Applied Computing and Geosciences 9 (2021) 100051

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Applied Computing and Geosciences

journal homepage: www.journals.elsevier.com/applied-computing-and-geosciences

Retrieval of land surface temperature, normalized difference moisture

index, normalized difference water index of the Ravi basin using
Landsat data
Ajay Kumar Taloor a, *, Drinder Singh Manhas a, Girish Chandra Kothyari b
a
Department of Remote Sensing and GIS, University of Jammu, Jammu, 180 006, India
b
Institute of Seismological Research Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Land surface temperature (LST) is an important parameter for the biosphere, cryosphere, and climate change
Land surface temperature (LST) studies. In this study, we estimate LST, NDMI, and NDWI over the Ravi basin, India, and parts of Pakistan, using
Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) Landsat-8 Operational Land Imager (OLI) and Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS) data. The study develops an ERDAS
Normalized difference moisture index (NDMI)
IMAGINE image processing method by using the LANDSAT 8 band 3(Green), band 4(Red), band 5(NIR), band
Normalized difference water index (NDWI)
6(SWIR 1), and band 10 (TIR) data for determining the various spectral indices. The LST results show that most of
the areas experienced extreme anomalies ranging from
350Cand 36  C. The normalized difference moisture
index (NDMI) value ranges from 0.685 to - 0.154. The normalized difference water index (NDWI) value ranges
from 0.146 to - 0.444. Further, the LST result validated with in situ temperature observations at six locations in the
study area, providing excellent correlation.

1. Introduction thermal data at 4 km resolution and selective coverage at greater reso-

lutions such as with the Geostationary Operational Environmental Sat-
Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have ellite (GOES), NOAA-Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer
enhanced man’s capability to look at the world with sensors to observe (AVHRR), and Terra and Aqua- Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectror-
the dynamic changes on the Earth’s surface. This revolution has made it adiometer (MODIS). The heat capacity mapping mission (HCMM), which
quite easy for the human beings to determine changes spatially as well as was specially designed for the measurement of thermal inertia and
temporally over a larger area. Among the various application in geo- thermal discrimination of various surface materials (Drury, 1987), is
science and natural resources management, the environmental and among the few developed before the 1980s. With the enhancement of
climatological aspects are particularly well understood by RS and GIS technology, high resolution data from the new sensors is available: e.g.
(Alam et al., 2017, 2018; Kannaujiya et al., 2020; Kothyari et al., 2019; the Terra-Advanced Space borne Thermal Emission and Reflection
Sarkar et al., 2020b; Sharma et al., 2020; Taloor et al., 2017, 2019, Radiometer (ASTER) has a 90 m resolution and Landsat-7 Enhanced
2020a, 2020b). The LST is represents the temperature of the Earth’s Thematic Mapper (ETMþ) and Landsat-8 TIRS have a resolution of 100 m
surface, and also a temperature at the interface between the Earth’s in the thermal region. Sentinel
3 gridded land surface temperature,
surface and its atmosphere (Lejeune et al., 2015; Malik and Shukla, 2018; generated on a wide 1 km measurement grid, is among the new data with
Nicl
os et al., 2009; Singh et al., 2020; Sood et al., 2020a). Moreover, a wider application to LST estimation (Barsi et al., 2014; Guha et al.,
there is a sense of curiosity and growing awareness about climate change 2020a).
due to rising temperatures over the years. This has led geospatial scien- Due to the limitations of in-situ observations of surface temperature
tists to realize that remote sensing must play an important role in globally, satellite based LST provides relatively large spatial variability,
providing data needed to assess ecosystems conditions and to monitor high resolution, and consistent and repetitive coverage of measurements
change at all spatial and temporal scales (Singh et al., 2017; Sarkar et al., of earth surface conditions on a regional or global basis (Owen et al.,
2020a; Taloor et al., 2020c; Kothyari et al., 2020a; 2020b; 2020c). 1998; Malik and Shukla; 2018; Guhan et al., 2020; Yan et al., 2020). Over
Since 1978 there has been a continuous day and night coverage of the the years satellite based LST has become an important parameter for

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ajaytaloor@gmail.com (A.K. Taloor).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acags.2020.100051
Received 12 August 2020; Received in revised form 22 December 2020; Accepted 22 December 2020
Available online 29 December 2020
2590-1974/© 2020 Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
A.K. Taloor et al. Applied Computing and Geosciences 9 (2021) 100051

