Renewable energy

 Solar energy

Solar energy has some negative effects, including:

 Weather dependence
Solar panels can't generate energy at night or on cloudy or rainy days. This can be a problem in
areas with less consistent sunlight.
 Initial cost
The initial investment for solar panels can be high, including the cost of panels, inverters, batteries,
wiring, and installation.
 Energy storage
Batteries for storing solar energy can be expensive. It can be more economical to use grid
electricity at night if the solar system is grid-connected.
 Space requirements
Installing enough solar panels can require a significant amount of space.
 Pollution
The production and installation of solar energy can involve emissions and the use of hazardous
materials.
 Land use
The construction of solar facilities can require clearing and grading large areas of land, which can
impact native vegetation and wildlife.
 Light pollution
The reflective surfaces of solar panels can polarize light, which can confuse insects that use
polarized light to find water

https://www.sciencing.com/negative-effects-solar-energy-6325659 /

Disadvantages of Solar Energy

The disadvantages of solar energy are becoming fewer as the industry advances
and grows, creating economies of scale. Technological advances are helping
solar go mainstream. Here are how the disadvantages of solar energy and the
pros and cons stack up.

1. The high initial costs of installing panels

The most commonly cited solar energy disadvantage, cost, is declining as the
industry expands. The initial cost to buy and install the equipment is not cheap.
Still, if cost is an issue, leasing options may reduce the amount of your initial
outlay. If you do choose to buy, you will need to live in your home for a number of
years before the system pays for itself. It’s a long-term investment better suited
to property owners than renters.

2. Solar energy storage is expensive

Of the disadvantages of solar energy, the temporary decline in energy production
during bad weather has been a major issue. Days with low solar energy,
however, are having less of an effect due to advances in battery technology. Old
technology for storing solar energy, like lead acid batteries are being replaced by
alternatives. Lithium ion batteries offer greater power at a lower cost. Nickel-
based batteries have an extremely long life. New technologies, like flow batteries,
promise scale and durable power storage.

3. Solar doesn’t work for every roof type

Not every room will work well with solar panels. Orientation matters. If your roof
doesn't face the sun, you won’t be able to capture enough solar energy. Roofs
that angle into the sun tend to work better than flat roofs.

Roofing materials like asphalt shingles, metal and tiles make installing solar
panels easier. If your room is made with other materials, installation may be more
expensive. Part of what makes energy-efficient roofs is their ability to support
solar panels.

4. Solar panels are dependent on sunlight

It’s obvious that solar panels need sunlight to generate electricity. They won’t
produce electricity at night when you need it for light and they can be inefficient
during storms and gloomy days. Your solar energy system needs batteries if you
plan to fully depend on solar energy to power your home.

Batteries are one of the more expensive components of your system. Unlike
solar panels, they do wear out and need careful maintenance to lengthen their
lives. Comparing wind power vs. solar power, wind will keep generating electricity
at night and during storms, as long as there is enough wind. Many people use
both in residential systems.

Constellation Energy and Solar Energy

When weighing the pros and cons of solar energy for your home, there are
additional options worth considering. Community solar projects are a great way
to get the advantages of solar energy without buying and maintaining a system
yourself.

If your home and roof won’t support solar panels or if you don’t have enough
money to invest in one, community solar might be your answer. With this option,
you agree to participating in a program that allows you receive credits for every
kWh generated by the solar facility. You get a credit on your electricity bill
proportional to your percentage of ownership in the project’s energy.

Negative Effects Of Solar Energy Land Use

Large utility-scale solar panels take up a lot of space, which can result in
environmental degradation and habitat loss. Solar farms that cover a large
amount of land are likely to have an impact on the local fauna and flora,
particularly on birds. Solar farms can also inhibit local vegetation growth and
damage agriculture. Unlike wind energy, solar panels aren't able to share the
land they occupy for other uses.

Small-scale solar panels for domestic use don't require much land. However, at
an industrial level, the sheer amount of required space for the panels to produce
energy is a challenge.
Also, many people feel that utility-scale solar panels create an aesthetic
disturbance for the communities in the vicinity.

Water Use

Creating energy with solar photovoltaic panels is a water-intensive process. Even

though the solar cells themselves don't use water to generate electricity, the
manufacturing process requires some water. So the energy production process
doesn't use water, but the production of the solar panels themselves does use
water.

