Ancient India

Indus Valley Civilization

 Circa 2500–1500 BCE:

o Key Sites: Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Dholavira, Lothal.
o Notable Finds: Great Bath (Mohenjo-Daro), Seals (Harappa), advanced drainage systems.

Vedic Period

 Circa 1500–500 BCE:

o Rigveda: Composed around 1500 BCE; important hymns and philosophical ideas.
o Upanishads: Key texts in Hindu philosophy; notable ones include Chandogya Upanishad (circa 800 BCE) and
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (circa 700 BCE).

Maurya Empire

 321–297 BCE:
o Chandragupta Maurya: Unified India; advisor Kautilya (Chanakya) wrote the Arthashastra.
 268–232 BCE:
o Ashoka the Great: Promoted Buddhism; Edicts of Ashoka inscribed on pillars and rocks.

Gupta Empire

 Circa 320–550 CE:

o Chandragupta I: Founded the Gupta Empire.
o Samudragupta: Known for military campaigns; described in the Allahabad Pillar Inscription.
o Chandragupta II: Expanded empire; patronized Kalidasa and Aryabhata.

Medieval India

Early Medieval Period

 Circa 600–1200 CE:

o Chola Dynasty:
 Raja Raja Chola I (985–1014 CE): Expanded the empire; built the Brihadeeswarar Temple.
 Rajendra Chola I (1014–1044 CE): Led campaigns to the Ganges and Southeast Asia.
o Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, and Pala Dynasties:
 Aditya I (Pratihara): Expanded territories.
 Amoghavarsha I (Rashtrakuta): Patron of Kannada literature.
 Dharmapala (Pala): Supported Buddhism and the Vikramashila University.

Delhi Sultanate

 1206–1526 CE:
o Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206–1210 CE): Founded the Sultanate; built Qutb Minar.
o Alauddin Khilji (1296–1316 CE): Market reforms; campaigns in South India.
o Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325–1351 CE): Controversial policies; capital shift to Daulatabad.
o Feroz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388 CE): Public works projects.
o Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517 CE): Expanded territories; founded Agra.

Mughal Empire

 1526–1857 CE:
o Babur (1526–1530 CE): Founded the Mughal Empire; First Battle of Panipat.
o Akbar (1556–1605 CE): Religious tolerance; administrative reforms; Din-i Ilahi.
o Jahangir (1605–1627 CE): Patron of the arts; European traders' arrival.
o Shah Jahan (1628–1658 CE): Taj Mahal; Red Fort.
o Aurangzeb (1658–1707 CE): Expanded the empire; faced resistance.
Colonial India

Early European Presence

 1498: Vasco da Gama’s arrival in Calicut.

 1600: British East India Company chartered.
 1661: British acquired Bombay (Mumbai) from the Portuguese.

Expansion of British Rule

 1757: Battle of Plassey – British East India Company defeated Nawab Siraj-ud-Daula.
 1764: Battle of Buxar – Consolidated British control over Bengal.
 1773: Regulating Act – Oversight of the East India Company.
 1784: Pitt’s India Act – Strengthened British control.
 1857: Indian Rebellion of 1857 – Ended East India Company rule.

British Crown Rule

 1858: British Crown assumed control over India.

 1875: Indian National Congress (INC) founded; Womesh Chunder Bonnerjee and Allan Octavian Hume.
 1905: Partition of Bengal – Reversed in 1911.
 1919: Rowlatt Act; Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (April 13, 1919).
 1930: Gandhi’s Salt March – Challenged British salt laws.
 1935: Government of India Act – Introduced provincial autonomy.

Freedom Struggle

Early Nationalist Movements

 1905: First Partition of Bengal – Reversed in 1911.

 1919: Jallianwala Bagh Massacre – Sparked nationwide agitation.
 1920–1922: Non-Cooperation Movement – Ended after Chauri Chaura incident (February 4, 1922).
 1930: Gandhi’s Salt March – Major event in independence struggle.
 1935: Government of India Act – Increased self-governance.

Gandhian Era

 1942: Quit India Movement – Nationwide protest against British rule.