Fig. 1. Google map image location map of the study area.

studying agriculture processes, evapotranspiration, climate change, the stress level (Gao, 1996) and is calculated as the ratio between the dif-
hydrological cycle, forest fires, sensible and latent heat indices, vegeta- ference and the sum of the refracted radiations in the near infrared and
tion monitoring, urban climate, urban heat islands and volcanic studies SWIR, that is as (NIR-SWIR)/(NIR þ SWIR). The NDVI provides an esti-
(Mannstein, 1987; Sellers et al., 1988; Bastiaanssen et al., 1998; Kogan, mation of the health of vegetation (Kriegler et al., 1969).
2001; Su, 2002; Arnfield, 2003; Voogt and Oke, 2003; Weng et al., 2004; In the present study the estimation of the LST has been made from
Kalma et al., 2008; Weng, 2009; van Leeuwen et al., 2011; Kour et al., Landsat 8 using TIRS bands 10 and 11 in the Ravi basin, which highlight
2016; Wanderley et al., 2019; Kumar et al., 2020; Sekertekin and the highly heterogeneous characteristics of the land surface. The
Bonafoni, 2020). normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) has also been calculated
Recent studies suggest the integration of multispectral bands with the to draw out the vegetation index effect on LST in the area. Similarly,
TIR bands of Landsat images (TM, ETMþ, OLI, and TIRS) has enhanced NDMI was also calculated for determining the water index effect on LST.
the ability of RS techniques to derive LST. Many techniques have been
developed to estimate LST for various purposes, such as land surface 2. Description of study area
emissivity (Reddy and Manikiam, 2017), urban heat analysis (Guo et al.,
2015; Guhan et al., 2020), meteorology and climatology (Tomlinson The Ravi River basin extends from 74 200 E to 77 020 E longitude and
et al., 2011; Sobrino and Raissouni, 2000), land use land cover (LULC) from 31 310 N to 33 020 N latitude in the Himachal Pradesh (HP), Jammu
monitoring (Joshi and Bhat, 2012; Ahmad et al., 2013; Yao et al., 2018; and Kashmir (JK), and Punjab(PB) states of India and some parts of
Sahana et al., 2019; Gohian et al., 2020; Guha et al., 2020a), split window Pakistan, covering a total area of 12702 km2, with a flowing length of
and single channel (Du et al., 2015; Hulley et al., 2014; Yu et al., 2014; 720 km in India (Fig. 1). Being a transboundary river crossing north-
Julien and Sobrino, 2009; Jimenez-Mu~ noz et al., 2008), the relationship western India and eastern Pakistan, it is one of the six major rivers of the
between LST and NDWI (Guha et al., 2020a), and the normalized dif- Indus basin and as per the Indus Water Treaty (IWT) of 1960 (IWT, 1960)
ference built-up index (NDBI) and LST (Chen et al., 2006; Yuan et al., the water of this river is allocated to India. The river rises in the Raigarh
2017; Mustafa et al., 2020; Guha et al., 2020b). Glacier (snout ~4050 m above mean sea level (amsl) in the Bara Bhangal
Apart from LST estimation, the TIR region of the electromagnetic region of the Pir-Panjal range in the state of Himachal Pradesh. The study
spectrum has huge potential to estimate land surface related changes in area has a mountainous hilly area in its northern parts with large
any region, and is abundantly applied in almost every sector of Earth numbers of glaciers, lush green fields, mountain valleys and tracts of Indo
science (Wen, 2017; Alexander, 2020; Khan et al., 2020). It has the po- Gangetic plains in its southern parts covering the state of Punjab in India.
tential to map more indices, which can easily provide a quick estimation. The Ravi and Ujh are the two major rivers of the study area flowing in a
The NDWI is the most appropriate for water body mapping as a water southwest direction (Fig. 2). The Indian summer monsoon (ISM), during
body has strong absorbability and low radiation in the range from visible the months of April to September, generally accounts for 55% of the total
to infrared wavelength (McFeeters, 1996; Haque et al., 2020; Sarkar annual rainfall, while mid-latitude westerlies, which is also called the
et al., 2020; Sood et al., 2020b). The NDMI, describes a crop’s water Indian winter monsoon (IWM), from November to March contribute 35%

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A.K. Taloor et al. Applied Computing and Geosciences 9 (2021) 100051

Fig. 2. Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM), derived digital elevation model (DEM) with 30 m resolution, and shaded relief elevation map of the Ravi basin
overlain by the Ravi and Ujh rivers.

