Digital Communication

Module 5
Module 5
Coherent Binary Schemes: ASK, FSK, PSK, MSK,GMSK. Coherent M-ary Schemes, Incoherent Schemes,
Calculation of average probability of error for different modulation schemes, Power spectra of digitally
modulated signals, Performance comparison of different digital modulation schemes.
Functional Model of Passband Data Transmission
System
Digital Modulation Waveforms
Digital Modulation Waveforms
Digital Modulation Waveforms
Amplitude Shift Keying
 ASK Detection
• Envelope Detection

• Coherent Detection
Envelope Detection
ASK Coherent Detection
 ASK Advantages
• Simple

• Cost-effective modulation technique

• It is compatible with various transmission media, including radio

waves, optical fibers, and wired communication systems.
 ASK Disadvantages
• Susceptibility to Noise

• Bandwidth Inefficiency

• Power inefficiency

• Limited Datarate

• SNR sensitivity

• Lack of phase / frequency: Vulnerable to interference & distortions

 ASK Applications
• Wireless communication systems, such as keyless entry systems, remote controls, and
radio frequency identification (RFID) tags.

• In optical fiber communication, ASK is used to transmit digital data over long distances.

• ASK is often used in digital broadcasting, including television and radio transmissions

• ASK can be used for low to medium data rate communication, such as in binary data
transmission over short distances.

• ASK is used in medical telemetry systems for monitoring and transmitting patient data.
Binary Phase Shift Keying
Signal Space Diagram of BPSK
Generation of BPSK
Coherent Detection of BPSK
 Error Probability of BPSK
• Decision rule:

• Decide that signal s1(t) (i.e., binary symbol 1) was transmitted if the received signal point
falls in region Z1.

• Decide that signal s2(t) (i.e., binary symbol (0) was transmitted if the received signal point
falls in region Z2.

• Erroneous Decision:

• Signal s2(t) is transmitted but the noise is such that the received signal point falls inside
region Z1

• Signal s2(t) is transmitted but the noise is such that the received signal point falls inside
region Z1
Error Probability of BPSK
Error Probability of BPSK
Power Spectra of BPSK
 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

where i = 1, 2, 3, 4; E is the transmitted signal energy per symbol, and T is the symbol
duration
The carrier frequency f equals nc/T for some fixed integer nc.
Each possible value of the phase corresponds to a unique dibit.

Thus, for example, we may choose the foregoing set of phase values to represent the Gray-
encoded set of dibits: 10, 00, 01, and 11, where only a single bit is changed from one dibit
to the next.
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
QPSK – Signal Space Diagram
QPSK – Generation
QPSK – Detector
QPSK – Waveforms
QPSK – Error Probability
 QPSK – Error Probability

• A coherent QPSK system is in fact equivalent to two coherent binary PSK systems working in parallel and using
two carriers that are in phase quadrature.
• The in-phase channel output x₁ and the quadrature channel output x2 (i.e., the two elements of the
observation vector x) may be viewed as the individual outputs of the two coherent binary PSK systems.
• Two binary PSK systems may be characterized as follows:
• The signal energy per bit is E/2.
• The noise spectral density is No/2.
 QPSK – Error Probability
• The average probability of bit error of a coherent binary PSK system in each channel of the coherent
QPSK system is

• The bit errors in the in-phase and quadrature channels of the coherent QPSK system are statistically independent.
• The in-phase channel makes a decision on one of the two bits constituting a symbol (dibit) of the QPSK signal, and
the quadrature channel takes care of the other bit.
 QPSK – Error Probability
• Accordingly, the average probability of a correct decision resulting from the combined action of the two channels
working together
 QPSK – Error Probability
• In the region where (E/2N) > 1, we may ignore the quadratic term on the right-hand side
QPSK – Error Probability
 QPSK - Power Spectra
• The in-phase and quadrature components are statistically independent.
• Accordingly, the baseband power spectral density of the QPSK signal equals the sum of the individual
power spectral densities of the in-phase and quadrature components
 Offset QPSK
Observations from QPSK:
• The carrier phase changes by ±180 degrees
whenever both the in-phase and quadrature
components of the QPSK signal changes sign.
• The carrier phase changes by ±90 degrees
whenever the in-phase or quadrature component
changes sign.
• The carrier phase is unchanged when neither the
in-phase component nor the quadrature
component changes sign
 Offset QPSK
Observations from QPSK:

• 1800and 900degree shifts in carrier phase can result in changes in the carrier
amplitude (i.e., envelope of the QPSK signal), thereby causing additional
symbol errors on detection.
Offset QPSK
 Offset QPSK
• The extent of amplitude fluctuations exhibited by QPSK signals may be reduced by using
offset QPSK.