 1944: Gandhi-Jinnah Talks – Attempt to resolve differences between Congress and the Muslim League.

Path to Independence

 1947:
o August 15: India gained independence from British rule.
o August 15, 1947: Jawaharlal Nehru’s "Tryst with Destiny" speech marked independence.

Post-Independence

Early Republic

 1950: Adoption of the Indian Constitution; India became a republic.

 1951–1952: First general elections held.

Modern India

 1965: India-Pakistan War – Tashkent Agreement (January 10, 1966).

 1971: India-Pakistan War – Creation of Bangladesh; Instrument of Surrender (December 16, 1971).
 1991: Economic Liberalization – Reforms introduced by P.V. Narasimha Rao and Manmohan Singh.
Important Personalities

1. Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772–1833): Founder of the Brahmo Samaj, social reformer.
2. Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902): Introduced Hindu philosophies to the West.
3. Bhagat Singh (1907–1931): Revolutionary freedom fighter; executed in 1931.
4. Subhas Chandra Bose (1897–1945): Leader of the Indian National Army.
5. Jawaharlal Nehru (1889–1964): First Prime Minister of India.
6. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (1891–1956): Architect of the Indian Constitution; leader of the Dalit movement.
7. Indira Gandhi (1917–1984): First female Prime Minister; known for Emergency period.
8. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (1875–1950): Key figure in integrating princely states.
9. Rajiv Gandhi (1944–1991): Prime Minister; known for technology and telecommunications advancements.
10. Dr. Abdul Kalam (1931–2015): Scientist; 11th President of India.
11. Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948): Leader of the Indian independence movement; known for non-violent resistance.
12. Rani Lakshmibai (1828–1858): Queen of Jhansi; prominent figure in the 1857 Rebellion.
13. Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856–1920): Leader of the early nationalist movement; "Father of Indian Unrest."
14. Lal Bahadur Shastri (1904–1966): Prime Minister known for the White Revolution and "Jai Jawan Jai Kisan" slogan.
15. Chandra Sekhar Azad (1906–1931): Revolutionary leader; involved in the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association.
16. Kasturba Gandhi (1869–1944): Wife of Mahatma Gandhi; social activist.
17. Srinivasa Ramanujan (1887–1920): Mathematician known for contributions to mathematical analysis, number theory.
18. Homi Jehangir Bhabha (1909–1966): Nuclear physicist and founder of the Indian atomic energy program.
19. C. Rajagopalachari (1878–1972): Last Governor-General of India; prominent leader in the independence movement.
20. Jawaharlal Nehru (1889–1964): First Prime Minister of India; instrumental in the formation of modern India.
21. Mangal Pandey (1827–1857): Soldier in the British East India Company army; early figure in the 1857 revolt.
22. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817–1898): Reformer and educator; founder of the Aligarh Muslim University.
23. Aurobindo Ghosh (1872–1950): Philosopher, poet, and nationalist; known for his spiritual and political writings.
24. Ram Mohan Roy (1772–1833): Founder of Brahmo Samaj; social reformer.
25. Bipin Chandra Pal (1858–1932): Leader of the early nationalist movement; advocate of Swadeshi and self-reliance.
26. Lala Lajpat Rai (1865–1928): Leader of the independence movement; known for his role in the Punjab region.
27. Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1866–1915): Mentor to Gandhi; leader of the Indian National Congress.
28. Annie Besant (1847–1933): Theosophist and political leader; prominent in the Indian independence movement.
29. P. Chidambaram (1945–): Finance Minister; known for economic reforms in the 1990s.
30. Nehru (1889–1964): Prime Minister of India; pivotal in post-independence India.
31. S. Radhakrishnan (1888–1975): Philosopher and second President of India.
32. Feroz Shah Mehta (1849–1932): Leader of the Indian National Congress; advocate for social reforms.
33. Nathuram Godse (1910–1949): Assassin of Mahatma Gandhi.
34. M.C. Chagla (1900–1981): Chief Justice of India and diplomat.
35. Vikram Sarabhai (1919–1971): Pioneer of the Indian space program.
36. Satyajit Ray (1921–1992): Renowned filmmaker; known for his work in Bengali cinema.
37. Lata Mangeshkar (1929–2022): Iconic playback singer.
38. Bhupen Hazarika (1926–2011): Renowned singer and filmmaker from Assam.
39. Zakir Husain (1897–1969): Renowned educationist and third President of India.
40. Nani Palkhivala (1920–2002): Leading constitutional expert and lawyer.
41. J.R.D. Tata (1904–1993): Industrialist and philanthropist; founded Tata Airlines.
42. Shivaji Maharaj (1630–1680): Founder of the Maratha Empire; known for his administration and military tactics.
43. Ratan Tata (1937–): Chairman of Tata Group; known for industrial and philanthropic efforts.
44. Baba Amte (1914–2008): Social worker known for his work with leprosy patients.
45. Vikram Sarabhai (1919–1971): Space scientist; known as the father of the Indian space program.
46. Dhirubhai Ambani (1932–2002): Founder of Reliance Industries; major figure in Indian business.
47. M. S. Swaminathan (1925–): Agricultural scientist; known for the Green Revolution in India.
48. Sushma Swaraj (1952–2019): Former External Affairs Minister; known for her diplomatic efforts.
49. Arvind Kejriwal (1968–): Current Chief Minister of Delhi; known for his anti-corruption activism.
50. Manohar Bhiaskar (1899–1980): Prominent journalist and social reformer.