In the United States, electricity production accounts for more than 40 percent of
all daily freshwater withdrawals. Even though some of this water can be reused,
an abundance of solar panels being manufactured in an area could put a strain
on local water resources.

Toxic Chemicals

The photovoltaic manufacturing process employs toxic chemicals such as:

• hydrochloric acid

• sulfuric acid

• nitric acid

• hydrogen fluoride

• 1,1,1-trichloroethane

• acetone

If manufacturers don't strictly follow the laws and regulations, these chemicals
can introduce significant health risks, particularly to the manufacturing workers

References

Union of Concerned Scientists: Environmental Impacts of Solar Power

Solar Energies Industry Association: Concentrating Solar Power

Environmental Progress: Are We Headed for a Solar Waste Crisis

Read More: https://www.sciencing.com/negative-effects-solar-energy-6325659 /

Negative Environmental Impacts Solar Panels

1. Energy Demand - Solar requires a significant amount of energy up front to produce.
Mining, manufacturing and transportation all require substantial amounts energy. Quartz must
be processed, and cleaned and then manufactured with other components which may come
from different facilities (aluminum, copper etc..) to produce a single solar module. Heating the
quartz during the processing stage requires very high heat. Manufacturing requires combining
multiple materials with incredible precision to produce high efficiency panels. All of this
requires lots of up-front energy. With traditional fuels such as gas or goal,they are extracted,
cleaned/processed and burned at very large scales,typically in a single location.

2. Chemicals – To produce solar-grade silicon, semi-conductor processing typically

involves hazardous chemicals. Depending on the solar panel manufacturer and country of
origin, these chemicals may or may not be disposed properly. Like every industry, there are
companies leading by example, and others which cut corners to save cash. Not every
company will dump chemicals, or won’t recycle their byproducts properly, but there are bad
apples out there.

3. Recycling – What happens when solar panels break or are decommissioned? Although
solar panel recycling has not become a major issue yet, it will in the coming decades as solar
panels need to be replaced. Currently, solar modules can be disposed of with other standard
e-waste. Countries without robust e-waste disposal means are at a higher risk of recycling
related issues.

These are the major environmental concerns surrounding the PV industry. The fear is
certainly cause for further investigation but may be unfounded according to the numbers.

Chemicals, Recycling and Disposal of Solar Panels

Recycling and disposal of solar panels is a key area of concern. There is a clear problem with
solutions on the horizon.

This is not as widespread or toxic as it may seem though. Standard solar modules' silicon
wafers are encapsulated, commonly by ethyly vinyl acetate (EVA). This layer protects the
silicon wafer. If modules are not disposed of properly and exposed to specific test
conditions is it possible some leaching may occur. Under normal operating conditions
these materials will not be released.

Solar power is very effective at carbon mitigation. As with all technologies, the unintended
waste or byproducts is something that must be dealt with.

An obvious answer is to recycle solar panels and sell their base elements. Great in theory, but
this path is not an economical, scalable one – yet.

Paths Forward
Large scale solar panel recycling plants do exist, but are not as prevalent as they need to be.

This lag is expected with new industries and technologies. Auto recyclers did not appear the
day after the Model T rolled off the line. Bottle depots were not waiting around for the advent
of bottles. E-waste recyclers have just recently become common place, decades after the
explosion of consumer electronics.

It takes time for secondary industries to develop around primary industries.

An alternative or additional solution to aid the economics of recycling is to put a fee onto solar
panel manufacturers to ease the recycling process or mandate a recycling program be
implemented from the manufacturers.

Both options will take time to implement and perfect.

 The economics of solar panel recycling will be improved as more solar panels are
decommissioned. Higher volumes in any industry allow the economics of scale to work their
magic.

A simple solution to the chemicals used in solar panels would be to find alternative methods
for manufacturing modules. This solution is already underway, although its timeline for
commercialization is difficult to predict.

Although chemicals are used in solar panels production, comparison to traditional fuels may
provide useful context. Generating any form of energy on a mass scale will require some use
of chemicals in the supply chain.

Coal must be chemically cleaned and treated after mining. Fracked natural gas must be
extracted using chemical mixtures. Both coal and gas are combusted to create electricity.
Nuclear energy itself requires the handling of extremely radioactive materials.

No fuel source is perfect, each has their own environmental advantages and disadvantages.

But some are better than others.

