Chương 5 (1)

DESIGNING EFFECTIVE HRD PROGRAMS
5
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
1. Write training objectives for a specific program or HRD intervention that
contain all three qualities for useful objectives (described by Robert Mager)
2. Identify several sources outside one’s own organization where HRD programs
could be obtained
3. Compare the relative merits of developing an HRD program in-house versus
purchasing it from an outside source
4. List the activities involved in employer-designed HRD programs
5. Compare various types of training materials and describe how they are
prepared
6. Point out some of the constraints to scheduling HRD programs and suggest
ways of dealing with them
139
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140 PART 2 Framework for Human Resource Development
OPENING CASE
Rockwell Collins is a manufacturer of electronic con- company did not attend that training, citing work
trols and communications devices. In 2001, it was demands in a majority of the cases as the reason
spun off from Rockwell International to become a for canceling. In an effort to provide more training
publicly traded company. The company is headquar- to a greater number of employees, the Learning
tered in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, and employs over and Development group at Rockwell Collins consid-
20,000 employees worldwide. Approximately 7,000 ered making increased use of outside training ven-
of these employees work in Cedar Rapids, with dors, as well as changing the types of methods used
other large operations in California, Florida, Texas, to deliver training.
and Mexico. Rockwell Collins also has subsidiaries
in Europe, Asia, South America, and Africa, as well Questions: If you were manager of learning and devel-
as service locations around the world. opment at Rockwell Collins, where would you start in
Rockwell Collins has long maintained a strong your efforts to improve the availability and effective-
commitment to employee training and development. ness of company-sponsored training efforts? What sug-
However, until 1998, all Rockwell Collins training gestions would you have concerning how training is
was being conducted via classroom instruction. designed and provided? Furthermore, what sugges-
Twelve in-house trainers provided much of this train- tions do you have concerning who should provide the
ing. One difficulty was that most of the employees training (i.e., in-house trainers versus outside vendors)?
who worked outside of Cedar Rapids had very lim- Finally, how would you seek to “sell” your recommen-
ited access to training. In that same year, 28 percent dations to top management?
of those who signed up for training within the
INTRODUCTION
Once needs assessment has been done, an HRD professional faces a number of
important questions:
• Is this an issue that can and should be addressed by a training or HRD
intervention?
• If so, how do I translate the results of the needs assessment into a specific
training or HRD intervention?
• If training is necessary, how do we handle the make or buy decision, that is, do
we create the training program in-house, or purchase it from an outside vendor?
• If needed, who will be an effective trainer (or trainers) for this particular
training or development project?
• What is the best way to organize the program or intervention?
• How should training methods and materials be selected or prepared?
• What is the most effective use of technology for this training or HRD
intervention?
• Are there particular scheduling issues that should be considered in preparing
for training?
The purpose of this chapter is to discuss the second phase of the HRD pro-
cess: designing training and HRD interventions. Recent discussions of training
CHAPTER 5 Designing Effective HRD Programs 141
program design issues have addressed such diverse populations as firefighters,

forklift operators, healthcare workers, surgeons, architects and designers, as well
as others working in high-technology jobs.1 At this point, an organization fol-
lowing effective HRD practices will have completed Phase I of the training and
HRD process—needs assessment—and will have data that indicate:
1. Where the training or HRD program is needed
2. What kind of training or HRD program is needed
3. Who needs to be trained
4. The conditions under which training will occur
In addition, the needs identified will have been prioritized so that senior
management and the HRD staff know which programs or issues require atten-
tion and resources. As mentioned previously, it may also be the case that the
needs assessment reveals that some “non-training intervention” is needed, i.e.,
changes in organizational structure, incentives, staffing, or some other manage-
ment system. As Andrew Jefferson and colleagues recently wrote, training is not
PART 2 FRAMEWORK
a panacea to fix managerial issues such as poor motivation, unclear expectations,
or lack of recognition and rewards.2
We recognize that in some cases the availability of needs assessment data
may be limited. Although HRD practitioners may feel that it will be difficult
to design effective training programs, sometimes they must improvise and make
FOR
the best of such suboptimal situations. At the same time, every effort should be
HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

made to persuade management of the importance of conducting needs analysis
and prioritizing HRD needs, as time and resources allow.3
Armed with needs assessment data, the focus now turns to designing an effec-
tive HRD program. The key activities involved in designing an HRD program are:
1. Setting objectives
2. Selecting the trainer or vendor
3. Developing a lesson plan
4. Selecting program methods and techniques (including the appropriate use of
technology)
5. Preparing materials
6. Scheduling the program4
Figure 5-1 shows where these activities fit within the training and HRD
process model. It is important to stress at the outset that program design can be
a lengthy process.5 HRD professionals must simultaneously accomplish several
other critical tasks throughout the design process. These responsibilities are pre-
sented in the boxed insert on the next page. Although the focus of this chapter is
on more pragmatic concerns relating to the six points just mentioned (and
described in more detail in the following sections), the big picture responsibilities
described by Ronald Sims are vital to the success of any program that results
from such design efforts. Readers are well advised to keep these overarching
responsibilities in mind as they design new HRD initiatives.6
FIGURE 5-1 Training and HRD Process Model
Assessment Design Implementation Evaluation
Assess needs
Prioritize Define Select

needs objectives evaluation
criteria
Develop
lesson plan Determine
evaluation
design
Develop/acquire
materials
Conduct
Deliver the
Select evaluation
HRD program
trainer/leader of program
or intervention
or intervention
Select methods
and techniques Interpret
results
Schedule the
program/intervention
Assuming that an important need for training has been identified, the man-
ager or HRD professional must then translate that need into a set of objectives.
Objectives define what participants will be expected to learn or do as a result of
participating in the HRD program or intervention. However, some managers
and HRD professionals may be tempted to make a decision about whether to
design the program internally or purchase the program or its key parts, that is,
contract a consultant to serve as a trainer, buy program materials, and so on,
before establishing objectives. In outside purchases, the organization typically
uses the objectives developed by the vendor rather than defining its own. How-
ever, the chances of success are far greater if the organization identifies the HRD
objectives first, before deciding whether to design or purchase the program.
How can HRD professionals or top managers know what to buy when they
haven’t clearly defined what they want the program to accomplish?
Statements of HRD needs are often not detailed enough to be used as spe-
cific program outcomes. Rather, they state the problem at hand, and, ideally,
include a diagnosis of the problem’s causes. Objectives, in contrast, should state
the outcome the program is intended to produce, including the specific perfor-
mance expected, the conditions under which it will be performed, and the crite-
ria to be used to judge whether the objective has been achieved.
Seven Overarching Responsibilities of HRD Professionals