(Pareta and Pareta, 2014; Chand and Sharma, 2015). The structurally (0.17%) of the study area.
controlled hydrology of the Ravi basin is mainly regulated by spring
snowmelt and the summer monsoon rainfall (HPSEB, 2004; Chand and 3. Data and methodology
Sharma, 2015; Chand et al., 2019).
In the present study, LANDSAT 8 data was used to determine the
various indices by using the OLI and the TIR sensors. The OLI sensor
2.1. Land use/land cover map
provides data at a 30 m spatial resolution with eight bands located in the
visible, near-infrared and the shortwave infrared regions of the electro-
LULC is one of the most important thematic layers to help understand
magnetic spectrum, and with an additional panchromatic band of 15 m
the basic natural characteristics of any land surface. In the present study,
resolution. The TIRS senses the Thermal Infrared (TIR) radiance at a
identified LULC features are readily interpretable from the Landsat-8
spatial resolution of 100 m using two bands located in the atmospheric
data imagery. The identified classes (Fig. 3) are agriculture land
window between 10 and 12 μm. The band designations of Landsat 8 are
covering the southern and some northern hilly tracts and account for
given in Table 1. To determine the results, the multispectral RS images of
5806.90 km2 (45.72%). The built-up area is shown in the false color
the Ravi basin from different dates were obtained from the United States
composite(FCC) with a blocky appearance and light bluish colour, and is
Geological Survey (USGS). As one scene cannot cover the full study area,
intermingled with the agriculture land and some major hilly towns of the
a total of five satellite images of Landsat 8 were used having different
state of HP, covering in total 542.87 km2(4.27%) of the study area. The
paths and rows (Table 2). All the satellite data are re-projected to a
canal area covers 13.37 km2 and (0.11%) of the total area. These canals
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate system, (datum
are not used for irrigation purposes in study area but are further chan-
WGS84, zone44). The algorithm was created in the ERDAS IMAGINE
nelled into the arid state of Rajasthan for domestic and irrigation pur-
2015 software, which is optimized to process the complexity Landsat-8
poses. The fallow land mostly occurs along the Ravi river bed and also
data. Landsat-8, band-10 was used to derive the LST, band 4 and 5
along the canals and covers 46.63 km2(0.37%) of the study area, whereas
were used to calculate the NDVI, band 5 and 6 for were used for NDMI,
the forest cover ranges from reddish, bright red to light grey colour in the
and band 3 and 5 were used for the estimation of the NDWI. The meth-
FCC and accounts for a large chunk of the study area covering 3422.26
odology adopted in the present study is given in Fig. 4.
km2 (26.94%). The snow cover in the north and northeast of the study
area is shown in white colour in the FCC and accounts for 2503.40
(19.71%) of the study area. The rivers (Ravi and Ujh) account for 326.40 3.1. Conversion of DN values to at-sensor spectral radiance
km2 (2.57%) of the study area and appear as light blue to cyan colour.
The vegetation covers 18.60 km2 (0.15%) and includes orchards, social The satellite data products were a geometrically corrected data set.
forestry and plantations in the plains of the state of PB, whereas the The required metadata of the satellite images is presented in Table 3.
wasteland found along the India-Pakistan border accounts for 21.57 km2 The first step of the proposed work is to convert the Digital Number

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A.K. Taloor et al. Applied Computing and Geosciences 9 (2021) 100051

Fig. 3. Land use/land cover map of the study area.