 Wind energy
One of the cheapest energy sources, wind energy is a renewable energy source.
 Hydroelectric power
The largest renewable energy source for electricity in the United States, hydroelectric power is
generated by forcing water through tunnels in a dam to turn turbines.
 Geothermal energy
Uses the Earth's constant temperature to cool homes in the summer and warm them in the winter.
 Bioenergy
Organic matter burned as a fuel

https://kubyenergy.ca/blog/the-positive-and-negative-environmental-impacts-of-solar-panels
Negative Economic Impacts of Solar Energy
Apart from the many positive economic impacts of solar energy, it also has a few
negative economic impacts which come with it in the same package. Among the
negative impacts of solar energy include the following:

1. Expensive installation: The installation of solar systems comes with a very high cost
of installation. The expense of initially installing a solar system comes with the purchase
of the various components of the solar system which among them include solar panel,
batteries for the conversion of the solar radiation to electric power, transportation of the
relevant materials from the place of manufacturing to the point of installation and also
the human capital required in executing the mandate of installation. This requires a lot of
capital in which a solar energy consumer who has no capital for the installation of the
expensive solar system may incur a lot of economical retention if they really want to
have the system in place.
2. Expensive storage: Warm mass and water tanks are the two essential strategies for
putting away sun oriented vitality in sun based space warming frameworks. Warm Mass:
Used in both aloof and dynamic space warming frameworks. Assimilates heat during the
day and gradually discharges it around evening time. Water Tanks: Used in dynamic fluid
frameworks. Also among the storage are the batteries which are expensive to also
acquire and maintains since they don’t use water but use specific battery water which is
also expensive to acquire.
3. Dependent on whether: Though sun powered vitality can at present be gathered
during shady and blustery days, the effectiveness of the close planetary system drops.
Along these lines, a couple of shady, blustery days can noticeably affect the vitality
framework. You ought to likewise consider that sun oriented vitality can’t be gathered
during the night. For the times when solar radiations are low and there has been a low
efficiency in collection of the energy, I consider using an alternative source of energy to
power it. Another alternative would be in the case where I choose to increase the scale
of the system to increase the scale of harvesting to cater to the days when there is a
reduction in the intensity of solar radiation.

Conclusion
The adoption of solar energy systems has a great impact on the economic lives of
different individuals as well as countries. The use of solar energy lowers the cost of
production, resulting in reduced prices for different goods and services. It also helps
create job opportunities for professionals and startup investors. As renewable resources
become more powerful, how extensively and in what manner communities use solar
energy will affect how that energy impacts the economy. Large, centralized solar power
plants and solar cell factories will affect the economy much differently than local
factories and distributed solar power. The adoption of solar energy must continue so we
can address the negative societal and economic impacts of dirty fossil fuels.

References:

Fares, R. L., & Webber, M. E. (2017). The impacts of storing solar energy in the home to
reduce reliance on the utility. Nature Energy, 2(2), 17001.

Mahmud, K., Amin, U., Hossain, M. J., & Ravishankar, J. (2018). Computational tools for
design, analysis, and management of residential energy systems. Applied Energy, 221,
535-556.

What are the potential negative environmental

impacts of solar energy?
Solar energy is a relatively clean and green form of renewable energy, but it
does have some potential environmental impacts that should be considered so
they can be properly mitigated.

Habitat Loss

Solar energy systems require land for the installation of solar panels. While
some areas are more conducive to solar panel installation than others, any
area that has been cleared and developed for this purpose is considered lost
habitat. Placing solar panels on existing structures helps to avoid this problem.

Ecosystem Disruption

Clearing an area of trees or other vegetation to install solar panels can have a
significant impact on local ecosystems. In addition, the construction of roads
and transmission lines necessary to support large-scale solar energy
development can fragment habitats, disturb wildlife, and introduce non-native
species.

Water Use
Solar energy systems require a significant amount of water for cleaning and
cooling. The exact amount of water used depends on the type of solar
technology, but can be as much as 20 gallons per megawatt hour.

Exposure to hazardous materials

Solar panels contain hazardous materials like cadmium, which can be toxic to
humans and the environment if it’s released into the air or water. But these
materials are tightly bound in glass and plastic, so they’re not likely to get out
unless a panel is broken or burned in a fire.

Solar Panel Waste

According to some estimates, there could be as much as 78 million tons of

solar panel waste by 2050 globally. This amount of waste will pose significant
challenges for recycling operations that aren’t equipped with proper disposal
systems yet (i.e., landfills).
The good news is that this problem has been recognized early on, and several
companies have already come up with solutions — both technological
(recycling technologies) and economical (extended product warranties).