• The bit stream responsible for generating the quadrature component is delayed (i.e.,
offset) by half a symbol interval with respect to the bit stream responsible for
generating the in-phase component.

• Specifically, the two basis functions of offset QPSK are defined by

Offset QPSK
 Offset QPSK
• The phase transitions likely to occur in offset QPSK are confined to ±90 degrees.

• However, ±90 degree phase transitions in offset QPSK occur twice as frequently but with
half the intensity encountered in QPSK.

• Amplitude fluctuations in offset QPSK due to filtering have a smaller amplitude than in
the case of QPSK.

• Despite the delay T/2 applied to the basis function φ2(t) the offset QPSK has exactly the
same probability of symbol error in an AWGN channel as QPSK. The
Offset QPSK
 M-ary PSK
• The phase of the carrier takes on one of M possible values.

2 𝑖−1 𝜋
𝜃𝑖 = , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖 = 1,2,3, … 𝑀
𝑀
8- PSK – Signal Space Diagram

Signal space diagram for Octa Phase Shift Keying (M=8) / 8 – PSK
M-ary PSK – Signal Space Diagram

Signal space diagram for Octa Phase Shift Keying (M=16)

M-ary PSK – Signal Space Diagram

For M ≥ 4
M-ary PSK – Power Spectra
 Bandwidth Efficiency of M-ary PSK

The channel bandwidth required to pass M-ary PSK signals (more precisely the mail spectral lobe) is given by

Bit rate Rb = 1/Tb

Channel bandwidth in terms of bit rate is given by

Bandwidth Efficiency of M-ary PSK
Binary Frequency Shift Keying
Binary Frequency Shift Keying
Binary Frequency Shift Keying
Binary Frequency Shift Keying
Binary Frequency Shift Keying
Binary FSK – Generator
Binary FSK – Receiver
Error Probability of Binary FSK
 Error Probability of Binary FSK
• Given that symbol 1 was transmitted, the Gaussian random variables X₁ and X2, whose sample values are denoted

by x₁ and x2, have mean values equal to 𝐸𝑏 , and zero, respectively.

• Correspondingly, the conditional mean of the random variable Y, given that symbol 1 was transmitted, is

• Given that symbol 0 was transmitted, the random variables X₁ and X2 have mean values equal to zero and 𝐸𝑏 ,
respectively.
• Correspondingly, the conditional mean of the random variable Y, given that symbol 0 was transmitted, is
 Error Probability of Binary FSK
The variance of the random variable Y is independent of which binary symbol was
transmitted. Since the random variables X₁ and X2 are statistically independent, each with
a variance equal to No/2, it follows that

Suppose we know that symbol 0 was transmitted. The conditional probability density
function of the random variable Y is then given by
Error Probability of Binary FSK
 Error Probability of Binary FSK

• Similarly, the conditional probability of error given that symbol 1 was transmitted, has
the same value as above.
• Accordingly, averaging p10 and p01, we find that the average probability of bit error or,
equivalently, the bit error rate for coherent binary FSK is (assuming equiprobable
symbols)
 Power Spectral Density of Binary FSK
• Consider the case of Sunde's FSK, for which the two transmitted frequencies f₁ and f2 differ by an amount equal to the
bit rate 1/Tb
• Their arithmetic mean equals the nominal carrier frequency f
• Phase continuity is always maintained, including inter-bit switching times.
• We may express this special binary FSK signal as follows:
 Power Spectral Density of Binary FSK
• The plus sign corresponds to transmitting symbol 0, and the minus sign corresponds to transmitting symbol 1.
• We assume that the symbols 1 and 0 in the random binary wave at the modulator input are equally likely, and that the
symbols transmitted in adjacent time slots are statistically independent
Power Spectral Density of Binary FSK
 Minimum Shift Keying
• In the coherent detection of binary FSK signal, the phase information contained in the received signal is not
fully exploited, other than to provide for synchronization of the receiver to the transmitter.
• By proper use of the phase when performing detection, it is possible to improve the noise performance of
the receiver significantly.
• This improvement is, however, achieved at the expense of increased receiver complexity.
• Consider a continuous-phase frequency-shift keying (CPFSK) signal, which is defined for the interval 0 ≤t≤ Tb
as follows:
 Minimum Shift Keying
• The phase θ(0) denotes the value of the phase at time t = 0 sums up the past history of the modulation
process up to time t = 0.
• The frequencies f1and f2 are sent in response to binary symbols 1 and 0 appearing at the modulator input,
respectively.
• Another useful way of representing the CPFSK signal s(t) is to express it in the conventional form of an
angle-modulated signal as follows:
 Minimum Shift Keying
• When the phase θ(t) is a continuous function of time, the modulated signal s(t) itself is also continuous at all times,
including the inter- bit switching times.
• The phase θ(t) of a CPFSK signal increases or decreases linearly with time during each bit duration of Tb seconds, as
shown by
 Minimum Shift Keying
• Phase Trellis:
At time t=Tb