where:
Table 1
Landsat 8 OLI and TIRS sensor descriptions.
Lmax is the maximum radiance (Wm
2sr
1μm
1),
Band Designations Wavelength (μm) Resolution (m) Lmin is the minimum radiance (Wm
2sr
1μ m
1),
Band 1 (Coastal Aerosol) 0.43–0.45 30 Qcal is the DN value of pixel, Qcal max is the maximum DN value of
Band 2 (Blue) 0.45–0.51 30 pixels,
Band 3 (Green) 0.53–0.59 30 Qcal min is the minimum DN value of pixels, and
Band 4 (Red) 0.64–0.67 30
Band 5 (Infrared) 0.85–0.88 30
Oi is the correction value for band 10.
Band 6 (Short wave infrared) 1.57–1.65 30
Band 7 (Short wave infrared) 2.11–2.29 30
3.2. Conversion of DN to at-sensor spectral radiance
Band 8 (Panchromatic) 0.50–0.68 15
Band 9 (Cirrus) 1.36–1.39 30
Band 10 (Thermal infrared) 10.6–11.19 100 After converting DN values to at-sensor spectral radiance, the TIRS
Band 11 (Thermal infrared) 11.50–12.51 100 band data are converted to Brightness Temperature (BT) using equation
(2), and the thermal constants given in Table 3.
(DN) values of band 10 to at-sensor spectral radiance using equation (1): K2
BT ¼   
273:15 (2)
ðLmax
Lmin Þ*Qcal ln Lλ þ 1
K1
Lλ ¼ þ Lmin
Oi (1)
Qcalmax
Qcalmix

Table 2
Landsat data used.
S.No. Data Date Path/Row Band

For LST For NDMI For NDWI

1 Sarothha (HP) LC08_L1TP_147037_20180211_20180222_01_T1 11-02-2018 47/37 TIRS1 & TIRS2 NIR & SWIR1 Green & Red
2 Mani Mahesh Lake (HP) LC08_L1TP_147038_20180126_20180207_01_T1 26-01-2018 47/38 TIRS1 & TIRS2 NIR & SWIR1 Green & Red
3 Billawar LC08_L1TP_148037_20180202_20180220_01_T1 02-02-2018 48/37 TIRS1 & TIRS2 NIR & SWIR1 Green & Red
4 Kathua LC08_L1TP_148038_20180218_20180307_01_T1 18-02-2018 48/38 TIRS1 & TIRS2 NIR & SWIR1 Green & Red
5 Gaghwal LC08_L1TP_149037_20180124_20180206_01_T1 24-01-2018 49/37 TIRS1 & TIRS2 NIR & SWIR1 Green & Red
6 Dera Baba Nanak LC08_L1TP_149038_20180225_20180308_01_T1 25-02-2018 49/38 TIRS1 & TIRS2 NIR & SWIR1 Green & Red

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A.K. Taloor et al. Applied Computing and Geosciences 9 (2021) 100051

Fig. 4. Flow diagram showing methodology.

NDVI is calculated on a per-pixel basis as the normalized difference be-

Table 3 tween the red band (0.64–0.67 μm) and near infrared band (0.85–0.88
Metadata of the satellite image. μm) using the formula in equation (3).
Variable Description Value
NIR
RED
K1 Thermal constants, band 10 774.8853 NDVI ¼ (3)
K2 1321.0789
NIR þ RED
Lmax Maximum and Minimum values of Radiance, Band 10 22.00180 The calculation of NDVI is necessary to further calculate proportional
Lmin 0.10033
vegetation (Pv) and emissivity () for the estimation of LST.
Qcalmax Maximum and Minimum values of Quantize Calibration, 65535
Qcalmin Band 10 1
Oi Correction value, Band 10 0.29
3.4. Estimation of fractional vegetation cover (FVC)
where K1 and K2 are the thermal constants of TIR band 10, and can be
The FVC is generally defined as the ratio of the vertical projection
identified in the metadata file associated with the satellite image. To
area of vegetation (including leaves, stalks, and branches) on the ground
have the results in degree Celsius, it is necessary to revise by adding
to the total vegetation area. It is an important biophysical parameter for
absolute zero, which is approximately equal to
273.15  C. Since the
simulating the exchange between the land surface and the atmospheric
atmosphere in our research area is comparatively dry and therefore, the
boundary level using the soil-vegetation atmosphere transfer model
range of water vapor values is relatively small, the atmospheric effect is
(Liang et al., 2012). In the present study, we have used the remote
not taken into consideration in retrieving the LST.
sensing based approach to retrieve the FVC value.
FVC can be calculated using equation (4):
3.3. Derivation of normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI)
FVC ¼ ½ðNDVI
NDVImin Þ=ðNDVImax
NDVImin Þ2 (4)
The NDVI is essential to identify different land cover types in the
study area and it ranges from
1.0 to þ1.0 (Kriegler et al., 1969). The where:

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A.K. Taloor et al. Applied Computing and Geosciences 9 (2021) 100051

Fig. 5. NDVI map of the study area.