When Designing HRD Programs
Management professor Ronald Sims argues that 6. Serve as role models and mentors to trainees
training and development initiatives must emphasize and the organization in the pursuit of mastery
“pivotal” employee competencies (or KSAOs, as we of “pivotal” KSAOs.
described them in Chapter 4). To do this, HRD pro- 7. Develop efficient learning processes that take
fessionals must engage in a number of significant into account individual learning styles, abilities,
actions, including the following: and work and life circumstances.
1. Identify the kinds and levels of KSAOs that These types of responsibilities (especially points
employees need to attain high levels of per- 2 and 3) cannot be completed without active support
formance and achieve organizational results. and involvement from top management. However,
2. Develop and maintain organizational struc- with the increasing focus on high performance from
tures, conditions, and climates conducive to all organizations and employees, HRD professionals
learning. must ensure that every HRD initiative serves to meet
PART 2 FRAMEWORK
3. Generate and provide the necessary resources the organization’s strategic goals and objectives. The
to conduct a program design. previous activities must be carried out at the same
4. Identify and provide access to off-the-job as well time that other design issues are being addressed.
as on-the-job learning resources.
SOURCE: Reinventing Training and Development by Ronald R.
5. Provide individual assistance and feedback on Sims. Copyright © 1998 by Quorum Books. Reproduced by
various dimensions of individual performance. permission of ABC-CLIO, LLC.
FOR
DEFINING THE OBJECTIVES OF THE HRD INTERVENTION
Defining the objectives for the training or HRD program is one of the first
things an HRD professional should do—after completing the needs assessment.7
Robert Mager defines an objective as a “description of a performance you want
learners to be able to exhibit before you consider them competent.”8 As such,
HRD or training program objectives describe the intent and the desired result of
the HRD program. The results can be achieved in many ways (such as lectures,
role play, and coaching), but this is not specified in the objective. Rather, objec-
tives are used as the basis for determining which methods should be used to
achieve the specified outcome.
As we have stated, objectives are essential to a successful training or HRD
program. In addition to forming the basis for selecting the program content and
methods, objectives are used by the organization to evaluate the program’s success,
and they also help participants to focus their own attention and efforts during the
program.9 In short, objectives tell you where the program is going and how to
know when you have reached your desired target. As Mager put it rather humor-
ously: “If you are not certain of where you are going you may very well end up
somewhere else and not even know it.”10 The measurement and evaluation issues
that we will cover in Chapter 7 are predicated on defining clear objectives in the
design phase; without these, learning is less likely to occur, and evaluation less
likely to succeed. For example, one study measured the impact of training on
company performance among a sample of Chinese manufacturing organizations.11
Training effectiveness was measured in terms of perceived achievement of training

objectives, as well as by comparing training expenditures to company productivity.
Jack and Patricia Phillips emphasize that, to be effective, objectives must link to
important organizational outcomes, e.g., reaction, learning, application, impact,
and return on investment (such as we will discuss in Chapter 7).12
Needs assessment data are useful for defining program objectives because they
identify the deficiencies or challenges to be addressed. For example, suppose the
needs assessment data from a brokerage firm shows that many brokers are insensi-
tive to clients’ fears and concerns about the future. A training program could be
designed that would increase the brokers’ sensitivity to and support for their cli-
ents. The objectives of this program will be determined by the specific deficiencies,
client preferences, concerns, and other factors identified in the needs assessment.
Mager states that useful objectives include three critical aspects or qualities,
that is, they should describe (1) the performance the learners (trainees) should be
able to do, (2) the conditions under which they must do it, and (3) the criteria
(how well they must do it) used in judging its success (see Table 5-1).13
Some examples of program objectives include the following:
• Given a packing list, the trainee will correctly identify (by circling) all items
on the list that have not been included in the shipment
• Given standard hospital equipment, the trainee will draw 10 cc of blood from
a patient’s arm in not more than two tries (using any member of the class)
• Using the information found on a completed loan application, identify (in
writing) whether a client meets the bank’s criteria for an acceptable auto
loan candidate
• After completion of training, the trainee will accurately identify and describe
all major points in the organization’s antidiscrimination policy
TABLE 5-1
Performance An objective always says what a learner is expected to be able
Three Qualities of
to do and/or produce to be considered competent; the objec-
Useful Objectives
tive sometimes describes the product or result of the doing.
Example: “Write a product profile for a proposed new product.”
Conditions An objective describes the important conditions (if any) under
which the performance is to occur. Example: “Given all avail-
able engineering data regarding a proposed product, trainee will
write a product profile.”
Criteria Wherever possible, an objective identifies the criteria of
acceptable performance by describing how well the learner
must perform in order to be considered acceptable. Example:
“The product profile must describe all of the commercial char-
acteristics of the product that are appropriate for its introduc-
tion to the market, including descriptions of at least three major
product uses.”
SOURCE: From Mager, R. F. (1997). Preparing Instructional Objectives (3rd ed., pp. 46–47, 55). The Center for
Effective Performance, Inc., 1100 Johnson Ferry Road, Suite 150, Atlanta, GA 30342. www.cepworldwide.com
800-558-4237. Reprinted with permission. All rights reserved. No portion of these materials may be repro-
duced in any manner without the express written consent from the Center for Effective Performance, Inc.
Program objectives that lack clear statements concerning performance, con-

ditions, and criteria are often ambiguous and can cause those who interpret the
objectives differently to feel frustrated and come into conflict with one another.
Two ways to ensure that objectives are clear are to choose words carefully and have
the objectives reviewed by others (such as managers and potential participants). If a
reviewer is confused, the objectives should be revised.
Writing objectives for behaviors that can be directly observed by others (like
giving a patient an injection or performing the Heimlich maneuver to aid a
choking victim) can be easier than writing objectives for behaviors that are
unobservable (like judging whether a painting is of high quality or determining
whether the use of deadly force is warranted). When dealing with broad or
“unobservable” objectives, it is necessary to specify observable behaviors that
indicate whether an unobservable outcome has been achieved.14 Thus, an objec-
tive for judging whether a painting is of high quality can be written as “to be
able to judge whether a painting is of high quality by orally listing the character-
istics the painting possesses that indicate its quality.”
In many cases, simply presenting employees with objectives (goals) for learn-
PART 2 FRAMEWORK
ing or performance may be enough to elicit the desired behavior.15 That is,
sometimes people do not meet performance expectations because they were
never clearly told what the expectations were or how they were supposed to
meet them. Clear objectives provide this information and represent the organiza-
tion’s expectations, which can play a key role in shaping employee performance.
FOR
Writing objectives is a challenging but essential aspect of effective HRD.

Table 5-2 provides a list of the main issues essential to consider when writing use-
ful program objectives. Some questions to ask when writing objectives include:
• Is your main intent stated (concerning what you want the trainee to do)?
• Have you described all of the conditions that will influence trainee
performance?
• Have you described how well the trainee must perform for his or her per-
formance to be considered acceptable?16
It is remarkably easy to write objectives for training or educational courses that
contain phrases with little or no meaning (Mager calls these gibberish objectives).17
For example, after reading this textbook, we might wish for you to “demonstrate a
thorough comprehension of the systems or process model of training” (presented
in Figure 5-1, among other places). Although this may be fine as an overarching
goal, can you see the weaknesses here if this is presented as an objective? (Hint: if
not, go back to Tables 5-1 and 5-2 for guidance). An effective behavioral objec-
tive will spell out clearly what is expected of the learner/trainee. In the previous
example, what does it mean to “demonstrate a thorough comprehension of ”?
This fuzzy statement needs clarification to be of real value as a learning objective.
As another example, of the following two statements, which do you think is
the better (as in more specific) objective?
1. In at least two computer languages, be able to write and test a program to
calculate arithmetic means.
2. Discuss and illustrate principles and techniques of computer programming.18
TABLE 5-2
Guidelines for 1. An objective is a collection of words, symbols, pictures and/or diagrams
describing what you intend for trainees to achieve.
Developing Useful
Objectives 2. An objective will communicate your intent to the degree that you describe:
what the learner will be doing when demonstrating achievement or mas-
tery of the objective, the important conditions of the doing, and the criteria
by which achievement will be judged.
3. To prepare a useful objective, continue to modify a draft until these ques-
tions are answered:
• What do I want trainees to be able to do?
• What are the important conditions or constraints under which I want them
to perform?
• How well must trainees perform for me to be satisfied?
4. Write a separate statement for each important outcome or intent; write as
many as you need to communicate your intents.
5. If you give your written objectives to your trainees, you may not have to do
much else. Why? Because often employees are already able to do what you
are asking them to do and will be happy to demonstrate their ability, now
that they know what is expected of them.
SOURCE: From Mager, R. F. (1997). Preparing Instructional Objectives (3rd ed., pp. 46–47, 55). The Center for
Effective Performance, Inc., 1100 Johnson Ferry Road, Suite 150, Atlanta, GA 30342. www.cepworldwide.com
800-558-4237. Reprinted with permission. All rights reserved. No portion of these materials may be repro-
duced in any manner without the express written consent from the Center for Effective Performance, Inc.
Our choice (and Mager’s) is statement 1, because it describes an intended