• sending symbol 1 increases the phase of a CPFSK signal s(t) by πh radians

• sending of symbol 0 reduces it by an equal amount.
• The variation of phase θ(t) with time t follows a path consisting of a sequence of straight lines, the slopes
of which represent frequency changes.
• Phase Tree: depicts possible paths starting from time t = 0
 Minimum Shift Keying

• Phase tree makes clear the transitions of phase across interval boundaries of the incoming sequence of
data bits.
• The phase of a CPFSK signal is an odd or even multiple of πh radians at odd or even multiples of the bit
duration Tb, respectively.
Minimum Shift Keying
 Minimum Shift Keying

• With h = 1/2, the frequency deviation equals half the bit rate.
• This is the minimum frequency spacing that allows the two FSK signals representing
symbols 1 and 0 and coherently orthogonal in the sense that they do not interfere with one
another in the process of detection.
• It is for this reason that a CPFSK signal with a deviation ratio of one half is commonly
referred to as minimum shift keying (MSK).
 Signal Space Diagram of MSK

In phase component:

With deviation ratio h=1/2,

 Signal Space Diagram of MSK
• Since the phase θ(0) is 0 or π, depending on the past history of the modulation process, we
find that, in the interval –Tb ≤ t ≤ Tb, the polarity of cos(θ (t)) depends only on θ(0),
regardless of the sequence of 1s and 0s transmitted before or after t = 0.
• Thus, for this time interval, the in-phase component s₁(t) consists of a half-cycle cosine
pulse defined as follows:
 Signal Space Diagram of MSK
• The plus sign corresponds to θ(0) = 0 and the minus sign corresponds to θ(0) = π.
• In the interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 2Tb, the quadrature component consists of half cycle sine pulse whose polarity
depends only on θ (Tb).
Signal Space Diagram of MSK
Signal Space Diagram of MSK
Signal Space Diagram of MSK
Signal Space Diagram of MSK
Signal Space Diagram of MSK
Minimum Shift Keying
Error Performance of Minimum Shift Keying
Error Performance of Minimum Shift Keying
Error Performance of Minimum Shift Keying
MSK Generation
MSK Detection
 Advantages of MSK
• Constant Envelope

• Relatively Narrow Bandwidth

• Coherent Detection Performance Equivalent to that of QPSK

 Disadvantages of MSK
• Spectral Efficiency: MSK has a wider spectral bandwidth, as it does not use pre-filtering to
shape the signal. This results in a broader main lobe and larger side lobes in its frequency
spectrum.

• Adjacent Channel Interference: MSK’s relatively broader spectrum can lead to more
adjacent channel interference (ACI), which is problematic in systems with densely packed
channels.

• Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI) in Multipath Environments: MSK may perform less

effectively in multipath environments, common in mobile networks, due to the lack of
filtering and the resulting spectral width.
 Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying
• GMSK is an enhancement of Minimum Shift Keying (MSK), incorporating Gaussian filtering to
improve spectral efficiency and reduce out-of-band emissions.

• Limitation of MSK by modifying its power spectrum into compact form, while maintaining the
constant envelope can be achieved by the use of pre-modulation low pass filter, referred to as pulse
shaping filter

• Desirable properties of pulse shaping filter:

• Frequency response with narrow bandwidth and sharp cutoff characteristics.
• Impulse response with relatively low overshoot.
• Evolution of a phase trellis where the carrier phase of the modulated signal assumes the two
values ±π/2 at odd multiples of Tb and the two values 0 and π at even multiples of Tb, as in MSK.
 Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying
• Condition 1 is needed to suppress the high-frequency components of the
transmitted signal.

• Condition 2 avoids excessive deviations in the instantaneous frequency of the

FM signal.

