maintenance activities in each area.
5. Sustain: Establishing a safe and sanitary work
environment (Safety)
• This step in the 5S Process can sometimes become
the most challenging of all the five steps.
• Sustaining is the continuation of the Sort,
Straighten, Shine and Standardize steps.
• It is the most important step in that it addresses
the need to perform 5S on a consistent and
systematic basis.
• During this step a standard audit system is usually
developed and implemented.
• The goal of the sustain step is to ingrain the 5S
process into the company culture.
• 5S is not a one-time exercise. Following the 5S
Process must become a habit.
• Some organizations have added an additional
step and titled their process 5S + 1.
• The additional step being applied is safety.
• The goal of adding this step is to foster a
culture that enhances safety by identifying
any workplace hazards and removing them.
• In addition, tools and workstations are
selected or designed with proper ergonomics
in mind.
• The emphasis being that in each of the other
5S steps the motto is “Safety First”.
 Q. Kaizen Approach in TQM
• Kaizen is a Japanese philosophy and management method that
focuses on continuous improvement, which is a key part of total
quality management.
• Kaizen translates as "change for the better" ("Kai" = "change" and
"Zen" = "for the better") and stands for "continuous improvement“.
continuous improvement process" (= CIP).
• Kaizen is a Japanese term that means "constant improvement,"
and it refers to making small changes to processes and systems to
improve quality and productivity & reduce waste.
• The kaizen approach is a slow, continuous process of waste
elimination that includes everyone involved in a particular task.
• In a manufacturing company, it is the non-stop search for errors in
the production lines that will bring zero waste in materials, time, and
money.
• Origins can be traced back to Japan's post-World War II
• Toyota was the first to incorporate it into its manufacturing system
Kaizen Principles:
• Small steps: The Kaizen principle focuses on small, incremental
improvements rather than large changes. Instead of making major
changes small adjustments and updates are made regularly.
• Continuous improvement: Kaizen is a continuous and never-ending
process. Organizations and individuals should continuously strive to
improve their way of working and their results.
• Participation of all employees: Every employee, regardless of their
position in the organization, is encouraged to participate in
identifying opportunities for improvement. This creates an
environment in which employees are actively involved in shaping
and improving their work.
• Process orientation: The Kaizen principle refers not only to the
improvement of products or services, but also to the continuous
optimization of business processes and procedures.
• Customer orientation: Kaizen takes into account the needs and
expectations of customers and strives to continuously improve the
quality and value of products or services in order to increase
customer satisfaction.
• Measurable results: Improvements should be traceable and
measurable so that the impact on performance and quality can be
monitored and evaluated.
Kaizen Process:
• 1.Identify the areas that need improvement − Examine
processes and products to identify areas for
improvement. Customer feedback, employee
suggestions, or data analysis can all be used to
accomplish this.
• 2.Set goals − Once identified the areas that require
improvement, set goals for what you want to
accomplish.
• Ensure that the objectives are specific, measurable,
achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART).
• 3.Form a Kaizen team − Create a team of employees
who will be in charge of implementing Kaizen.
• This team should include representatives from various
departments who have an interest in the process or
product.
• 4.Analyze the process − Analyze the process to identify
the underlying causes of problems.
• This can be accomplished with tools such as
flowcharts, cause-and-effect diagrams, and Pareto
charts.
• 5.Implement improvements − Once identified the root
causes of problems, make changes to address them.
• These enhancements can take the form of small,
incremental changes or larger process changes.
• 6.Monitor progress − Progress should be tracked to
ensure that the improvements are effective.
• Track the impact of the changes with data and adjust
the process as needed.
• 7.Continuously improve − Finally, keep in mind that
Kaizen is a process that is ongoing.
• Always strive to improve processes and products, and
involve employees in the process.
• The concept of "gemba," which means "the real
place," is a key principle of Kaizen.
• This principle emphasizes the importance of
physically visiting the location where work is being
performed, observing the process, and identifying
areas for improvement.
• This ensures that improvements are based on
actual experience rather than theoretical ideas.
• Another important Kaizen principle is the concept
of "poka-yoke," which translates as
"mistake-proofing."
• This entails designing processes and products in
such a way that errors are avoided before they
occur. This contributes to higher quality and less
waste.
 Q. JIT (just-in-time approach)
• Just-in-time also known as JIT is an inventory
management method whereby labour, material and
goods (to be used in manufacturing) are re-filled or
scheduled to arrive exactly when needed in the
manufacturing process.
• minimizing wastes and improving production
efficiency and product quality.
• Just-in-time, or JIT, is an inventory management
method in which goods are received from
suppliers only as they are needed
• Just-in-time manufacturing is also known
as the Toyota Production System (TPS) because the
car manufacturer Toyota adopted the system in the
1970s.
• One example of a JIT system is a car
manufacturer, a manufacturer of cars operates
with bare minimum inventory levels, as there
is a strong reliance on the supply chain to
deliver the parts required to manufacture
cars.
• The parts required in the manufacturing of
cars do not arrive before or after they are
needed; rather, they arrive only when they are
needed.
• Justin time is a management of philosophy to
manufacturing and inventory management
that focuses on elimination of waste
continuous improvement and the delivery of
products are materials at the exact time they
are needed in the production process .
• JIT originated in Japan after post world war II
 Principles of JIT
1. Elimination of waste
• GIT focuses on identifying and eliminating waste throught the production
process.
• Wastes includes overproduction, Waiting time, inventory unnecessary
transportation waiting time , defects and over processing
2. Pull system :
• JIT follows a Pull based production system where production is initiated based
on actual customer demand rather than forecasted demand.
3. continuous improvement
• JIT emphasizes continuous improvement in all aspects of the production
process .
• this includes fostering a culture of problem solving, encouraging employee
involvement ,promoting team work and implementing technique such as
kaizen.
4. Standardization
• J I T Emphasis the Standardization of processes, work methods and
equipment.
• Standardization ensures consistency , simplify operations making it easier to
identify the deviations from the standard.
5. small lot sizes:
• JIT advocates for smaller lot sizes in production which enable more flexibility
and allow for quicker response to changes in customer demand.
 Q. Quality Circles
• Quality Circles, also known as QC or Kaizen Circles or
Quality Control Circle are small groups of employees
who voluntarily come together to identify, analyze, and
solve quality-related problems within an organization.
• Quality circle is “a voluntary group of people who