outcome, that is, something the learner is expected to be able to do. The second
statement is more like a training program or course description. It is not clear
what precisely the learner should do to demonstrate competence in this area.
As this is such a critical HRD topic, we include two exercises at the end of the
chapter for individual or group practice in writing clear objectives.
Several comments are in order before leaving this topic. First, behavioral
objectives have served HRD professionals extremely well for the past fifty
years, because they put the focus squarely on what the trainee is expected to do
at the completion of training. Without this specificity, it is very easy to get lost in
muddled (or mushy) training that doesn’t produce much in the way of tangible
results. However, as noted in Chapter 4, an increasing number of HRD inter-
ventions deal with changing attitudes and emotions, for example, managing
diversity, or increasing the “emotional intelligence” of employees.19 As Leonard
and Zeace Nadler remind us, efforts to change attitudes are often the most con-
troversial of all training or learning endeavors.20 Although not impossible, it is
much harder to write specific behavioral objectives for interventions dealing
with attitudes or emotions. The reader is advised that writing good objectives
becomes more difficult as one moves from knowledge- and skill-based training
to training intended to change attitudes and emotions.
Second, an insistence of lengthy and detailed behavioral objectives has been
criticized by those challenging the traditional ISD model (see the boxed insert in
Chapter 4). The concern is that this can lead to a huge number of objectives that
can be tedious and even unnecessary. M. David Merrill responds that “writing
800 behavioral objectives is a misunderstanding of ISD. But what is the alterna-
tive? Not to specify subject matter? Or not to define how you’re going to do it?
I don’t think there is an alternative. We need to be using ISD more efficiently,
with greater skill.”21 We agree with this response from Professor Merrill.
Third, Eric Day and colleagues have presented an “integrative training
design matrix,” which links objectives to many important design and evaluation
decisions.22 A unique aspect of this matrix is that these authors tie in many
important learning principles highlighted in Chapter 3, such as transfer, practice,
modeling, and meaningfulness.23
As another alternative, Danny Langdon has promoted the idea of moving
beyond objectives to developing what he terms “proformas.”24 A key point
Langdon makes is that objectives can fail to make clear all of the issues going
on in the organization that can influence individual performance. His approach
suggests six issues that should be emphasized: inputs, process, outputs, conse-
quences, conditions, and feedback. Langdon highlights issues taking place during
PART 2 FRAMEWORK
the process of training, as well as the ongoing feedback that is received from
various parties interested in training. This approach emphasizes that training and
trainee behaviors must be seen as taking place within a dynamic organizational
context. Further work along these lines is encouraged.25 Developing a proforma
does not take the place of writing objectives, but it does provide considerably
FOR
more detail about how training and issues within the organization interact to pro-

duce (or fail to produce) desired organizational outcomes. Although we covered
these issues when discussing strategic/organizational analysis in Chapter 4, we
agree with Langdon that these same issues need to be considered when formu-
lating program objectives.
THE “MAKE-VERSUS-BUY” DECISION: CREATING

OR PURCHASING HRD PROGRAMS
After a manager or HRD professional has identified the program objectives, a
series of decisions must be made regarding the development and delivery of the
program. One of those decisions is whether to design the program internally,
purchase it (or portions of it) from an outside vendor, or use some combination
of the two.26 Many resources are available to assist trainers in the design and
delivery of new programs, such as those by Chuck Hodell, Geri McArdle, and
George Piskurich.27 On the other hand, many services are available today
through outside vendors or consultants, including:
• Assisting with conducting needs assessment
• Guiding internal staff to design or implement a program
• Designing a program specifically for the organization
• Providing supplemental training materials (exercises, workbooks, computer
software, videos)
• Presenting a previously designed program

• Conducting a train-the-trainer
28
program to improve the instructional skills of
internal content experts
There are many sources of HRD programs, materials, and advice, and their
number continues to grow. Many consulting firms, educational institutions, pro-
fessional societies, trade unions, publishing houses, governmental agencies, and
nonprofit community-based organizations offer training programs and informa-
tion to interested organizations. The American Society for Training and Devel-
opment, as well as T&D and Training magazines, are useful places to begin a
search for external training providers.
Table 5-3 lists a number of factors that should be considered when making a
purchase decision. For example, suppose a small manufacturer desires to comput-
erize its billing operation. Given the nature of the training needed, it is likely that
the firm’s management would contract with an outside vendor because (1) the
firm would probably not have the expertise to design the program in-house, (2)
management would not likely have the time to design the program, and (3) it is
not likely that the firm has an HRD department or full-time HRD professional.
In general, when the number of people needing the HRD intervention is small,
it is more likely that a project will be outsourced. That is, those needing an inter-
vention may be sent outside the organization for the program. This could come
in the form of the organization providing the resources for professional develop-
ment or tuition reimbursement.
Other factors that may influence an organization’s decisions include personal
contacts or past experience with an outside vendor, geographical proximity to a
vendor, local economic conditions, and the presence of government incentives
to conduct training.29
Once an organization decides to purchase a program or part of a program
from an outside source, a vendor must be chosen. One rational way to do this
is to determine the match between a vendor’s product or capability with an
organization’s needs and objectives. The criteria for these decisions vary among
organizations, but in general they include:
1. Cost: price relative to program content and quality
2. Credentials: including certificates, degrees, and other documentation of the
vendor’s expertise
3. Background: number of years in business and experience in the particular
content area
4. Experience: vendor’s prior clients, success with those clients, references
5. Philosophy: comparison of the vendor’s philosophy to that of the organization
6. Delivery method: training methods and techniques used
7. Content: topics included in program or materials
8. Actual product: including appearance, samples, or whether a pilot program
is available
9. Results: expected outcomes
10. Support: especially in terms of implementation and follow-up