• Condition 3 ensures that the modified FM signal can be coherently detected in

the same way as the MSK signal, or it can be noncoherently detected as a
simple binary FSK signal.
GMSK
GMSK
GMSK – Error Probability
GMSK
 M-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

The transmitted M-ary QAM signal for symbol k is defined as

Where 𝐸𝑂 = 𝑑𝑚𝑖𝑛ൗ2
EO → energy of the signal with lowest amplitude
dmin → distance between any two message points in the signal constellation.
 QAM Constellations

• Depending on the number of possible symbols M, there are two distinct

QAM constellations:
• Square constellations: Number of bits per symbol is even

• Cross constellations: Number of bits per symbol is odd

 QAM Square Constellations

M-ary QAM Square Constellation can be viewed as Cartesian product of a one dimensional L-ary PAM constellation
16 – QAM Square Constellations
 QAM Cross Constellations
• To generate an M-ary QAM signal with an odd number of bits
per symbol, we require the use of a cross constellation.
• We may construct such a signal constellation with n bits per
symbol by proceeding as follows:
• Start with a QAM square constellation with n-1 bits per
symbol.
• Extend each side of the QAM square constellation by
adding 2n-3 symbols.
• Ignore the corners in the extension.
Error Probability of M-ary QAM
Error Probability of M-ary QAM
Error Probability of M-ary QAM
Error Probability for Cross Constellation
 Detection of Signals with Unknown Phase
• Reasons for the phase of the received signal to change:
• transmission over a multiplicity of paths of different and variable lengths

• rapidly varying delays in the propagating medium from transmitter to receiver.

• A digital communication receiver with no provision made for carrier phase recovery is
said to be noncoherent
 Non Coherent Detection
• Consider a binary signaling scheme that involves the use of two orthogonal
signals s1(t) and s₂(t), which have equal energy.

• During the interval 0 ≤ t ≤ T, one of these two signals is sent over an imperfect
channel that shifts the carrier phase by an unknown amount.
 Non Coherent Orthogonal Modulation

• If the signals g₁(t) and g2(t) remain orthogonal and have the same energy E,
regardless of the unknown carrier phase, then the signaling scheme is referred
to as Non-coherent orthogonal modulation.
Binary receiver for Non-Coherent Orthogonal
Modulation
Quadrature receiver for Non-Coherent Orthogonal
Modulation
 Non Orthogonal BFSK

• The transmission of frequency f₁ represents symbol 1

• Transmission of frequency f₂ represents symbol 0
Non Orthogonal BFSK
 Differential Phase Shift Keying
• Non coherent version of PSK
• Two basic operations involved in the transmitter:
• Differential Encoding of the input binary wave
• Phase shift keying
• Symbol 0: The phase of the current signal waveform is advanced by 180 degrees
• Symbol 1: The phase of the current signal waveform is unchanged.
• The receiver is equipped with a storage capability, so that it can measure the relative
phase difference between the waveforms received during two successive bit intervals.
 Differential Phase Shift Keying
• The transmission of symbol 1 leaves the carrier phase unchanged over the
0 ≤t≤ 2Tb

• Transmission of symbol 0 at the transmitter input for 0 ≤t≤ 2Tb advances

the carrier phase by 180 degrees
 Differential Encoding in DPSK
{dk} → differentially encoded sequence

{bk} → incoming binary bit stream

• If the incoming binary symbol bk is 1, leave the symbol dk unchanged with respect to the
previous bit.

• If the incoming binary symbol bk is 0, change the symbol dk with respect to the previous
bit.

• The differentially encoded sequence {dk) thus generated is used to phase-shift a carrier
with phase angles 0 and radians representing symbols 1 and 0, respectively.
 Generation of DPSK

dk is the complement of the modulo-2 sum of bk and dk-1.

Generation of DPSK
Detection of DPSK
 Signal Space Diagram for DPSK
• Receiver is equipped with an in-phase and a quadrature channel.

• The received signal points in signal space diagram are (A cos θ, A sin θ) and (-A
cos θ, A sin θ), with θ denoting the unknown phase and A denoting the
amplitude.

• coordinates (𝑥𝐼𝑜 , 𝑥𝑄0 ) at time t = Tb and (𝑥𝐼1 , 𝑥𝑄1 ) at time t = 2Tb. The issue to be
resolved is whether these two points map to the same signal point or different
ones. Recognizing that the two vectors xp and x1, with end points (x1, x2) and
(x1, xo₁) are pointed roughly in the same direction if their inner product is
positive, we may formulate the hypothesis test as follows:
Signal Space Diagram for DPSK
Detection of DPSK
Comparison of Noise Performance of Different PSK
and FSK Schemes