Harmful Emissions

Solar panels can be made from silicon or gallium arsenide, both of which are
toxic to the environment if they’re not disposed of properly. The manufacturing
process also creates other harmful substances like nitrous oxide gas and
perfluorocarbon, which (PFCs) contribute to global warming.

How to reduce the environmental impact of solar

energy
Fortunately, there are ways to reduce the environmental impact of solar
energy.

Habitat Loss: One way to minimize habitat loss is to use existing

infrastructure whenever possible (e.g., parking lots, brownfields) and to
develop new solar installations on land that has already been cleared for other
purposes.
Ecosystem Disruption: Minimizing ecosystem disruption can be as simple as
using local materials and following construction best practices that minimize
disturbance.
Water Use: Using efficient water management systems can help reduce water
consumption by solar panels.
Exposure to hazardous materials: Recycling old solar panels instead of
disposing of them in landfills can help mitigate the potential harm caused by
these materials.
Solar Panel Waste: Developing more efficient recycling technologies for solar
panels can help mitigate the potential harm caused by these materials.
Harmful Emissions: There are ways to reduce emissions from solar panel
manufacturing, including using renewable biomass instead of fossil fuels in
production processes and installing pollution-control equipment on
smokestacks at factories.

How does solar energy compare to other forms of

renewable energy?
Renewable sources of energy include wind, hydro, geothermal, and biomass.
Of these sources, solar is by far the most popular. This is likely due to its low
cost and easy installation process.
Solar panels are becoming more affordable every year, and they can be
installed on rooftops or in open fields. There are no restrictions when it comes
to where solar panels can be placed, making this form of energy production
incredibly versatile.

Solar energy vs. wind energy

Wind energy can be effective, but it has some potential drawbacks. Wind
energy is not always reliable — the output depends on the weather conditions,
which means you need a backup plan if there’s no wind on a particular day.

More subjectively, wind turbines produce noise pollution that can be disruptive
to people living near them. Wind farms require a lot of land, which can disrupt
ecosystems and local wildlife.

Solar energy vs. Hydroelectricity

Hydroelectricity is created by using water power to turn turbines inside dams.

It’s one of the most widely used forms of renewable energy and accounts for
about 17% of the world’s electricity supply.
Hydroelectricity is a reliable source of energy, and it doesn’t produce any
harmful emissions. However, it can be disruptive to ecosystems and can cause
flooding. It also requires a lot of land, which can be difficult to find in some
areas.

Solar energy vs. Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy uses the heat from the Earth’s core to generate power. It’s
a relatively new form of renewable energy, but it has a lot of potential.

One advantage geothermal has over solar is that it’s available 24 hours a day,
365 days a year. However, geothermal plants can be expensive to build, and
they can have negative environmental impacts if they’re not managed well.

Solar energy vs. Biomass Energy

Biomass energy is created by burning organic material to generate electricity
or heat. It’s a relatively new form of renewable energy, and it can be used in
many different ways.

For example, you can use biomass fuel pellets as an alternative to wood stoves
or fireplaces; they produce less pollution than traditional wood-burning
methods because they burn cleaner and more efficiently.

However, biomass isn’t always available — if there isn’t enough land for
growing crops like corn that are needed for producing these biofuels, then this
option may not work well in your area.

What are the benefits of using solar power?

Solar power has many advantages over traditional forms of electricity
generation, such as coal and natural gas. Solar energy is clean and produces
no emissions, unlike fossil fuels which release carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere.

This makes it a much safer choice for those who live near an electric plant that
uses these fuels regularly. It also doesn't require any additional infrastructure
like wind turbines do (which have been known to cause bird deaths).

Additionally, there's no need to drill holes through mountainsides like

hydroelectric dams because they're not needed with solar power. Simply put:

 Solar energy is a renewable resource: Solar energy comes from the

sun, which is a virtually inexhaustible source of energy.
 Solar energy is clean: Solar panels don’t produce emissions that
contribute to climate change or air pollution.
 Solar energy is efficient: Photovoltaic (PV) cells convert sunlight into
electrical energy with very high-efficiency rates.
 Solar energy is versatile: Solar energy can be used to generate
electricity, heat buildings and water, and run cars.
 Solar energy creates jobs: The installation and maintenance of solar
systems create jobs in the renewable energy sector.
 Solar energy is "the cheapest electricity in history": The cost of
solar panels has decreased by more than 70% since 2010, and this trend
is expected to continue. As of 2020, the IEA confirmed solar energy to be
even lower-cost than coal and natural gas.