11. Request for proposal (RFP): the match between a vendor’s offer and the
requirement spelled out in the organization’s request for a proposal30
Some of these factors will carry greater weight with particular managers. For
example, some managers want to work only with the top providers, so they may
weigh the vendor’s experience and client list more heavily. Other managers may
be swayed by star power: the vendor’s identity as a leading expert (such as man-
agement professor Dave Ulrich for training concerning strategic human resource
management) or the presence of a movie or TV star in a vendor’s films and
videos (actor John Cleese appears in a series of widely used training films).
In a recent ASTD survey, 26.9 percent of direct training expenditures went
to external sources.31 Studies of outsourcing in the training area provide addi-
tional information.32 Gainey and Klaas polled training managers concerning
their use of outside vendors for training and development. They reported spend-
ing about 25 percent of their budgets on outsourced training. The most frequent
topics conducted by vendors were management development (27 percent), tech-
PART 2 FRAMEWORK
nical training (23 percent), and computer training (14 percent). Although overall
satisfaction with the outsourced training was fairly high, only 29 percent reported
that they had saved money as a result of outsourcing. Developing trust and main-
taining strong communications with vendors were cited as major factors leading
to the successful outsourcing of training. Gainey and Klaas argue that it is better
FOR
to outsource in order to “acquire expertise and enhance the overall design and

delivery of training,” rather than primarily as a means to cut costs.33
TABLE 5-3
Expertise When an organization lacks specialized KSAOs needed to
Factors to Consider
design and implement an HRD program
before Purchasing an
Timeliness When it is timelier to hire an outside agency to facilitate
HRD Program
the process
Number of Trainees Generally, the larger the number of trainees the greater
the likelihood the organization will be willing to design the
program itself; for just a few trainees, the HRD depart-
ment will likely send them to an outside training agency
Subject Matter If the subject matter is sensitive or proprietary, the HRD
department conducts the program in-house using
employees as trainers
Cost The HRD department always considers cost, but only in
concert with other factors
Size of HRD The size of an HRD department is important for assessing
the capacity to design, conduct, and/or implement skills
training (as opposed to using an outside agency)
“X” Factor Some other extraneous conditions that make it preferable
that an outside agency be used to conduct skills training
SOURCE: From Carnevale, P., Gainer, L. J., Villet, J., & Holland, S. L. (1990). Training Partnerships: Linking
Employers and Providers (p. 6). Alexandria, VA: American Society for Training and Development.
In summary, outside training vendors offer organizations a wide choice of

options in designing and developing training and HRD programs. These programs
represent viable options when organizations have a small HRD function, a small
number of trainees, and program content with no proprietary value. Even large
organizations that have well-respected training functions make regular use of
outside vendors for a variety of HRD programs. When organizations, large or small,
elect to go outside to purchase training services and programs, they should, of
course, first conduct a needs assessment so that they can make an informed decision.
Recent research on outsourcing versus insourcing provides additional useful
information on this subject.34
SELECTING THE TRAINER

Once an organization has made a decision to design its own training program,
or has purchased a program that it will run, a trainer must be selected,
provided the instructional format includes one (we will discuss online options
in Chapter 6). Selecting a trainer can be fairly easy when an organization has a
large, multifaceted training staff with the competencies and subject matter
expertise to train in high demand areas. Training competency involves the
knowledge and varied skills needed to design and implement a training program.
Effective trainers must be able to communicate their knowledge clearly, use var-
ious instructional techniques, have good interpersonal skills, and the ability to
motivate others to learn.
Subject matter expertise refers to the mastery of subject matter. For example,
information technology (IT) professionals are often asked to train others on the
use of new technology—what some have called a situation of the “accidental
trainer.”35 However, subject-matter expertise alone does not guarantee an indi-
vidual will be an effective trainer—many experts (including some college profes-
sors, we are sad to say) make poor trainers. Ideally, then, a subject matter expert
(SME) should have the ability to train others. Individuals who lack the ability
to design and implement effective training programs may rely too heavily on a
single method of instruction that may be inappropriate for the subject matter
(such as using merely a lecture format to train employees in CPR and other
first-aid techniques), or they may lack the interpersonal skills to effectively inter-
act with or motivate participants. For example, an ASTD study found that train-
ing was most effective when trainers possessed an advanced level of expertise as
instructors and facilitators.36 However, in another survey, 165 technical trainers
(and ASTD members) rated their proficiency in various instructor/ facilitator
competencies as intermediate, on average.37
Alternately, trainers who lack subject matter expertise may rely too heavily
on a textbook or other training materials and not be able to explain important
concepts and/or how they are applied to a job. In addition to contracting with
an outside vendor, less qualified trainers can be aided through:
1. Teaming skilled trainers with in-house subject matter experts to form an
instructional team38
2. Using a training technique that does not require a human trainer, such as computer-
aided or online instructional programs (these options will be discussed in the
next chapter)
3. Train-the-trainer programs, which involve identifying in-house content experts
who lack training skills and training them to become effective trainers
Train-the-Trainer Programs
The purpose of train-the-trainer programs is to provide subject matter experts
(SMEs) with the necessary instructional knowledge and skills to design and
implement a training program. Train-the-trainer programs are available through
local professional associations, colleges, and consultants. These programs range
from instruction in a single training technique (e.g., behavior modeling) to a
comprehensive program on how to design a training program. The latter
would present several training methods and techniques with an emphasis on
how each can be used to maximize learning in different situations.39 Some train-
PART 2 FRAMEWORK
ing providers, such as Development Dimensions International (DDI), conduct
train-the-trainer programs in which their client’s employees become certified
by the consulting firm to present their programs to the organization.
Some organizations design their own train-the-trainer programs, which can
be desirable when there is a constant demand for skilled or technical trainers, or
FOR
when employers want to emphasize a particular training technique. These pro-

grams should focus on many of the issues discussed in this chapter, including:
1. Developing trainee objectives and lesson plans
2. Selecting and preparing training materials
3. Selecting and using training aids (e.g., Microsoft® PowerPoint® slides, videos,
document cameras)
4. Selecting and using different training methods and techniques
When it is not possible to design a train-the-trainer program, some organi-
zations have developed training manuals that include these various components
of the design and implementation process. Manuals can be valuable when there
are insufficient numbers of SMEs to warrant a train-the-trainer program or when
the potential trainers are in different geographical areas. For example, the Train-
ing Center of Alexander Consulting Group in Massachusetts relies on subject
matter experts to provide the majority of their technical and financial training.
These individuals had the expertise to teach the necessary courses, but often
lacked in the skills necessary to design and implement effective training courses.
The organization created a self-directed Instructor’s Guide. This guide provided
information and techniques to conduct needs assessment, translate this informa-
tion into course objectives and course content, and then select appropriate
instructional techniques and visual aids. After the subject matter experts com-
pleted this self-directed training, trainee reactions were very positive. Further-
more, 90 percent of all SMEs indicated that they found the Instructor’s Guide
invaluable in preparing them to be a trainer.40
Overall, the selection of a trainer is an important decision for any HRD effort.
Obviously, even a competently designed program that has the potential to address
a significant organizational need can be a failure if an incompetent, unmotivated,
or disinterested trainer delivers it. An excellent recent book on this topic is by
Elaine Biech.41 An ideal trainer will be someone with the requisite competencies
as a trainer and recognition for his or her subject matter expertise. If a trainer lacks
the necessary subject matter expertise, then it is imperative that this individual
work with a subject matter expert in the design phase, so that an effective match-
ing of training content with training design and delivery can take place. Sarah
Boehle has provided useful guidelines for trainers who need to rely on subject
matter experts, especially when those individuals may not see assisting a trainer as
an important part of their job.42 Additionally, recent efforts have developed train-
the-trainer programs to train peers or coworkers to conduct health, safety, first aid,
and risk reduction training.43 As one example, the American Nurses Association
offers a course for nurse-trainers entitled “Protecting Nurses from Blood Borne
Hazards in the Workplace.” After completing this workshop, nurse-trainers are
expected to conduct workshops on this topic in their own workplaces.44
Preparing a Lesson Plan