This list provides a comprehensive view of important events and figures throughout Indian history, highlighting key personalities and
their contributions.

Indian Constitution

Formation and Adoption

 1947: India gained independence from British rule.

 August 15, 1947: The Indian Independence Act came into effect, leading to the creation of two separate nations, India and
Pakistan.
 1947–1948: Constituent Assembly of India was formed to draft the Constitution.
o Chairman of the Drafting Committee: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, a key architect of the Constitution.
o Notable Members: Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad, and others.
Key Features of the Constitution

 Adopted On: January 26, 1950 (Republic Day).

 Length: The longest written constitution of any sovereign country.
 Preamble: Declares India to be a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, Democratic Republic and outlines the goals of Justice, Liberty,
Equality, and Fraternity.
 Parts and Schedules:
o Parts: 22 Parts (divided into sections covering the Union and State legislatures, Executive, Judiciary, etc.).
o Schedules: 12 Schedules that detail various aspects such as the distribution of powers between the Union and States,
and lists of official languages.

Major Amendments

 1951: First Amendment – Added restrictions on freedom of speech and protected certain laws.
 1976: 42nd Amendment – Known as the “Mini-Constitution,” it added the words “Socialist” and “Secular” to the Preamble and
strengthened the central government’s powers.
 1992: 73rd and 74th Amendments – Provided for greater devolution of powers to local governments and the creation of
Panchayats and Municipalities.
 2002: 86th Amendment – Made education a fundamental right for children aged 6 to 14 years.

Significant Historical Aspects

Key Documents and Acts

 Indian Independence Act (1947): Legally ended British rule and established the dominions of India and Pakistan.
 Government of India Act (1935): Provided for provincial autonomy and was a precursor to the Indian Constitution.

Important Historical Developments

 First General Elections (1951–1952): Held under the new Constitution, marking the beginning of democratic governance
in India.
 Emergency Period (1975–1977): Imposed by Indira Gandhi; marked by suspension of civil liberties and elections.
 Economic Liberalization (1991): Introduction of reforms under Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao and Finance Minister
Manmohan Singh that transformed India’s economy.

Key Personalities in Constitutional Development

1. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar (1891–1956): Chief architect of the Indian Constitution; played a crucial role in framing and
implementing it.
2. Jawaharlal Nehru (1889–1964): First Prime Minister of India; emphasized the importance of a democratic and secular
constitution.
3. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (1875–1950): Instrumental in integrating princely states into the Indian Union.
4. Rajendra Prasad (1884–1963): First President of India; played a significant role in the adoption of the Constitution.
5. K. M. Munshi (1887–1971): A member of the Constituent Assembly; contributed to the drafting of the Constitution.
6. H. C. Mookherjee (1888–1961): Contributed to the framing of the Constitution and was an advocate for fundamental
rights.