The limitations of solar energy

Installing a solar system does require a higher upfront investment, and on
average, takes about 8 years before a homeowner begins seeing a positive
return on their panels.
Additionally, solar energy only works when the sun is shining. This means that
backup power sources (like batteries or a generator) are needed for times
 when the sun isn't shining. Solar panels also don't work well in cold weather, so
they need to be installed in an area where temperatures are consistently high.

How much does solar energy cost?

The cost of solar panels has been dropping steadily for the past few years, and
they are now more affordable than ever. The average price for a residential
system is around $20,000, but this varies depending on the size and
complexity of the system.
Many states offer tax credits or other incentives to help offset the initial cost of
installation. In many cases, it is possible to recoup the investment in solar
panels within five to ten years. Additionally, new tax incentives for solar as
part of the 2022 Inflation Reduction Act are further driving costs
down; homeowners can subtract 30% of the cost of solar from your federal
taxes.

Is solar power a good choice for my home or

business?
That depends on several factors, including your location and available sunlight.
Solar power is a great option for those who live in sunny climates, as there is
more potential for generating electricity from the sun's rays.

However, even if you don't have access to direct sunlight all day long, there
are still other ways that solar energy can work for your home or business (for
example, using it during peak hours when demand is highest).

Solar panels are not linked to causing health problems in adults or children. However,
exposure to solar UV radiation can have negative health effects, including:
 Skin diseases: Solar UV radiation can make certain skin diseases worse.
 Skin reactions: When combined with some medicines and chemicals, solar UV radiation can cause
the skin to react abnormally to light.
 Immune system: Solar UV radiation can affect the immune system, which may play a role in skin
cancer and some infectious diseases.
Solar energy production and installation can also have negative environmental effects,
including:
 Emissions: The manufacturing process for solar panels can produce pollutants.
 Hazardous materials: The production and installation of solar panels involves the use of hazardous
materials.
 Disposal: Solar panels must be disposed of carefully to avoid environmental harm.
ere's some recent news about solar panels and fires and health problems:
 Increased fires
The number of fires involving solar panels has increased significantly in recent years:
 The Independent: A 2023 article in The Independent reported that the number of fires involving solar
panels was six times higher than it was a decade ago.
 UK: Some reports suggest that the increase in solar panel installations in the UK was due to
government subsidies, but quality control inspections may have suffered as a result.
 Fire causes
 Fires are often caused by faults in solar panel modules, DC switches, inverters, and connectors.
 Fire prevention
Increasing the distance between solar panels by 3 centimeters can significantly reduce the risk of
fire.
 Health hazards
When solar panels are damaged by heat in a fire, they can create toxic air pollution. The smoke
from melted solar panels contains hazardous elements like cadmium telluride, lead, and silicon
tetrachloride.
 Health safety
Solar panels don't pose a health risk to adults or children. The electric fields created by solar panels
are very weak and are easily shielded by walls and other objects.

https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/environmental-impacts-solar-power

Learn more
Wind energy has some negative economic impacts, including:
Intermittency

Wind energy is not always available when demand is high because the amount of energy produced by wind turbines varies based on the
weather. This volatility can make electricity markets less stable.

Cost


Wind energy can be more expensive than electricity from traditional sources, which can increase costs for consumers.

Employment

Wind energy jobs may take jobs away from other industries. However, the net effect on employment is still debated.

Housing values


Wind farms can decrease the value of homes in the area.

Other challenges of wind energy include:

 Competition: Wind and solar projects may not be cost-competitive in places that aren't windy enough.
 Installation: Ideal wind sites are often remote.
 Noise and visual impact: Wind farms can be noisy and alter the landscape.
Wildlife impact: Wind turbines can injure or kill local wildlife

Reference

AIverview

Abstract

This paper provides a structured literature review of the negative

economic effects associated with the development of wind energy
and synthesized the evidence at an abstract level. We then
developed an analytical framework to systematically review
economic issues such as volatility, electricity price, housing values,
and unemployment in relation to wind energy. Global wind energy
development data from the time period from 2000 through 2019
were included for a more robust analysis. This period encompasses
the vast majority of total global installed wind energy capacity. After
amalgamating evidence from existing studies and data banks, we
discuss the policy implications, suggest avenues for future
research, and propose solutions to mitigate externalities. By
understanding the negative economic impact created by the
expansion of wind energy, we can better equip policy makers and
developers to create more efficient and sustainable energy policy to
benefit citizens and preserve the environment for generations to
come.
Keywords:
wind; energy; economics; electricity; turbine; policy; employm
ent; market