Program objectives are necessary for pinpointing desired outcomes of a training
or HRD program, but these statements alone are insufficient for determining the
content of the training program and the training methods, techniques, and mate-
rials. To translate program objectives into an executable training session, the
development of a lesson plan is recommended.
A lesson plan is a trainer’s guide for the actual delivery of training content.
Creating a lesson plan requires the trainer to determine in advance what is to be
covered and how much time to devote to each part of the session.45 A lesson
plan should specify:
• Content to be covered
• Sequencing of activities
• Selection or design of training media
• Selection or development of experiential exercises (or both)
• Timing and planning of each activity
• Selection of the method of instruction to be used
• Number and type of evaluation items to be used46
Some organizations have program designers whose responsibilities include
defining training objectives and developing lesson plans. Individuals with educa-
tional backgrounds in instructional design (especially from colleges of education)
are often hired for such positions. The kind of assistance that program designers
can provide is particularly important for subject matter experts who have limited
training skills. Some organizations include a section on lesson planning in their
train-the-trainer programs. For example, an organization called New Environ-
ment Inc. runs a five-day train-the-trainer program concerning hazardous waste
operations and emergency response (HAZWOPER) training. This program

includes providing videos and complete lesson plans that trainers can use when
implementing this training back in their own organizations.47
To assist trainers, we suggest using a standardized lesson plan form. Figure 5-2
presents a general form recommended by Nadler and Nadler. As an alternative,
Figure 5-3 presents a condensed version of a completed lesson plan for an experi-
ential team-building training program. As can be seen in this example, the lesson
plan serves as a blueprint for conducting the whole weekend training program.
Carol Sumner provides an illustration of an experiential classroom exercise to illus-
trate the benefits of training to students in an active, “hands-on” manner.48
First Citizens Bank of Raleigh initiated online lesson plans for the majority
of its training of new branch employees.49 According to a bank executive, the
courseware provides a more flexible and efficient approach to training than past
classroom efforts (because employees are spread over 300-plus branches, it would
have taken a year to train employees using classroom training alone). As another
example, CrossTec Corporation has developed software called SchoolVue v. 9.0
PART 2 FRAMEWORK
FIGURE 5-2 A General Lesson Plan Template
Program title:
FOR
Objectives of this lesson:

Preparation required:
1. Physical environment
2. Equipment and materials
3. Instructor
4. Trainee(s)
Major Instructor Trainee Instructional Strategies

Time Topics Activity Activity Intended to Be Achieved
SOURCE: From Nadler, L., & Nadler, Z. (1994). Designing training programs: The critical events model (2nd ed., p. 145).
Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing.
FIGURE 5-3 A Sample Completed Lesson Plan Experiential Team Building Retreat (Richard J. Wagner, Trainer)
TIME ACTIVITY
Friday Night
6–7:30 p.m. DINNER

Program introduction and completion of prequestionnaires.
Initial experiential activity—Silent birthday line-up. Have the group
members line up in order of their birthdays (month and day only)
without talking.
7:30–9:00 p.m. Discussion of what happened during the activity and how the group
handled the issues it encountered. Presentation of Kolb’s experiential
learning model (activity, review/discussion, theory development, and
generalization), and how this will be used to develop teamwork during
the weekend.
Discussion of the plan for the weekend and some of the goals for the
retreat.
Saturday
7–8 a.m. BREAKFAST

8–9 a.m. Brainstorming session on group goals for the retreat using a flip chart to
record the issues. Seek to uncover some of the problems that the group
encounters at work, and generate an initial discussion of how working
as a team can help deal with these issues.
Experiential activity—The Marble Pass. Direct the group to move a
marble from a starting point to a barrel 40 feet away and then get the
marbles into a barrel using a series of 2- to 3-foot-long plastic pipes.
The participants may not move the marble backward, and they must
work as a group to get this done.
9–10 AM Discussion of how the group members accomplished the task, what
problems they encountered, and how they solved these problems. A
critical issue will be the discussion of how their problem-solving skills
might relate to problems encountered at work, and what they can
do to anticipate and solve some of these problems.
10–10:30 a.m. BREAK

10:30–12:00 p.m. Experiential activities, working in two groups.
Blind Polygon. Group members are blindfolded and directed to form a
square using a rope.
Continued
TIME ACTIVITY
10:30–12:00 p.m. Group Juggle. Group members pass a ball around a circle in a pattern,
first establishing the pattern, then seeking speed, and then using more
than one ball.
All Aboard. Everyone has to stand on a 2-by-2 platform at the same
time.
Have the groups try each of the activities and do their own planning for
subsequent activities.
12–1 p.m. LUNCH
1–2 p.m. Discussion of the morning activities and what needs to be done to make
the afternoon successful.
Experiential activities, working in two groups.
Trolleys. Sort of group skiing, with about six people on the skis at the
PART 2 FRAMEWORK
same time. The group must move everyone about 40 feet using these
2–3:30 p.m. trolleys.
Hot Stuff. Using only some ropes and other provided equipment, the
group must transfer water from one can to another in the center of a
10-foot circle without going into the circle.
FOR
3:30–4 p.m. BREAK
4–5 p.m. Review and discussion of the concept of teamwork and how the activities
of the day have helped show the group members how effective teams
work.
5–7 p.m. DINNER

AFTER DINNER NASA Moon Survival, an indoor activity.
ACTIVITY
Sunday Morning
8–9 a.m. BREAKFAST

9–10 a.m. Review and discussion of the NASA Moon Survival activity, focusing
on how the activity was accomplished using the concepts of teamwork
reviewed during the program.
10–12 p.m. Final discussion of teamwork, focusing on specific issues of the
organization. The trainer will facilitate this discussion, but the VP will be
the leader in developing the issues.
that can be used by teachers or trainers using networked classrooms.50 One fea-
ture included in this package is a tool that allows the instructor to create interac-
tive lesson plans for each session.
To this point, we have discussed selecting a trainer and then preparing a les-
son plan. This is a logical sequence, particularly when the trainer is also the one
preparing the lesson plan. But sometimes the HRD intervention (including the
general lesson plans) is designed before the trainers are selected. This would be
most likely to occur in large organizations. Even here, though, the trainer should
modify or adapt the general lesson plan to fit each situation in which he or she is
asked to present the HRD program. Developing a thorough lesson plan can be
challenging and time-consuming, yet we hope that you see how central this is to
successful training and educational efforts.51
SELECTING TRAINING METHODS AND MEDIA