Major Supreme Court Cases and Judgments

1. Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973): Landmark judgment establishing the Basic Structure Doctrine of the
Constitution.
2. Indira Gandhi v. Raj Narain (1975): Resulted in the declaration of Emergency and highlighted issues of judicial
independence and the rule of law.
3. Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978): Expanded the interpretation of fundamental rights and personal liberty.

Important Constitutional Bodies

1. Supreme Court of India: The highest court in the judicial hierarchy, established under Article 124 of the Constitution.
2. Election Commission of India: An autonomous body responsible for administering elections.
3. Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG): Responsible for auditing government accounts.
4. Finance Commission: Advises on the distribution of financial resources between the Union and the States.
Other Key Documents and Acts

1. Preamble of the Constitution: Outlines the objectives and guiding principles of the Constitution.
2. Fundamental Rights: Articles 12–35 guarantee essential human rights such as equality before law, freedom of speech, and
protection against discrimination.
3. Directive Principles of State Policy: Articles 36–51 outline the guidelines for creating a just society.

1. Indian Independence Movement

Major Movements and Events

 Swadeshi Movement (1905–1908):

o August 7, 1905: The British government announced the partition of Bengal. The Swadeshi Movement began as a
response.
o Leaders: Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal.
o Impact: Promoted the use of Indian-made goods and the boycott of British products. The movement played a key
role in fostering national unity and anti-colonial sentiments.
 Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–1922):
o September 1920: Mahatma Gandhi called for the Non-Cooperation Movement to oppose British rule.
o Events: Boycott of British goods, institutions, and elections.
o Impact: Massive participation from various sections of society; led to the withdrawal of the movement after the
Chauri Chaura incident in 1922.
 Civil Disobedience Movement (1930–1934):
o March 12, 1930: Gandhi began the Dandi March to protest the salt tax.
o March 6, 1931: Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed, leading to the suspension of the movement.
o Impact: Demonstrated the power of non-violent resistance and gained international attention.
 Quit India Movement (1942):
o August 8, 1942: Gandhi issued the Quit India Resolution calling for immediate British withdrawal.
o Events: Widespread protests and civil disobedience; leaders were arrested, and the movement faced severe
repression.
o Impact: Strengthened the resolve for independence and mobilized large sections of Indian society.

2. Economic Reforms

Post-Independence Economic Policies

 1950s–1960s: Centralized Planning

o 1947: Establishment of the Planning Commission to draft Five-Year Plans.
o 1951: First Five-Year Plan focused on agriculture and irrigation.
o Leaders: Jawaharlal Nehru, who championed socialist policies and industrialization.
 Green Revolution (1960s–1970s):
o 1966: Introduction of high-yielding variety seeds and modern agricultural techniques.
o Key Figures: M.S. Swaminathan, who played a critical role in promoting agricultural reforms.
o Impact: Increased food grain production, reduced famines, and transformed India into a self-sufficient country in
food grains.
 1980s: Initial Liberalization Steps
o 1985: Rajiv Gandhi became Prime Minister and began deregulating some sectors of the economy.
o Impact: Early steps towards economic liberalization, including the opening up of the telecommunications sector.
 Economic Liberalization (1991):
o June 1991: Finance Minister Manmohan Singh announced major economic reforms, including liberalization,
privatization, and globalization.
o Impact: Boosted economic growth, attracted foreign investment, and integrated India more into the global economy.