1. Introduction
Wind energy has grown rapidly since the turn of the century
[1,2,3]. Total global installed wind energy capacity has increased
from 18 GW in 2000 to 590 GW by 2019 [4]. This growth in wind
energy is primarily driven by the goal of combating climate change
[5]. Despite this rapid increase, economic limitations remain a
significant barrier to greater wind energy penetration [6,7,8]. This
paper offers an overview of the negative economic implications of
wind energy based on peer reviewed scientific literature. We
analyzed papers that were published between the years 2000 until
2020 as the vast majority of total installed wind energy capacity
was developed during this time period [4]. The growth of wind
energy is a global phenomenon [9,10,11,12]. As wind energy
penetration has increased, the negative economic externalities
have become more apparent [13]. Negative economic externalities
include unemployment in competing industries [14] and decreased
housing values for residential dwellings in close proximity to wind
farms [15]. Negative economic impacts can include increased
electricity market volatility [16] and higher average energy
production costs [17].
A recent report by the World Wind Energy Association (WWEA)
provides the current global wind energy capacity totals. By the end
of 2018, the global installed wind energy capacity reached nearly
600 gigawatts (GW), see Figure 1, which is an increase of 50 GW
from the previous year. Total installed wind energy capacity
satisfies approximately 6% of global demand for electricity [4]. Wind
energy is the largest non-hydro producer of renewable energy [18].
Figure 1. Global wind energy capacity growth. Data source: The
Wind Power Statistics [19].
The WWEA annual report for 2019 [4] analyzed the wind energy
by country (see Figure 2). China is currently the world leader for
total installed capacity, with a total of 217 GW. The USA ranks
second with 96 GW, followed by Germany with 59 GW, India with
35 GW, the United Kingdom with 21 GW, Brazil with 15 GW, and
France with 15 GW (see Figure 2). The countries listed in this
graph were the world leaders at the beginning of our analysis
period where Spain was an early leader in wind energy but has
since been surpassed by other countries in total development.
Asian countries such as China and India are currently among the
world leaders in annual installed capacity.
Figure 2. Country level wind energy capacity growth. Data source:
The Wind Power, Statistics [19].

1.1. Development Motivations

The primary motivation for the global expansion of wind energy
is the reduction of CO2 emissions [3,7]. Globally, governments
support the development of wind power to mitigate the negative
externalities of traditional fossil fuel electricity generation such as
CO2 emissions and greenhouse gasses [20]. Although wind energy
has made great advances, coal is still the largest source of
electricity in many industrialized countries [21,22]. Fossil fuel power
plants are the primary source of greenhouse gases (GHG) in many
countries [23]. These facilities can account for approximately 40%
of carbon dioxide emissions [18]. Combating climate change and
reducing dependence on foreign energy imports are often cited as
justification for the expansion of wind energy development
[24,25,26]. Governments around the world have enacted energy
policy strategies aimed at the reduction of CO2 emissions [27,28].
Environmental concerns have been a driving force for the
development of wind energy [29]. Wind energy can be beneficial in
CO2 reduction, however, in some regions, there are more efficient
means of climate change mitigation. In these cases, wind energy
can divert valuable funds and resources away from more effective
methods of environmental protection [30].
 The global population is expanding rapidly, and the standard of
living is rising fast in many industrializing nations. These factors
combine to create a growing demand for energy and have given
rise to the increased demand for wind energy development. Wind
energy is a renewable energy source that has fairly strong support
from the general public [1,31,32,33]. Some consumers not only
support wind energy, but are also willing to pay extra for electricity
produced by wind farms [34,35,36]. Citizens are concerned about
the economic impacts of electricity production, and quantitative
analysis has revealed that citizens will support wind energy if they
believe it will provide net economic benefits to the community [37].
The perceived environmental and economic benefits of wind energy
serve to bolster public support, but wind farms are not devoid of
negative environmental impacts [38]. These negative externalities
include bird fatalities [39,40], the human health impact [24,41], bat
deaths [42,43], ground animal ecosystem disruption [44], and
habitat loss [45].
Peer reviewed literature has also shown that wind energy
generally enjoys public support, but research also shows that wind
energy can also produce controversies [46]. Residents who oppose
wind energy development are often well informed and motivated.
Multiple peer reviewed studies have shown a connection between
wind farm proximity and decreased housing values [15,27,31]. It is
beneficial for wind energy producers to engage the local community
to promote wind energy projects that benefit all affected parties
[33]. A better understanding of the negative externalities of wind
power is also beneficial to wind energy supporters, because it
allows them to overcome these issues. In order to effectively
engage local residents, developers must be open and honest about
the negative aspects of wind farms and propose solutions to
overcome them.

