Digital Modulation

 Better performance and more cost effective than analog modulation methods (AM, FM, etc.).
 Used in modern cellular systems.
 Advancements in VLSI, DSP, etc. have made digital solutions practical and affordable.

 Performance advantages:
1) Resistant to noise, fading, & interference
2) Can combine multiple information types (voice, data, & video) in a single transmission channel
3) Improved security (e.g., encryption) → deters phone cloning + eavesdropping
4) Error coding is used to detect/correct transmission errors
5) Signal conditioning can be used to combat hostile MRC environment
6) Can implement mod/dem functions using DSP software (instead of hardware circuits).
Choice of digital modulation scheme
• Many types of digital modulation methods → differences
• Performance factors to consider
1) Low bit error rate (BER) at low S/N
2) Resistance to interference & multipath fading
3) Occupying a minimum amount of BW
4) Easy and cheap to implement in mobile unit
5) Efficient use of battery power in mobile unit

• No existing modulation scheme simultaneously satisfies all of these requirements well.

• Each one is better in some areas with tradeoffs of being worse in others.
 Types of Digital Modulation
1- Binary Amplitude shift-keying (BASK), in which the carrier frequency and
carrier phase are both maintained constant, while the carrier amplitude is keyed
between the two possible values used to represent symbols 0 and 1.
2- Binary phase-shift keying (BPSK), in which the carrier amplitude and carrier
frequency are both maintained constant, while the carrier phase is keyed between
the two possible values (e.g., 0° and 180°) used to represent symbols 0 and 1.
3. Binary frequency-shift keying (BFSK), in which the carrier amplitude and
carrier phase are both maintained constant, while the carrier frequency is keyed
between the two possible values used to represent symbols 0 and 1.

In light of these definitions, we see that BASK, BPSK, and BFSK are special
cases of amplitude modulation, phase modulation, and frequency modulation,
respectively.
Digital Modulation Techniques
Figure1: The three basic forms of signalling binary information: (a) ASK (b) BFSK (c) BPSK
 Probability of error and bit error rate for
digital communication system
In this section, we consider the behaviour of digital communication systems in the
presence of AWGN channels. The assumption of AWGN channels both simplifies
the analysis and corresponds to a large number of communication systems. Digital
signal transmission/reception is different from analog signal transmission/reception
in many respects. First, instead of reproducing a waveform, we are often concerned
with determining the presence or absence of a pulse. Second, we may know in
advance the shape of the pulse but not its amplitude or when it will arrive. For these
reasons, the concept of signal-to-noise ratio used for analog systems is somewhat
irrelevant here. We use the probability of error (also known as bit error rate) as a
performance measure for different kinds of modulation signal on an AWGN
channel.
 Coherent detection
The error probability Pe for the optimum detector does not depend on the shape of the pulse
but only on the energy of the pulse. Therefore, the error probability of a modulated scheme is
identical to that of the corresponding baseband scheme of the same energy. A digital signal
can modulate the amplitude, frequency, or phase of a sinusoidal carrier wave leading
respectively to amplitude-shift keying (ASK), frequency-shift keying (FSK), or phase-shift
keying (PSK). With a rectangular baseband pulse used as the modulating waveform, the three
schemes are shown in Figure 1. We now consider the cases of ASK, PSK, and FSK separately.
In each case, we should keep in mind that the signal plus the white Gaussian noise is present
at the matched-filter receiver.
Implementation of binary ASK

Figure 2: ASK generation

 Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
Although we can have several levels (kinds) of signal elements, each with a different amplitude, ASK is normally
implemented using only two levels. This is referred to as binary amplitude shift keying or on-off keying (OOK).
The peak amplitude of one signal level is 0; the other is the same as the amplitude of the carrier frequency. Figure
1 gives a conceptual view of binary ASK. For this case,

where 0 ≤ t ≤ T and T is an integer times 1/fc = 2π/ωc. Since the performance depends only on
the pulse energy. The difference signal energy is
 Bandwidth for ASK
Figure 2 also shows the bandwidth for ASK. Although the carrier signal is only one simple sine wave, the
process of modulation produces a nonperiodic composite signal. The bandwidth is proportional to the signal rate
(baud rate). However, there is normally another factor involved, called d, which depends on the modulation and
filtering process. The value of d is between 0 and 1. This means that the bandwidth can be expressed as shown,
where S is the signal rate and the B is the bandwidth.