3. Indian Foreign Policy

Key Principles

 Non-Alignment:
o 1955: Bandung Conference marked the formal beginning of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) with leaders like
Nehru, Nasser, and Tito.
o Impact: India maintained neutrality during the Cold War and sought to avoid alignment with either of the major
power blocs.
 Look East Policy:
o 1991: Initiated by P.V. Narasimha Rao to enhance economic and strategic ties with Southeast Asian countries.
 o Impact: Strengthened trade relations and strategic partnerships with countries like Japan, South Korea, and ASEAN
nations.
 Act East Policy:
o 2014: Introduced by Prime Minister Narendra Modi to further enhance relations with the Asia-Pacific region.
o Impact: Increased diplomatic and economic engagements with countries like Australia, Indonesia, and Vietnam.

Major Events

 Indo-Pakistan Wars:
o 1965: Conflict over Kashmir; ended with the Tashkent Agreement.
o 1971: Led to the creation of Bangladesh; India’s victory was secured under the leadership of Prime Minister Indira
Gandhi and General Sam Manekshaw.
 Nuclear Policy:
o 1974: First nuclear test (Operation Smiling Buddha) under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.
o 1998: Pokhran-II tests under Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee; India declared itself a nuclear weapons state.

4. Social and Cultural Movements

Social Reform Movements

 Brahmo Samaj (1828):

o Founder: Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
o Objective: Reformation of Hindu society, promotion of monotheism, and abolition of practices like Sati.
o Impact: Paved the way for modern social reforms and influenced future reform movements.
 Arya Samaj (1875):
o Founder: Swami Dayananda Saraswati.
o Objective: Revival of Vedic values, opposition to caste discrimination, and social reform.
o Impact: Influenced social and educational reforms in Hindu society.
 Ramakrishna Mission (1897):
o Founder: Swami Vivekananda.
o Objective: Promote Vedanta philosophy and engage in social service.
o Impact: Contributed to education, healthcare, and social upliftment.

Cultural Renaissance

 Bengal Renaissance:
o Key Figures: Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay.
o Impact: Initiated reforms in education, social practices, and contributed to modern Indian literature and culture.

5. Political Developments

Formation of States

 1956: States Reorganization Act.

o Objective: Redrew state boundaries on a linguistic basis.
o Impact: Created a more linguistically cohesive state structure.
 2000: Formation of new states.
o States: Chhattisgarh (November 1, 2000), Uttarakhand (November 9, 2000), and Jharkhand (November 15, 2000).
o Impact: Aimed at better governance and administrative efficiency.

Key Political Parties

 Indian National Congress (INC):

o Founded: 1885.
o Leaders: Jawaharlal Nehru, Mahatma Gandhi, Sardar Patel.
o Impact: Major role in the independence movement and governance post-independence.
 Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP):
o Founded: 1980.
o Leaders: Atal Bihari Vajpayee, Narendra Modi.
o Impact: Major contemporary political party; has been in power since 2014.
 Communist Parties:
o Influence: Particularly strong in states like Kerala, West Bengal, and Tripura.
o Leaders: E.M.S. Namboodiripad, Jyoti Basu.
6. Judicial System

 Supreme Court:
o Established: January 28, 1950.
o Current Chief Justice: As of 2024, the position is held by Justice D.Y. Chandrachud.
o Impact: The highest court of appeal and constitutional interpreter in India.
 High Courts:
o Function: Handle state-level legal matters; each state has its own High Court.
o Notable High Courts: Bombay High Court, Calcutta High Court, Madras High Court.
 District Courts:
o Function: Deal with local cases and judicial matters at the district level.
o Impact: Serve as the primary courts for civil and criminal cases in districts.

7. Educational Reforms

 Post-Independence Developments:
o 1956: Kothari Commission.
 Objective: Overhaul the education system, introduce uniform standards, and improve quality.
 Impact: Led to major reforms in curriculum, teacher training, and educational planning.
 2009: Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act.
o Objective: Ensure free and compulsory education for children aged 6 to 14 years.
o Impact: Increased enrollment rates and improved access to education.

8. Science and Technology

 Space Program:
o 1963: Establishment of Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR), precursor to ISRO.
o 1969: Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) was founded.
o 2008: Chandrayaan-1 mission; India’s first lunar probe, discovered water on the Moon.
o 2013: Mangalyaan (Mars Orbiter Mission); successful Mars orbit insertion.
 Information Technology:
o 1991: Economic reforms led to growth in the IT sector.
o Key Companies: Infosys, Wipro, Tata Consultancy Services.
o Impact: India became a global hub for IT services and software development.