NDVI ¼ DN values from NDVI Image, 3. 6: calculation of surface radiance

NDVI min ¼ Minimum DN values from NDVI Image,
NDVI max ¼ Maximum DN values from NDVI Image. The surface temperature of the SCA (snow covered area) sunlit and
SCA shadow is determined using the TIRS band 10 data of Landsat-8,
3.5. Estimation of land surface emissivity (LSE) centered at 10.9 μm. Relative to band 10, band 11 data (centered at
12 μm) is found to be affected by a larger stray light effect in the tele-
The calculation of LSE is required to estimate LST. scope, resulting in uncertainty in its calibration that restricts its further
The LSE is defined as the ratio of the radiance emitted by an object to use (Barsi et al., 2014). To retrieve the surface temperature (Ts), initially
the radiance it would emit if it were a perfect black body at the same the spectral radiance at the sensor is converted to the surface radiance,
thermodynamic temperature (Norman and Backer, 1995). Extensive and then finally Ts is calculated using the surface radiance values as per
measurements of LSE have been made because of its importance to sat- equation (6).
ellite remote sensing of LST (Becker, 1987), surface energy balance
LS ¼ (Lsat – Lu) / ετ - (1 - ε) / ε Ld (6)
estimation (Hall et al., 1992), mineral exploration, and identification and
radiation budget calculation (Prata et al., 1997). The satellite based where: LS ¼ Surface radiance after atmospheric correction.
measurements can be modified by LSE in three ways:
Lsat ¼ Spectral radiance at the sensor,
 LSE reduces the top of atmosphere (ToA) radiances in comparison Lu ¼ Upwelling spectral radiance between the surface and the sensor,
with a blackbody, ε ¼ Emissivity,
 Non-black body surfaces reflecting down welling radiances, and τ ¼ Atmospheric transmission, and
 When we introduce the anisotropy of LSE, it reduces or increases Ld ¼ Downwelling spectral radiance from the sky.
surface leaving radiances.

LSE can be calculated using equation (5): 3.7. Calculation of land surface temperature (LST)

LSE ¼ εs  (1- FVC) þ (εv  FVC) (5) The corrected surface radiance values of band 10 are converted into
surface temperature using equation (7):
where:
K2
εs ¼ Emissivity of bare soil, εv ¼ Emissivity of vegetation. LTS ¼   (7)
In LS þ 1
K1

where:

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A.K. Taloor et al. Applied Computing and Geosciences 9 (2021) 100051

Fig. 6. Land surface emissivity map of the study area.

LTS ¼ land surface temperature, ðNIR
SWIR 1Þ

NDMI ¼ (8)
K1 and K2 ¼ Calibration constants (Table 3 as derived from metadata ðNIR þ SWIR 1Þ
file), and
LS ¼ Surface radiance. 3.9. Calculation of normalized difference water index (NDWI)

The LST is the radiative skin temperature of the land surface, as The NDWI is most the appropriate index for water body mapping.
measured in the direction of the remote sensor. It is estimated from ToA Water bodies have strong absorbability and low radiation in the range
brightness temperatures from the infrared spectral channels of a from visible to infrared wavelengths. The index uses the green and NIR
constellation of geostationary satellites. Its estimation further depends on bands of the remote sensing images based on this phenomenon. The
the albedo, the vegetation covers and the soil moisture. NDWI can enhance the water information effectively in most of the cases.
LST is a mixture of vegetation and bare soil temperatures. Because It is sensitive to built-up land and often results in over-estimated water
both respond rapidly to changes in the incoming solar radiation due to bodies.
cloud cover, aerosol load modifications and diurnal variation of illumi- NDWI was calculated as follows using equation (9) (McFeeters,
nation, the LST displays quick variations too. In turn, the LST influences 1996):
the partition of energy between ground and vegetation, and determines
the surface air temperature. This is effectively, the earth’s surface tem- ðGreen
NIRÞ
NDWI ¼ (9)
perature, as it is directly in contact with the measuring instrument ðGreen þ NIRÞ
(usually measured in kelvin).
4. Results and discussion
3.8. Calculation of the normalized difference moisture index (NDMI)
4.1. Derivation of NDVI
The NDMI describes the crop’s water stress level and is calculated as
the ratio between the difference and the sum of the refracted radiations NDVI is a measure of the amount of vegetation at the surface and is
in the NIR and SWIR regions. The interpretation of the absolute value of related to the health of the vegetation, as healthy vegetation reflects a
the NDMI makes it possible to immediately recognize the areas of farm or high amount of energy as compared to the unhealthy and sparse vege-
field with water stress problems. NDMI is easy to interpret: its values vary tation. The NDVI value of the pixels varies between
1 and þ1. Higher
between
1 and 1, and each value corresponds to a different agronomic values of NDVI indicate rich and healthier vegetation while the lower
situation, independently of the crop. NDMI was calculated by using values indicate poor and sparse vegetation. The NDVI value in the study
equation (8) (Gao, 1996). area varies from 0.509 to
0.106 (Fig. 5). The study shows that northern
mountainous, hilly, and rugged terrain have low NDVI value because of

