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FUNDAMENTALS OF MATHEMATICS

Read, analyze and reflect on these notes:

1. When evaluating mathematical expressions, always be guided by the order of operations.

Remember the mnemonic

P E M D A S Parenthesis - Exponents - Multiplication Division - Addition – Subtraction

2. Numbers may be classified as prime, composite, natural or denominate

a. A prime number is a positive number

which may only be divided by one or itself
Ex. 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19,23, 29,
31, 37, 41.. The number 2 is the only
prime number which is an even number.

b. A composite number is a positive

number which has a positive divisor other
1 or itself. All even numbers are
composite except the number 2.
Ex.4 = 2 x 2 6 = 3 x 2 8 = 4 x 2
c. A natural number are considered as the
“counting numbers”. A natural number like
1 is neither prime nor composite.
Ex. 1, 2, 3,10, 32....
d. A denominate number is a number with
an attached unit of measurement.

3. Prime factorization is the process of finding which prime numbers you need to multiply
together to get the original number. There are two methods of factorization.

a. The factor tree method

b. The continuous division method

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4. The least common multiple (LCM) is
the smallest multiple that two numbers
have in common. The greatest common
factor (GCF) is the largest multiple that
can exactly divide 2 numbers

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RATIO AND PROPORTION
a. A ratio is an expression of the relative size of two quantities. It is usually expressed as a
quotient of one number divided by the other. The ratio of 1 is to 2 is written as 1:2 or 1⁄2.
b. A proportion is a statement of equality between two ratios. The ratio of 1:2 to 3:6 forms
the proportion 1:2 = 3:6 or 1⁄2 = 3/6.

PERCENTAGE, BASE AND RATE

a. The percentage is the fraction of the original number that is obtained by multiplying the
rate and the base. In problems, it is the number that comes before the word is.

b. The base is the number or quantity which represents the original number. It also
represents the total. It is obtained by dividing the percentage by the rate. In problems, it is
the number that comes after the word of.

c. The rate is the number that represents the percent.. It is obtained by dividing the
percentage by the base. In problems, is the number that is attached to the word percent or
to a % sign.

d. To facilitate recall of the formulae for percentage, base and rate, draw a PBR triangle.

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MEASUREMENT
– is the process or the result of determining the magnitude of a quantity.

a) Perimeter is the total distance around any 2 dimensional shape. The formulae for the
perimeter are as follows:
b) Area is the total amount of space that a 2 dimensional object occupies. It is measured in
square units ( sq. In, sq. m, sq.m)

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c. Volume is the total amount of space occupied by a 3 dimensional object. It is measured in
cubic units (ie., cubic meters, cubic cm, cubic inches)

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d. Capacity is the total amount of fluid that a 3 dimensional container can hold. It is used hand
in hand with volume and is calculated using the same formulae.

e. Weight is a measure of the amount of gravitational pull exerted on a mass.

The standard system of measurement in the present day is the metric or SI system. The
alternative system used in European countries is the English System.

Conversion of units from the English System to SI system requires memorization of conversion
factors.

1 kg = 2.2 lbs
2.54 cm = 1 inch
12 inches = 1 foot
1 meter = 3.2808 ft

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 3 feet = 1 yard
1 mile = 5280 feet
1 km = 0.62 mile

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CONCEPTS IN PLANE GEOMETRY
1. A line is a series of points that extends in two opposite directions without end. Two
points are needed to define a line. It has no fixed length or width. It is
considered infinitely long.
a. The point of intersection is the point where two lines meet or come together.
b. Perpendicular lines form right angles at their point of intersection.
c. Parallel lines are lines that do not have any point of intersection they will never
intersect with each other.

2. A curved line is a line that represents a mathematical equation. It may be two

dimensional or three dimensional.

3. An angle is the figure formed by two rays sharing a common endpoint, called the vertex
of the angle. Angles are measured in degrees.
a. A right angle is an angle whose measure is exactly 90 degrees.
b. An acute angle is an angle whose measure is less than 90 degrees.
c. An obtuse angle is an angle whose measure is more than 90 degrees but less
than 180 degrees.
d. A straight angle is an angle whose measure is exactly 180 degrees.
e. A reflex angle is an angle whose measure is more than 180 degrees but less
than 360 degrees.
f. Two angles are complementary if their sum is 90 degrees.
g. Two angles are supplementary if their sum is 180 degrees.

4. A triangle is a plane geometric figure with three vertices and three sides.. The sum of
the three internal angles of a triangle is always equal to 180 degrees. A triangle may be
classified according to the length of its sides.
a. An equilateral triangle has three equal sides. It is also called an equiangular
triangle because all three angles measures exactly 60 degrees.
b. An isosceles triangle has two sides of equal length . the two angles opposite the
two equal sides are also equal in measure.
c. A scalene triangle has three sides of unequal length. All three angles are also
unequal measure.
5. Triangles may be classified based on the measure of internal angles;

a. A right triangle has exactly one right angle among its internal angles.
b. An acute triangle is composed of three acute internal angles.
c. An obtuse triangle has exactly one obtuse angle among its internal angles.

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 6. Special triangles have properties that allow us to compute algebraically the lengths of
their corresponding sides.

• The side opposite the right angle is called the hypotenuse

• The two other sides are called the legs A 45° − 45° − 90° right triangle, the length of the
hypotenuse is equal to the length of one legs multiplied by √2.
• For a 30°−60°−90°righttriangle
• The length of the hypotenuse is two times the length of the shorter leg
• The length of the longer leg is equal to the length of the shorter leg multiplied by √3.

c. For an equilateral triangle:

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QUADRILATERALS

A quadrilateral is a plane geometric figure with exactly four sides and four vertices. The sum of
the measures of the interior angles of a quadrilateral is exactly 360 degrees.

a. A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with two pairs of parallel sides

• The opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal in measure.