Figure 3: (a) ASK waveform (b) ASK bandwidth

Example
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What are the carrier frequency and the bit rate if
we modulated our data by using ASK with d =1.
Solution
The middle of the bandwidth is located at 250 kHz. This means that our carrier frequency can be at fc =250 kHz.
We can use the formula for bandwidth to find the bit rate (with d =1).

x → 100kHz= (1+1) S → S= 50 kbps

Example
In data communications, we normally use full-duplex links with communication in both directions. We need to divide the
bandwidth into two with two carrier frequencies, as shown in Figure 4. The figure shows the positions of two carrier frequencies
and the bandwidths. The available bandwidth for each direction is now 50 kHz, which leaves us with a data rate of 25 kbps in
each direction.

Figure 4: Bandwidth of full-duplex ASK

 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
In frequency shift keying (FSK), the frequency of the carrier signal is varied to represent data. The frequency of the
modulated signal is constant for the duration of one signal element, but changes for the next signal element if the
data element changes. Both peak amplitude and phase remain constant for all signal elements. One way to think
about binary FSK (or BFSK) is to consider two carrier frequencies. In Figure 1, we have selected two carrier
frequencies, f1 and f2. We use the first carrier if the data element is 0; we use the second if the data element is 1.
However, note that this is an unrealistic example used only for demonstration purposes. Normally the carrier
frequencies are very high, and the difference between them is very small. For this case,

where 0 ≤ t ≤ T. The difference energy signal is

(a)

(b)

Figure 5: (a) modulator and (b) demodulator

Note that the performance of FSK is identical to that of ASK signaling and is worse than PSK signaling by 3 dB.
 Bandwidth for FSK
As Figure 6 shows, the middle of one bandwidth is f1 and the middle of the other is f2. Both f1 and f2 are ∆f apart from the
midpoint between the two bands. The difference between the two frequencies is 2∆f .
Figure 6 also shows the bandwidth of FSK. Again the carrier signals are only simple sine waves, but the modulation creates a
nonperiodic composite signal with continuous frequencies. We can think of FSK as two ASK signals, each with its own carrier
frequency f1 or f2 .If the difference between the two frequencies is 2∆f, then the required bandwidth is:

Figure 6: (a) FSK waveform (b) FSK bandwidth

 Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
In phase shift keying, the phase of the carrier is varied to represent two or more different signal
elements. Both peak amplitude and frequency remain constant as the phase changes. Today,
PSK is more common than ASK or FSK. However, the QAM, which combines ASK and PSK,
is the dominant method of digital-to-analog modulation. The simplest PSK is binary PSK, in
which we have only two signal elements, one with a phase of 0°, and the other with a phase of
180°. Figure 1 gives a conceptual view of PSK. Binary PSK is as simple as binary ASK with
one big advantage-it is less susceptible to noise. In ASK, the criterion for bit detection is the
amplitude of the signal; in PSK, it is the phase. Noise can change the amplitude easier than it
can change the phase. In other words, PSK is less susceptible to noise than ASK. PSK is
superior to FSK because we do not need two carrier signals.
The implementation of BPSK is as simple as that for ASK. The reason is that the signal element
with phase 180° can be seen as the complement of the signal element with phase 0°. This gives
us a clue on how to implement BPSK. We use the same idea we used for ASK but with a polar
NRZ signal instead of a unipolar NRZ signal, as shown in Figure 7. The polar NRZ signal is
multiplied by the carrier frequency; the 1 bit (positive voltage) is represented by a phase starting
at 0°; the a bit (negative voltage) is represented by a phase starting at 180°.
Figure 7: PSK (a) modulation and (b) demodulation
 Probability error of BPSK

where 0 ≤ t ≤ T. Due to the fact that s2(t) = −s1(t), this is also known as phase-reversal
keying (PRK). where the difference signal energy is:
Example:In a coherent PSK system for which Pe = 10^-7, the PSD of the noise
at the receiver input is η/2 = 10^-10 W/Hz. Find the required average energy per
bit.
Solution
For PSK, Gama=Eb/eta
γb=Eb/η
E&CE 411, Spring 2009, Table of Q Function 1