7
 Fig. 7. LST map of the study area.

Fig. 8. NDMI map of the study area.

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A.K. Taloor et al. Applied Computing and Geosciences 9 (2021) 100051

Fig. 9. NDWI map of the study area.

the barren land and glaciers, whereas the southern area includes more whereas the satellite data-based result shows that the pixels covering the
agricultural land and shows the high NDVI values. same area have a temperature of
35.772  C.

4.2. Derivation of emissivity 4.4. Derivation of NDMI

The emissivity of the surface of a material is its effectiveness in The results of the NDMI calculation range from 0.685 to
0.154. It
emitting energy as thermal radiation, a kind proportionality factor that can be seen from the resultant map (Fig. 8) that the high altitude snow
scales blackbody radiance to predict emitted radiance. It is determined covered area is present and the water body locations shows high content
by soil structure, soil composition, organic matter, moisture content, and of moisture as compared to the plains and low altitude areas. The barren
vegetation-cover characteristics (Van De Griend and Owe, 1993; Jin and land shows the lowest content of moisture, as there is no presence of
Liang, 2006; Malik and Shukla et al., 2018), but does not depend on soil vegetation and water bodies. The variations in the NDMI values can be
temperature profile or surface temperature. In the present study, the seen in Fig. 7.
value of the emissivity ranges from 0.991 to 0973 (Fig. 6). It has been
observed in the study area that emissivity in forest and other vegetative 4.5. Derivation of NDWI
areas decreases because of a decrease in surface temperature due to an
inverse relationship between the LSE and LST. Furthermore, the frac- The NDWI was calculated for observing the water index and it ranges
tional vegetation cover (FVC) of the study area is estimated, and found to from 0.146 to - 0.444. The areas where water bodies and rivers are
be 0.17 to 0.95. present show high values of NDWI as compared to the areas where water
bodies/rivers are not present. In the present study, the high altitude areas
4.3. Derivation of LST have a higher value of water index than the agricultural and built up
areas, which are generally located in the plains. The high altitude areas
LST represents the temperature of an object within a pixel, which may also show high moisture content because of the presence of snow cover,
include several land cover types. LST maps are prepared to show the whereas the built-up areas show a moderate value of water index due to
spatial distribution of LST within the study area. The maximum LST was the presence of water bodies like wells and sewage canals (Fig. 9).
observed as 36.009  C and the minimum LST was observed as
35.0772

C in January and February (Fig. 7). The results also show that there are 5. Validation of LST
variations in the LST of the area due to variations in the topography of the
study area. Also shown variations in the snow cover area as well as in We used Landsat-8 data from January and February in six different
barren land and water body coverage. The snow cover areas show tem- strips to determine the LST (Table 2). These satellite based LST results
perature well below 0C: we recorded the temperature of Mani Mahesh were validated by six field observations on the same date and time as the
lake as
35  C on 26-01-2018 at 10.44 a.m. (local standard time) satellite overpass over the study area, two in HP three in JK, and one

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A.K. Taloor et al. Applied Computing and Geosciences 9 (2021) 100051

Table 4 necessary facilities to carry out this work. We are also thankful to the
In-situ temperature and satellite based LST of the various locations in study area. anonymous reviewers for thought provoking comments to improve the
S.No. Location In-situ Temperature Satellite based LST of quality of the manuscript.
(oC) location(oC)

1 Sarothha (HP - 28
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