9. Health and Development

 Public Health Initiatives:

o National Health Mission: Launched to improve healthcare delivery systems, especially in rural areas.
o Ayushman Bharat (2018): Largest government-funded healthcare scheme providing health insurance to low-
income families.
 Development Programs:
o Swachh Bharat Abhiyan (2014): Aims to eliminate open defecation and improve sanitation.
o Make in India (2014): Initiative to encourage manufacturing and foreign investment.

10. Environmental and Ecological Issues

 Conservation Efforts:
o Wildlife Protection Act (1972): Aims to protect endangered species and their habitats.
o National Green Tribunal (2010): Specialized court to handle environmental disputes.
 Climate Change Initiatives:
o Paris Agreement (2015): India’s commitment to reducing carbon emissions and promoting renewable energy.
o National Action Plan on Climate Change: Strategy to address climate change challenges and promote
sustainable development.

Indian Economic Policies and Development

Economic Planning

 First Five-Year Plan (1951–1956):

o Objective: Focused on agriculture and irrigation.
o Key Figures: Jawaharlal Nehru, P.C. Mahalanobis.
o Impact: Laid the foundation for planned economic development and established the Planning Commission.
  Second Five-Year Plan (1956–1961):
o Objective: Emphasized industrialization.
o Key Figures: P.C. Mahalanobis, Jawaharlal Nehru.
o Impact: Initiated major public sector industries and infrastructure projects.

Liberalization and Economic Reforms

 Economic Reforms (1991):

o Date: June 1991.
o Key Figures: P.V. Narasimha Rao (Prime Minister), Manmohan Singh (Finance Minister).
o Reforms: Devaluation of the rupee, reduction of import tariffs, and privatization of state-owned enterprises.
o Impact: Accelerated economic growth and integrated India into the global economy.
 Goods and Services Tax (GST):
o Date: July 1, 2017.
o Objective: Unified indirect tax system across India.
o Key Figures: Arun Jaitley (Finance Minister).
o Impact: Simplified tax structure and improved compliance.

2. Political and Administrative Reforms

Local Governance

 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments (1992):

o Date: 1992.
o Objective: Empowered local self-governments through Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) and Municipalities.
o Key Figures: Rajiv Gandhi (Prime Minister), K. L. Shrimali (Member of the Committee).
o Impact: Increased local participation in governance and development.

Anti-Corruption Measures

 Right to Information Act (2005):

o Date: October 12, 2005.
o Objective: Promote transparency and accountability in government.
o Key Figures: Shailesh Gandhi (Chief Information Commissioner).
o Impact: Empowered citizens to seek information from public authorities.

3. Social and Cultural Movements

Women’s Rights and Empowerment

 Sati (Prevention) Act (1987):

o Date: 1987.
o Objective: Prohibited the practice of Sati.
o Key Figures: Rajiv Gandhi (Prime Minister), M. C. Chagla (Law Minister).
o Impact: Strengthened legal measures against gender-based violence.
 The Dowry Prohibition Act (1961):
o Date: 1961.
o Objective: Prohibited the giving or receiving of dowry.
o Key Figures: Jawaharlal Nehru (Prime Minister), K. L. Shrimali (Member of the Committee).
o Impact: Addressed dowry-related crimes and social issues.

Caste Reforms

 Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act (1989):

o Date: 1989.
o Objective: Prevent atrocities against Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
o Key Figures: B.R. Ambedkar (Inspired the act), M. C. Chagla (Law Minister).
o Impact: Provided legal safeguards and increased protection for marginalized communities.

4. Health and Education Reforms

Health Initiatives
  National Rural Health Mission (2005):
o Date: April 12, 2005.
o Objective: Improve healthcare delivery in rural areas.
o Key Figures: Anbumani Ramadoss (Health Minister).
o Impact: Enhanced access to healthcare services and infrastructure.
 National AIDS Control Organization (NACO):
o Established: 1992.
o Objective: Control the spread of HIV/AIDS through awareness and treatment programs.
o Key Figures: NACO’s various directors and health officials.
o Impact: Significant reduction in HIV prevalence and increased awareness.