Up to this point we have discussed some preliminary steps involved in the design
and implementation of a training program. The next step in the training process
is to select the appropriate training methods. ASTD’s 2010 State of the Industry
Report revealed that instructor-led programs remain the most popular instruc-
tional method (see Table 5-4). The survey indicated that 68.4 percent of formal
learning hours were spent in instructor-led training, with 60.1 percent of those
hours spent in “live” (face-to-face) training. There has been considerable recent
growth in web-based self-study programs and virtual (online) classrooms. The
ASTD survey found that 36.5 percent of all formal learning hours were delivered
via technology, which is the highest level recorded since 2002.52 The type of
training content most commonly covered can be seen in Table 5-5. The top
areas for content coverage were: profession- or industry-specific content; mana-
gerial or supervisory; quality and product knowledge; IT and systems; and pro-
cesses, procedures, and business practices. Together, these five content areas
accounted for 51 percent of the learning content in the ASTD survey.
One way of classifying training is by the degree of activity expected
or required of trainees. On one end, the lecture method and videotapes are
TABLE 5-4
Methods Percent
Percent of Formal
Learning Hours Used Instructor-led live programs 60.10
by Delivery Method Instructor-led online programs 6.46
Instructor-led remote programs 3.81
Self-paced, online (networked) 21.03
Self-paced, non-networked (e.g., CD-ROM) 3.06
Self-paced, print 2.34
Non-computer technology (audiovisual, mobile devices) 1.89
Other methods 1.32
SOURCE: 2010 State of the Industry Report. Alexandria, VA: ASTD, p. 19.
generally the least active (or most passive) form of training.53 At the other
extreme, highly experiential methods such as outdoor training, role-playing
exercises, games, and simulations demand the greatest amount of activity or
action from trainees. Other approaches such as computer-based instruction or
videoconferencing fall somewhere in between.
Training approaches can also be grouped into two broad categories: on-the-job
methods, which typically occur in the employee’s normal work setting, and class-
room methods, which typically take place away from the job (such as in a conference
room or lecture hall). This categorization is not definitive, however, because some
training methods have multiple applications. Computer-based training (CBT), for
example, can be implemented using a computer at an employee’s desk or work-
station, in a company classroom, or even at an employee’s home.54 We will dis-
cuss many of the particular training methods in greater detail in Chapter 6 (under
the topic of implementing training). The placement of training methods in the
implementation chapter was primarily driven by our desire to have more space in
that chapter to emphasize the various methods currently in use. However, we
hope it is clear to you that the decision concerning which methods or media
PART 2 FRAMEWORK
will be used must be made during the design phase of training.
With such an array of training methods and media available, how does an
HRD professional choose which approach is most appropriate for maximum
learning? Several factors should be considered:
FOR
1. The objectives of the program. This factor is paramount. As will be clear,

some approaches are more appropriate for achieving particular objectives than
others. For example, if the objective is to improve interpersonal skills, then
more active approaches such as videotaping, role playing, or behavior modeling
will be better choices than lecture or computer-based training methods. This is
why we have stressed training/learning objectives so heavily in this chapter.
TABLE 5-5
Type Percent
Breakdown of
Profession or industry specific 17.24 Learning Content
Managerial and supervisory 10.35 by Content Area
Quality, product knowledge 9.97

IT and systems 9.26
Process, procedures, business practices 9.24
Mandatory and compliance 7.78
Interpersonal skills 6.81
Customer service 6.77
New employee orientation 6.76
Sales 6.68
Basic skills 4.77
Executive development 4.39
SOURCE: 2010 State of the Industry Report. Alexandria, VA: ASTD, p. 14.
2. Time and money available. In an ideal world, we would have all the
time and money we need to accomplish our goals. Unfortunately, in many
organizations, managers often ask the HRD department to design and
implement programs quickly, while spending as little money as possible.
Competing needs may also force HRD professionals to select certain
approaches because of their cost. For example, when designing a program
to train mechanics to repair a complicated mechanical system, an interactive,
computer-based program might be optimal, but because of its cost, the
HRD professional may have to settle for a combination of traditional classes
(using lecture, discussion, and reference books) and on-the-job training.
3. Availability of other resources. Some methods require highly-trained
trainers and specialized equipment or facilities to be delivered effectively.
Again, trade-offs are likely necessary and may require choosing alternative
approaches with less demanding resources.
4. Trainee characteristics and preferences. The issue here focuses on both
trainee readiness and the diversity of the target population. Methods such as
computer-based training require a fairly high level of literacy. If literacy or
fluency is a problem, either a less reading- and writing-intensive method
(such as videotape) may be used, or literacy training must be done first. Sim-
ilarly, because individuals have different learning styles, some training meth-
ods may be more appropriate than others. For example, Ronald Sims argues
that, in designing any program, trainers must pay particular attention to the
principles of learning laid out in Chapter 3, in particular, the learning styles
described by David Kolb.55
In the end, selection of training methods and media requires that program
designers have knowledge of different HRD techniques and use sound judgment
in their decision making. HRD professionals should investigate all available
methods, and when in doubt, consult experienced colleagues, instructional
designers, and consultants. For an application of these issues to the topic of cus-
tomer service training, see the article by Frank Jossi.56
PREPARING TRAINING MATERIALS

After training methods have been selected, the next logical step is to prepare
or purchase training materials, depending upon whether the program is pur-
chased or designed by the organization. If a training program is purchased
from an outside vendor, training materials such as books, handouts, and videos
will usually be part of the package. Programs designed in-house will require
the preparation of materials. If the program is similar to past training
programs, those materials may simply need to be modified to fit the current
program. Much information is now available through the Internet, e.g., the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) recently released a
considerable amount of safety training materials on their websites for organi-
zations to use without charge.57
Many kinds of training materials are used, but we will focus our discussion
here on program announcements, syllabi or program outlines, training manuals,
and textbooks.
Program Announcements
Program announcements inform the target audience about a training program.
The announcement should indicate the purpose of the program, when and
where it will be held, and how the employee can qualify to participate in the
program. Sufficient lead time should be given to employees so that they can
adjust their schedules and process the necessary request forms. Typically,
announcements are mailed individually to employees or sent through supervisory
channels, union stewards, company newsletters, or an organization’s intranet.
Some organizations designate a bulletin board for announcing training opportu-
nities or make use of electronic mail systems. Some organizations publish peri-
odic bulletins to provide this information.
PART 2 FRAMEWORK
Program Outlines
Program outlines (or course syllabi) are documents that communicate the con-
tent, goals, and expectations for a program. Typically provided at the beginning
of the program, these include such things as course objectives, topical areas to be
covered, materials or tools needed, requirements of each trainee, and a tentative
FOR
schedule of events.

The program outline can be used to establish behavioral expectations, includ-
ing punctuality, attendance, work habits, class participation, and courtesy toward
other trainees. Such expectations should be clearly explained. For example, it is
important for trainees to be present at all sessions if training content is sequenced.
The attendance policy should reflect this requirement and explain that any trainees
who are absent may be required to begin a new program from the start.
Training Manuals or Textbooks

Most trainers rely on a training manual or textbook for basic instructional material,
readings, exercises, and self-tests. Some documents are organized into modules that
make it easy to organize the training program into sessions. Textbooks provide a
broad treatment of the subject, whereas training manuals are better known for
their brevity and hands-on approach. Trainers who decide to use a textbook nor-
mally contact a publisher and determine whether individual modules can be pur-
chased separately, how useful other trainers found the item, and how easily the item
can be customized to the needs of their organization.58 In addition to these factors,
the purchase price should be compared with the cost of producing a comparable
training manual. For example, Cengage Learning has an active custom publishing
operation (called TextChoice) that allows educators and trainers to select portions
of their content as well as add original materials to create a customized textbook.59
Kim Cameron and colleagues have discussed the fascinating topic of whether man-
agement books, in general, are written to advance a particular viewpoint or ideol-
ogy.60 This too should be considered when making a purchase decision.
Training manuals can be readily produced by an organization, particularly

given the availability of desktop publishing software. The production cost will
include staff time for curriculum design and writing, cost of equipment, and
printing. The availability of desktop publishing software and laser printers
makes it much easier to produce a high quality training manual in-house. Even
so, unless there is a large demand for the manual, it is usually less expensive in
the long run to purchase a commercially produced manual, if one is available.
Before leaving this topic, we address an issue seldom raised in textbooks. It is
an infringement of copyright to use materials created by someone else without
proper attribution or permission by the author or copyright holder.61 Unfortu-
nately, this sort of “borrowing” of material from other sources is quite common
in work settings, including among HRD professionals and educators. We are
aware of a colleague who is both a professor and consultant. Once a student
brought materials from his workplace to show the professor in class—only to
find out that the materials had been developed by that professor for another cli-
ent many years earlier! The student was unaware that his employer did not have
permission to use this material. The lesson here is something a parent might say,
that is: “Just because everyone is doing it doesn’t make it right!” We urge readers
to err on the side of caution when making use of material developed by others.
Francine Ward produced a CD-ROM and book on this topic, which we com-
mend to interested readers.62
SCHEDULING AN HRD PROGRAM