Table 1: Values of Q(x) for 0 ≤ x ≤ 9

x Q(x) x Q(x) x Q(x) x Q(x)
0.00 0.5 2.30 0.010724 4.55 2.6823×10−6 6.80 5.231×10−12
0.05 0.48006 2.35 0.0093867 4.60 2.1125×10−6 6.85 3.6925×10−12
0.10 0.46017 2.40 0.0081975 4.65 1.6597×10−6 6.90 2.6001×10−12
0.15 0.44038 2.45 0.0071428 4.70 1.3008×10−6 6.95 1.8264×10−12
0.20 0.42074 2.50 0.0062097 4.75 1.0171×10−6 7.00 1.2798×10−12
0.25 0.40129 2.55 0.0053861 4.80 7.9333×10−7 7.05 8.9459×10−13
0.30 0.38209 2.60 0.0046612 4.85 6.1731×10−7 7.10 6.2378×10−13
0.35 0.36317 2.65 0.0040246 4.90 4.7918×10−7 7.15 4.3389×10−13
0.40 0.34458 2.70 0.003467 4.95 3.7107×10−7 7.20 3.0106×10−13
0.45 0.32636 2.75 0.0029798 5.00 2.8665×10−7 7.25 2.0839×10−13
0.50 0.30854 2.80 0.0025551 5.05 2.2091×10−7 7.30 1.4388×10−13
0.55 0.29116 2.85 0.002186 5.10 1.6983×10−7 7.35 9.9103×10−14
0.60 0.27425 2.90 0.0018658 5.15 1.3024×10−7 7.40 6.8092×10−14
0.65 0.25785 2.95 0.0015889 5.20 9.9644×10−8 7.45 4.667×10−14
0.70 0.24196 3.00 0.0013499 5.25 7.605×10−8 7.50 3.1909×10−14
0.75 0.22663 3.05 0.0011442 5.30 5.7901×10−8 7.55 2.1763×10−14
0.80 0.21186 3.10 0.0009676 5.35 4.3977×10−8 7.60 1.4807×10−14
0.85 0.19766 3.15 0.00081635 5.40 3.332×10−8 7.65 1.0049×10−14
0.90 0.18406 3.20 0.00068714 5.45 2.5185×10−8 7.70 6.8033×10−15
0.95 0.17106 3.25 0.00057703 5.50 1.899×10−8 7.75 4.5946×10−15
1.00 0.15866 3.30 0.00048342 5.55 1.4283×10−8 7.80 3.0954×10−15
1.05 0.14686 3.35 0.00040406 5.60 1.0718×10−8 7.85 2.0802×10−15
1.10 0.13567 3.40 0.00033693 5.65 8.0224×10−9 7.90 1.3945×10−15
1.15 0.12507 3.45 0.00028029 5.70 5.9904×10−9 7.95 9.3256×10−16
1.20 0.11507 3.50 0.00023263 5.75 4.4622×10−9 8.00 6.221×10−16
1.25 0.10565 3.55 0.00019262 5.80 3.3157×10−9 8.05 4.1397×10−16
1.30 0.0968 3.60 0.00015911 5.85 2.4579×10−9 8.10 2.748×10−16
1.35 0.088508 3.65 0.00013112 5.90 1.8175×10−9 8.15 1.8196×10−16
1.40 0.080757 3.70 0.0001078 5.95 1.3407×10−9 8.20 1.2019×10−16
1.45 0.073529 3.75 8.8417×10−5 6.00 9.8659×10−10 8.25 7.9197×10−17
1.50 0.066807 3.80 7.2348×10−5 6.05 7.2423×10−10 8.30 5.2056×10−17
1.55 0.060571 3.85 5.9059×10−5 6.10 5.3034×10−10 8.35 3.4131×10−17
1.60 0.054799 3.90 4.8096×10−5 6.15 3.8741×10−10 8.40 2.2324×10−17
1.65 0.049471 3.95 3.9076×10−5 6.20 2.8232×10−10 8.45 1.4565×10−17
1.70 0.044565 4.00 3.1671×10−5 6.25 2.0523×10−10 8.50 9.4795×10−18
1.75 0.040059 4.05 2.5609×10−5 6.30 1.4882×10−10 8.55 6.1544×10−18
1.80 0.03593 4.10 2.0658×10−5 6.35 1.0766×10−10 8.60 3.9858×10−18
1.85 0.032157 4.15 1.6624×10−5 6.40 7.7688×10−11 8.65 2.575×10−18
1.90 0.028717 4.20 1.3346×10−5 6.45 5.5925×10−11 8.70 1.6594×10−18
1.95 0.025588 4.25 1.0689×10−5 6.50 4.016×10−11 8.75 1.0668×10−18
2.00 0.02275 4.30 8.5399×10−6 6.55 2.8769×10−11 8.80 6.8408×10−19
2.05 0.020182 4.35 6.8069×10−6 6.60 2.0558×10−11 8.85 4.376×10−19
2.10 0.017864 4.40 5.4125×10−6 6.65 1.4655×10−11 8.90 2.7923×10−19
2.15 0.015778 4.45 4.2935×10−6 6.70 1.0421×10−11 8.95 1.7774×10−19
2.20 0.013903 4.50 3.3977×10−6 6.75 7.3923×10−12 9.00 1.1286×10−19
2.25 0.012224
H.W. In a coherent ASK system, each ASK wave has a peak amplitude of A = 5 V
and is transmitted over a channel where η/2 = 10−7 W/Hz. If the bit rate is 2
Mbps, calculate the BER.
Answer:
-5
3.861 × 10−5.
10
 BPSK bandwidth
Bandwidth Figure 8 also shows the bandwidth for BPSK. The bandwidth is the same as that for
binary ASK, but less than that for BFSK. No bandwidth is wasted for separating two carrier
signals.