meet together on a regular basis to identify, analyze

and solve quality, productivity, cost reduction, safety
and other problems in their works area, leading to
improvement in their performance and enrichment
of their work life”
• A quality circle is useful for forward planning and
analyses of current and future production quality.
• When managers implement it efficiently, it improves the
productivity and the quality of work of the organization.
Structure of a Quality Circle
1.) A steering committee:
• This is at the top of the structure. It is headed by a senior executive and includes
representatives from the top management personnel and human resources
development people.
• It establishes policy, plans and directs the program and meets usually once in a month

2.)Coordinator:
• He may be a Personnel or Administrative officer who co-ordinates and supervises the
work of the facilitators and administers the program

3.)Facilitator:

• He may be a senior supervisory officer. He co-operation the works of several quality

circles through the Circle leaders.

4.) Circle leader:

• Leaders may be from lowest level workers or Supervisors. A Circle leader organizes
and conducts Circle activities.

5.) Circle members :

• They may be staff workers. Without circle members the program cannot exist.
Objectives of a Quality Circle
The primary objectives of Quality Circles are:
• Problem Solving: To identify and resolve quality
issues, defects, or process inefficiencies.
• Continuous Improvement: To develop a culture of
continuous improvement by encouraging
employees to take ownership of quality-related
challenges.
• Skill Development: To enhance the
problem-solving, communication, and teamwork
skills of participating employees.
• Increased Employee Engagement: Engaging
employees in decision-making and quality
improvement efforts leads to higher job
satisfaction.
 Q. Gantt Chart
• A Gantt chart is a commonly used graphical depiction of a project schedule.
• A Gantt Chart is a bar chart that shows the tasks of a project , when each must
take place and how long each will take.
• As the project progresses, bars are shaded to show which tasks have been
completed.
• People assigned to each task also can be represented.
• This is also called: Milestones Chart, Project Bar Chart and Activity Chart
• Henry Gantt (1861–1919), an American mechanical engineer, designed the
Gantt chart.
• It consists of a list of tasks and bars depicting each task’s progress.
• The horizontal bars of different lengths represent the project timeline, which
can include task sequences, duration, and the start and end dates for each
task.
• It’s the most widely used chart in project management.
• Gantt charts are used in heavy industries for projects like building dams,
bridges, and highways, as well as software development and building out of
other goods and services.
• The Gantt chart aids project managers in communicating project status and
completion rate of specific tasks within a project, and helps ensure the project
remains on track.
Details of a gantt chart enables us
• How a project breaks down into tasks
• When each task will begin and end
• How long each task will take
• Who’s assigned to each task
• How tasks relate to and depend on each other
• When important meetings, approvals, or
deadlines need to happen
• How work is progressing in a project
• The full project schedule from start to finish
Basic parts of a gantt to understand how they function in a project plan.

• Task list: Runs vertically down the left of the gantt chart to describe
project work and may be organized into groups and subgroups
• Timeline: Runs horizontally across the top of the gantt chart and
shows months, weeks, days, and years
• Dateline: A vertical line that highlights the current date on the gantt
chart
• Bars: Horizontal markers on the right side of the gantt chart that
represent tasks and show progress, duration, and start and end dates
• Milestones: Yellow diamonds that call out major events, dates,
decisions, and deliverables
• Dependencies: Light gray lines that connect tasks that need to
happen in a certain order
• Progress: Shows how far along work is and may be indicated by
percent complete and/or bar shading
• Resource assigned: Indicates the person or team responsible for
completing a task
Components of a Gantt Chart
• A Gantt chart can vary in complexity and
depth, but will always have three key
components:
• activities or tasks that are to be done, running
along the y axis;
• milestones or progress stages indicated along
the x axis (either on the top or bottom of the
chart); and progress bars, denoted as
horizontal bars, denoting how far along each
task is at any given point.