The task of scheduling a training or other HRD program may seem relatively
straightforward when compared to other decisions made by a trainer, but this
is definitely not the case. Organizations can be busy, hectic, and unpredictable
environments, making scheduling HRD and other activities very difficult.
The goal in scheduling an HRD program is to ensure that the participants
(both trainer(s) and learners) are available and have their attention focused
on the learning task at hand. In this section, we discuss some of the issues
HRD professionals should consider when scheduling programs. Our discus-
sion applies to scheduling programs that require participants be in attendance
at the time the program is delivered. In contrast, one of the main advantages
of individually-oriented delivery methods, such as CD-ROM or self-paced
instruction, is that such approaches can be done whenever the participants
have the time to do them.
Scheduling during Work Hours

One popular option for program scheduling is running the program during normal
working hours. This both avoids outside conflicts (such as commuting, family, and
personal obligations) and sends a message to employees that learning is an impor-
tant part of their job. When scheduling a program during normal work hours, the
HRD professional should consider factors such as the day of the week, time of
day, peak work hours, staff meeting times, and travel requirements.
The day of the week becomes an issue because employees often favor some
days for time off, such as Monday, Friday, and the days surrounding a holiday.
Employees may wish to extend their weekends and holidays, so these days are
often avoided (if possible) when scheduling training.
Time of day is another factor. Programs scheduled for the start of the workday
may face a significant proportion of tardy or tired participants. Scheduling a program
for the lunch hour may require building in time for employees to eat during the
program, providing lunch, or requiring employees to eat before or after training.
Midafternoon programs coincide with the time that many people’s circadian rhythms
are at a low point, resulting in sluggishness and shorter attention spans. To combat
this, the program should include active participation, break periods, or the availability
of light snacks and beverages (many trainees appreciate the availability of beverages
that include caffeine!). In addition, employees attending programs scheduled close to
quitting time may be distracted or have to leave early to attend to personal or familial
demands. Obviously, a program must be scheduled sometime, but the wise trainer
will note these issues and take steps to deal with them as best as possible.
In addition to day of the week and time of day, other working-hour con-
PART 2 FRAMEWORK
straints may be unique to particular organizational units or occupational groups.
These include peak work hours, staff meeting times, and travel requirements.
Peak work hours are the times of the day, week, month, or year that departments
are the busiest and when scheduling a training program would cause a potential
conflict. For example, scheduling a professional development program for accoun-
FOR
tants and auditors during tax season would prevent most potential participants from

attending. Managers and supervisors should also be contacted before scheduling
programs to determine if participants have any staff meetings, travel requirements,
or any other special scheduling needs. This information will help the trainer to
select the best times and develop contingency plans for any potential conflicts.
Scheduling after Work Hours

Sometimes, HRD programs are scheduled after work or during the weekend to
avoid some of the organizational constraints previously discussed. This approach
can create other problems. Extending the workday and workweek can cause a
hardship for some employees, particularly those who have familial obligations or
other personal commitments. Even when employees know about a scheduled
training program in advance, familial problems can arise, causing some trainees
to miss important training sessions. Another problem is fatigue. Employees may
be physically tired from a day’s work and not mentally alert. For example, in
response to employee requests, a supervisory training program at the Electric
Boat Division of General Dynamics was held between midnight and 2:00 a.m.
for employees working the second shift (4:00 p.m. to midnight). The training
program was poorly attended, however, and those who did attend experienced
fatigue by the second hour of the class. As a result of this experience, the com-
pany suspended all future midnight training programs.
Even when after-work and weekend programs do not cause hardships, many
employees are reluctant to give up their leisure time. In these situations, some
organizations provide inducements, including overtime pay, compensatory time

(equal time off), training as a qualification for promotion, and leisure activities to
coincide with the training session (e.g., by conducting the training at a resort area).
Registration and Enrollment Issues

One practical headache for many training programs is managing the registration
process. It must be clear to participants and managers how one should register for
training, who is responsible for logistical issues (e.g., travel arrangements, lodging,
meals), and what people should do if they need to cancel or reschedule their
training. Fortunately, e-mail and organizational intranets have made this process
much easier than it once was. Also, many of the popular Human Resource
Information Systems currently available include training registration and tracking
modules. Such computer programs and other uses of technology can be a tre-
mendous help to busy HRD professionals as they manage the enrollment process
for various HRD programs. One such program is called RegOnline, and it pro-
vides online registration for many types of events, including training programs.63
Several pricing options are available for larger versus smaller programs. Organiza-
tions with larger needs should consider investing in a learning management
system, or LMS.64 These will be discussed in more detail in the box below:
“How does technology affect HRD design?”
Despite the many potential advantages for e-learning, great care is needed to
provide the right environment for learning to take place. The types of learning prin-
ciples we discussed in Chapter 3 often seem to get ignored or minimized in many
e-learning applications.68 Opportunities for feedback, interaction, and practice are
different online than in the traditional classroom. Cher Ping Lim provides a number
of practical design recommendations for online learning, such as:
• Help online learners develop appropriate learning strategies for online
learning
How Does Technology Affect HRD Design?

Bill West has written: “Online, it’s all about design.”65 Online or CD-ROM based training also has the advan-
That might be a slight exaggeration, but it drives home tage of placing more control over the learning pace and
the point that, too often, the focus in e-learning is process in the hands of the trainee.66 Organizations
on the latest technology or gadget, and not on how are increasingly making use of learning management
this technology can best be used to promote increased systems to run their online learning programs.67 For all
workplace learning and performance. Technology pro- of these reasons, we see a steady increase in the num-
vides quicker access to training content than trainees ber of training offerings that are technology-based or
physically attending a classroom (often at some dis- technology-enhanced (we will discuss blended learn-
tance from their worksite). Once the technology infra- ing, where the traditional classroom is enhanced with
structure is in place, training via technology can also be technological elements in Chapter 6).
cheaper than traditional classroom-based training.
TABLE 5-6
Clive Shepherd, chair of the eLearning Network in England, proposes four
Key Skills Needed
key skills that a workplace learning professional needs to provide successful
e-learning programs: by Learning
Professionals for
1. Strategic Skills – these include: a) establishing an overall strategy for Effective e-Learning
e-learning, b) analyzing strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats Design and
regarding the use of e-learning in an organization, c) setting up the technical
Implementation
infrastructure, d) marketing the e-learning strategy, and e) evaluating the
effectiveness of all programs (electronic, blended, and traditional).
2. Curriculum Design Skills – these include: a) analyzing the learning require-
ments, b) analyzing the characteristics of the target audience, c) selecting
effective methods for each stage of the intervention, and d) choosing the
appropriate media to deliver each method effectively.
3. Content Creation Skills – these include: a) project management skills in
overseeing the content creation process, b) designing the content, c) pre-
paring the written and spoken elements of the content, including testing
items, d) using authoring tools to build the content, and e) testing and
refining the content.
PART 2 FRAMEWORK
4. Facilitation Skills – these include: a) facilitating live online sessions,
b) setting up learning interventions in a “virtual environment” (e.g., using
a learning management system), c) developing and facilitating online
learning activities, and d) employing technology effectively in classroom
settings.
FOR
SOURCE: Clive Shepherd (2009, September). Master the new media. E.Learning Age, 12.
• Provide “advance organizers” for learners to understand the structure of the