Educational Reforms

 National Education Policy (NEP) 2020:

o Date: July 29, 2020.
o Objective: Revamp the education system to improve quality and accessibility.
o Key Figures: Ramesh Pokhriyal Nishank (Education Minister).
o Impact: Introduced significant changes in curriculum, teacher training, and vocational education.

5. Infrastructure Development

Major Projects

 NATIONAL HIGHWAYS DEVELOPMENT PROJECT (NHDP):

o Initiated: 1998.
o Objective: Develop a network of national highways to improve connectivity.
o Key Figures: Nitish Kumar (Transport Minister).
o Impact: Enhanced transportation infrastructure and economic development.
 Delhi Metro:
o First Line: December 25, 2002.
o Objective: Reduce traffic congestion and pollution in Delhi.
o Key Figures: E. Sreedharan (Principal Advisor).
o Impact: Transformed urban transportation and served as a model for other cities.

6. Judicial and Legal Reforms

Legal Framework

 The Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC):

o Date: 1973.
o Objective: Overhaul the criminal justice system.
o Key Figures: Law Commission of India (Various Members).
o Impact: Streamlined criminal procedure and ensured fair trial practices.
 The Companies Act (2013):
o Date: August 30, 2013.
o Objective: Regulate company formation, management, and dissolution.
o Key Figures: Veerappa Moily (Corporate Affairs Minister).
o Impact: Enhanced corporate governance and compliance.

7. Environmental Policies

Conservation Efforts

 National Biodiversity Act (2002):

o Date: February 18, 2003.
o Objective: Preserve biodiversity and ensure sustainable use of biological resources.
o Key Figures: A. R. Pillai (Chairperson of the National Biodiversity Authority).
o Impact: Strengthened biodiversity conservation and management practices.
 The Forest Rights Act (2006):
o Date: December 18, 2006.
o Objective: Recognize and vest forest rights to forest-dwelling communities.
o Key Figures: N.C. Saxena (Committee Member).
o Impact: Empowered forest communities and improved forest management.
8. Cultural Heritage and Preservation

Major Initiatives

 Archaeological Survey of India (ASI):

o Established: 1861.
o Objective: Preserve and protect India's archaeological heritage.
o Key Figures: Alexander Cunningham (First Director General).
o Impact: Contributed to the preservation and study of historical monuments and sites.
 National Museum:
o Established: 1949.
o Objective: Collect, preserve, and display India's cultural heritage.
o Key Figures: Various Directors and Curators.
o Impact: Played a significant role in promoting and preserving Indian art and history.

9. Urban and Rural Development

Key Programs

 Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY):

o Date: June 25, 2015.
o Objective: Provide affordable housing for all by 2022.
o Key Figures: Narendra Modi (Prime Minister), M. Venkaiah Naidu (Urban Development Minister).
o Impact: Facilitated the construction of millions of homes and improved urban infrastructure.
 Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana (DDU-GKY):
o Date: September 25, 2014.
o Objective: Enhance employability of rural youth through skills training.
o Key Figures: Rural Development Ministry Officials.
o Impact: Improved employment prospects for rural youth and supported skill development.

10. International Relations and Diplomacy

Key Agreements and Treaties

 India-US Civil Nuclear Agreement (2008):

o Date: October 10, 2008.
o Objective: Facilitate civil nuclear cooperation between India and the United States.
o Key Figures: Manmohan Singh (Prime Minister), George W. Bush (US President).
o Impact: Enhanced strategic and economic relations between the two countries.
 India-Africa Forum Summit:
o First Summit: April 4–8, 2008.
o Objective: Strengthen cooperation between India and African countries.
o Key Figures: Various African Leaders, Manmohan Singh (Prime Minister).
o Impact: Fostered bilateral trade and investment between India and African nations.