Figure 8: (a) BPSK waveform (b) BPSK bandwidth

 Noncoherent detection
Because of the cumbersome integral evaluation involved, the derivation of the probability of error or BER for noncoherent
detection is more difficult than what we had in the previous section for coherent detection. As mentioned in earlier sections,
PSK cannot be detected noncoherently and so we will consider only ASK, FSK, and differential PSK (DPSK).
1- Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
The noncoherent detector of ASK (or OOK) signals is shown in Figure 9 below.

Figure 9: Noncoherent detector of ASK signals

The BER for noncoherent detection of ASK is:
 2- Frequency-shift keying (FSK)
The noncoherent detector of FSK signals is shown below in Figure 10 below.

Figure 10: Noncoherent detector of FSK signals

The BER for noncoherent detection of FSK is:

3- Differential phase-shift keying (DPSK)
As mentioned earlier, it is impossible to demodulate PSK noncoherently (with an envelope detection). However, it is possible to
demodulate PSK without the coherent local carrier by using the differential coherent PSK (DPSK) signaling technique, which
consists of differentially encoded binary PSK. The DPSK demodulator is shown in Figure 11, where differential coding is
provided by the delay and the multi

Figure 11:
DFSK
Modulator
and
demodulator
The derivation of the BER of DPSK receiver is lengthy and complicated. Only the result is presented here.

Figure 11
(ii) Detection
For the detection of DPSK signals, we take advantage of the fact that the phase-modulated
pulses pertaining to two successive bits are identical except for a possible sign reversal. Hence,
the incoming pulse is multiplied by the preceding pulse, which, in effect, means that the
preceding pulse serves the purpose of a locally generated reference signal. On this basis, we
may formulate the receiver of Fig. 11(b) for the detection of DPSK signals. Comparing the
DPSK detector of Fig. 11(b) and the coherent BPSK detector of Fig. 7.4(b), we see that the two
receiver structures are similar except for the source of the locally generated reference signal.
According to Fig. 11(b), the DPSK signal is detectable, given knowledge of the reference bit,
which, as mentioned previously, is inserted at the very beginning of the incoming binary data
stream. In particular, applying the sampled output of the low-pass filter to a decision-making
device supplied with a prescribed threshold, detection of the DPSK signal is accomplished. If
the threshold is exceeded, the receiver decides in favor of symbol 1; otherwise, the decision is
made in favor of symbol 0. Here again, it is assumed that the receiver is supplied with bit-
timing information for the sampler to work properly.
Summary of Pe for Different Binary Modulations