• The adjacent angles of a parallelogram are supplementary
• The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other

b. A rectangle is a quadrilateral with four right internal angles.

• The diagonals are equal in length and bisect each other.
• The length of each diagonal is equal to

c. A square is a quadrilateral with four equal sides and four right internal angles.
• The diagonals of a square bisect each other and meet at 90°
• The diagonal of a square bisects its angles.
• The diagonal of the square is perpendicular.

d. A rhombus is a quadilateral with four equal sides

• Opposite angles of a rhombus are equal

• The two diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular
• The area of the rhombus is equal to 1⁄2 of the product of its diagonals. \

A polygon is a plane geometric figure bounded by a closed path, composed of a finite

sequence of straight line segments.

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 a. The segments are called
its sides, and the points
where two edges meet
are the polygon’s
vertices.
b. Polygons are named
based on the number of
sides:
c. A regular polygon have
equal length of all sides
and equal measure of all
interior angles.
d. The sum of all the
interior angle of a regular polygon is equal to (𝑛 − 2)180.
e. The measure of each internal angle of a regular polygon is equal to

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ELEMENTARY ALGEBRA
a. An algebraic expression is a mathematical expression made up of the signs and symbols
of algebra. These symbols include the Arabic numerals, literal numbers, the signs of
operation, and so forth.

b. The components of an algebraic expression are called terms. Based on the number of terms
, special designations are given to algebraic expressions:

• An expression containing only one term is called a monomial

• A binomial contain 2 terms
• A trinomial consist of 3 terms
• Any expression containing two or more terms may also be called by the general name
polynomial.

c. A polynomial expression is a monomial or a sum of monomials.

• The degree of a polynomial expression with one variable is the value of the largest
exponent of the variable that appears in any terms. For example, the degree of the
binomial 𝑥2 + 4 is 2.
• A linear function is a polynomial function with a degree equal to 1 (i.e. y = 5x+3)
• The graph of a linear function is a straight line.
• A quadratic function is a polynomial function with a degree equal to 2.
• The graph of a quadratic function is a parabola
• A cubic function is a polynomial function with a degree equal to 3.
• The graph of a cubic function is a curve.

RECALL THE PRINCIPLES IN

EVALUATION OF POLYNOMIAL
EXPRESSION

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SPECIAL PRODUCTS

a. 5x(3𝑥2+4𝑥+2)

b. 𝑥𝑦(5𝑥2𝑦3+3𝑥2+4𝑦3)

c. Square of a binomial

(𝑎+𝑏)2 =𝑎2 +2𝑎𝑏+𝑏2 (𝑎−𝑏)2= 𝑎2 −2𝑎𝑏+𝑏2

d. Sum and Difference

(𝑎+𝑏)(𝑎−𝑏)=(𝑎2 −𝑏2) (3𝑥 + 2𝑦)(3𝑥 − 2𝑦)=

e. FOIL METHOD

(3𝑥 + 4𝑦)(2𝑥 + 5𝑦) (5𝑎 − 3𝑏)(4𝑎 + 2𝑏)

Factoring a polynomial means writing it as a product of two or more monomials.

a. Common monomial factor:

2𝑥3 + 10𝑥2 + 6𝑥

3𝑥4 +15𝑥3 +6𝑥2 +9𝑥

b. Difference of two squares

(𝑥2 −𝑦2)=(𝑥+𝑦)(𝑥−𝑦)

4𝑥2 − 25𝑦2=

16𝑥4 − 1

c. Perfect Square Trinomial

𝑥2 ± 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦2 = (𝑥 ± 𝑦)2

4𝑥2 − 12𝑥𝑦 + 9𝑦2

𝑥2 − 6𝑥 + 9

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Recall the various counting techniques

1. Fundamental Principle of counting

In a sequence of events, the total possible number of ways all events can performed is the
product of the possible number of ways each individual event can be performed.

2. Factorial n! = n(n-1)(n-2)(n-3)....

3. Permutation – is an arrangement of objects without repetition where order is important. A

permutation of n objects, arranged in groups of size r, without repetition, and order being
important is 𝑛𝑃𝑟 .

4. Combination – is an arrangement of objects without repetition where order is not important.

A combination of an object , arranged in group of size r, without repetition, and order not being
important is 𝑛𝐶𝑟.

PROBABILITY – is a measure of certainty or uncertainty that an event will happen. It ranges

from 1 to 0.
1. The probability of an impossible event ( an event will never occur) is 0.
2. The probability of certain event (an event that will surely happen) is 1.
3. The probability (P) of an event (E) is expressed mathematically as

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

are numerical descriptive measures which indicate or locate the center of a distribution or data
set.
a. The mean of a set of values or measurements in the sum of all the measurements
divided by the number of measurement in the set.
b. The median is the middle value of a given set of measurements, provided that the
values of measurements are arranged in an array. An array is an arrangement of
values in increasing or decreasing value.

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 c. The mode is the value which occurs more frequently in a set of measurements or
values.

PROGRESSION

Arithmetic Progression – is a sequence of numbers in which each term after the first is found
by adding a constant to the preceding term. These constant is called the common difference.
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
Geometric progression – is a sequence of numbers in which each term after the first is found
by multiplying the preceding term by a constant. This constant is called the common ratio.
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1𝑟𝑛−1

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