online learning environment and where they will be going as they navigate
the online course structure
• Facilitate online discussions with appropriate questions, focus, and expertise
in responding to answers given
• Provide a variety of activities and the necessary guidance for how learners
can navigate their way through these activities.69
E-learning applications continue to increase. For example, “mobile learning”
is currently a hot topic, where learning applications are tailored to employee
mobile devices.70 At the same time, as you saw in Table 5-4, the traditional class-
room is not going away. The challenge is in how to maximize learning and per-
formance in all types of settings.71 We will return to this point in Chapter 6,
where we discuss implementation issues. Clive Shepherd has proposed four “key
skills” that learning professionals need to effectively design and deliver learning
electronically, i.e., strategic skills, curriculum design skills, content creation skills,
and facilitation skills (see Table 5-6).72 In terms of all types of learning, we dis-
cussed strategic skills in both Chapters 1 and 4. Curriculum design and content
creation skills have been covered in this chapter, and facilitation skills will be cov-
ered in Chapter 6. Once again, we emphasize that the “need of the hour” in
terms of technological applications in HRD is in making effective use the assess-

ment and design issues covered in Chapters 4 and 5. We wish that more of our
technologically-minded colleagues fully embraced this viewpoint!73
RETURN TO OPENING CASE

Rockwell Collins did an extensive overhaul of its SOURCES: Fister, S. (2000). “Reinventing training at Rockwell
Collins.” Training, April, 64–70; Purington, C., Butler, C., &
training efforts. Some of this revolved around the Gale, S. F. (2003). Built to learn: The true story of how Rockwell
formation of eight “schools of learning” within the Collins became a true learning organization. New York AMACOM;
company. New approaches to training delivery were Rockwell Collins University (2011). Accessed on February 18, 2011
at: http://www.rockwellcollins.com/Careers/Career_Development/
also utilized. Your instructor has additional informa- Rockwell_Collins_University.aspx
tion describing what Rockwell Collins did, as well as
some of the outcomes of its efforts.
SUMMARY
This chapter described several important activities related to the design of train-
ing and development programs. After an organization identifies a need for train-
ing, the next step is to decide whether to purchase the program from an outside
vendor or design the program in-house. If the organization decides to stay in-
house, a trainer must be selected. If there is a full-time trainer with content
knowledge available, the decision will be an easy one. If not, then a content
specialist may need to be identified and sent to a train-the-trainer program.
The trainer or program development team has the responsibility for devel-
oping training objectives that define the desired outcomes of the training pro-
gram. This information should be translated into a lesson plan that provides a
thorough, step-by-step guide for training implementation. Well-written program
objectives also help in selecting the appropriate training methods and media, as
well as in evaluating program success. There are three primary training approaches:
on-the-job training, classroom, and computer-based training. Each approach has a
number of techniques appropriate for particular situations. The trainer needs to
select the best combination of techniques and use of technology that will maxi-
mize trainee learning. Once the trainer designs the program, the next step is to
determine the best schedule while avoiding potential conflicts. Training imple-
mentation issues will be covered in more detail in Chapter 6.
KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

computer-based training (CBT) training manuals
lesson plan training methods
subject matter expert (SME) training program objectives
training competency train-the-trainer programs
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. What are the three essential features of an effective HRD or training pro-
gram objective? Why is each one so important? Discuss training or classroom
experiences that you have had where objectives either did or did not follow
the recommendations made by Robert Mager and others.
2. Why are behavioral objectives and lesson plans important to effective HRD
interventions? What role should objectives play in the design, implementa-
tion, and evaluation of HRD programs?
3. Describe the relative merits of using a trainee’s coworkers as potential
trainers. What should be done to ensure that a coworker is an effective
trainer?
4. What are the advantages of designing an HRD program in-house versus
purchasing programs from vendors?
5. What are the advantages of holding a training program on-site? Off-site?
6. What experiences have you had with online learning or training programs?
How about with technology-enhanced learning, e.g., where a traditional
PART 2 FRAMEWORK
classroom also makes use of online discussions or other web-based applica-
tions? In your view, how can technology best be used to provide effective
learning and training opportunities?
7. How do you feel about attending training sessions or classes scheduled early
in the morning? After lunch? What can a trainer do to maximize the chances
FOR
that such a session will be effective?

EXERCISE 1: OBJECTIVE WRITING FOR A DIVERSITY
TRAINING PROGRAM
Evaluate the following statement as a program objective for a diversity training
program. Individually or in small groups, rewrite this objective to conform more
closely to the principles cited earlier concerning effective program objectives.
Develop a thorough understanding of the corporate culture of our organiza-
tion, including our policies on harassment, ethnic and gender diversity, and equal
access to individual counseling and promotion opportunities.74
EXERCISE 2: OBJECTIVE WRITING FOR A TRAINING

PROGRAM OF YOUR CHOICE
Individually or in small groups, write your own program objective(s) for a train-
ing program of your choice. Critique your objectives by comparing them to the
principles described in Tables 5-1 and 5-2.

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DESIGNING EFFECTIVE HRD PROGRAMS

program design issues have addressed such diverse populations as firefighters,

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

FIGURE 5-1 Training and HRD Process Model

Assessment Design Implementation Evaluation

Prioritize Define Select

Seven Overarching Responsibilities of HRD Professionals

Training effectiveness was measured in terms of perceived achievement of training

Program objectives that lack clear statements concerning performance, con-

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

Our choice (and Mager’s) is statement 1, because it describes an intended

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

THE “MAKE-VERSUS-BUY” DECISION: CREATING

• Presenting a previously designed program

10. Support: especially in terms of implementation and follow-up

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

In summary, outside training vendors offer organizations a wide choice of

SELECTING THE TRAINER

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

Preparing a Lesson Plan

operations and emergency response (HAZWOPER) training. This program

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

2. Equipment and materials

Major Instructor Trainee Instructional Strategies

6–7:30 p.m. DINNER

7–8 a.m. BREAKFAST

10–10:30 a.m. BREAK

12–1 p.m. LUNCH

5–7 p.m. DINNER

8–9 a.m. BREAKFAST

SELECTING TRAINING METHODS AND MEDIA

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

Quality, product knowledge 9.97

PREPARING TRAINING MATERIALS

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

Training Manuals or Textbooks

Training manuals can be readily produced by an organization, particularly

SCHEDULING AN HRD PROGRAM

Scheduling during Work Hours

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

Scheduling after Work Hours

organizations provide inducements, including overtime pay, compensatory time

Registration and Enrollment Issues

How Does Technology Affect HRD Design?

• Provide “advance organizers” for learners to understand the structure of the

terms of technological applications in HRD is in making effective use the assess-

RETURN TO OPENING CASE

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

EXERCISE 2: OBJECTIVE WRITING FOR A TRAINING

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