1.2. Purpose of Research

Research gaps remain with regard to the economic effects of
wind energy [24]. Given the importance of energy issues, this paper
contributes to make the field slightly more comprehensive. Klain
[47] writes that more research needs to be devoted to the perceived
risks and benefits associated with emerging energy technologies.
This manuscript focuses on the negative externalities to help bring
balance to the existing literature in the field of wind energy. We do
not seek to support or oppose the development of wind energy, but
simply strive to create a more comprehensive perspective. The
issue is complex and multifaceted. This paper presents readers
with a condensed analysis of the primary negative economic costs
as discussed in today’s scientific literature. In our study of hundreds
of peer reviewed articles, we found four topics to be a recurring
theme in the area: electricity market volatility, increased cost of
electricity production, housing value impact, and loss of
employment in competing industries. Additionally, in our survey of
the body of academic literature, we were unable to find a
systematic literature review covering these four issues.
This structured review is helpful to legislators, wind energy
producers, and citizens. Better understanding of the public
economics of wind energy is essential for the effective design and
evaluation of energy policies [24]. Policy makers benefit from
reading this paper by having access to an analysis of the big
picture externalities of wind energy to make informed decisions for
the energy future of their constituents. Wind energy developers
need impartial outside analysis to better solve issues within their
own industry. Those promoting positive attitudes toward alternative
energy need to be aware of the persuasive influences in the
literature about wind energy [5]. Furthermore, citizens need clear
information on the negative impact of wind energy to weigh against
positive effects in order to make more informed decisions about
potential projects in their localities. Our research benefits all three
of these affected parties.
Wind energy is still a relatively new player to the large-scale
energy market [48]. The lifespan of wind turbines is approximately
20 years [49]. Given that the vast majority of total global wind
energy capacity has been installed within the past 20 years [50], we
have only recently been able to offer a comprehensive life cycle
analysis of the environmental impact of industrial wind energy and
the economic effect over the full course of wind farms through their
stages of use, which are manufacturing, construction, maintenance,
and decommissioning [51]. Wind energy is a field that is developing
rapidly and therefore requires consistent updates in the literature.
Wind energy is currently experiencing significant growth
worldwide [9,10,11,12]. This recent rise means that more up to date
research is needed to analyze the full impact of the technology.
Potential negative externalities of alternative energy sources are
sometimes overlooked [52]. Decision makers must find energy
solutions that offer the best balance of economic feasibility and
environmental sustainability. Our research offers suggestions for
future studies in underserved areas of wind energy research, along
with policy implications in order to provide legislators with the
knowledge to create sustainable energy futures. We offer a
condensed assessment of the international impact of wind energy
with a current perspective.

1.3. Economics of Wind Energy

Economic limitations are a primary barrier to wind energy market
penetration [7,8]. These constraints necessitate government
intervention for the continued expansion of wind energy.
Government policies, not natural market forces, are the primary
driver of wind energy [53]. The economic support for international
wind energy development is justified by the mitigation of negative
externalities associated with fossil fuels, however, there are also
negative externalities created by wind energy [8,24]. Wind power
receives considerable public financial support via governmental
support programs, therefore, it is important to understand who
receives the benefits [54].
The economic success of wind energy is impacted by
technological advances, availability of prime locations, and wind
speed. Once the wind farm is constructed, the efficiency of
electricity production is entirely dependent on wind speed [23]. The
financing of wind energy projects is significantly different that
traditional fossil fuel burning power plants. In some cases,
renewable energy can create socio-economic and environmental
benefits [55], but the negative externalities must also be factored in.
Wind energy requires a large capital outlay at the beginning, and
relatively low operating expense [56]. Once the farm is running, the
marginal cost of energy is affordable. The fixed costs of wind farms
are significant, but the marginal costs are quite small in comparison
[57]. Comprehensive financial decisions must account for the
economic and environmental benefits, along with the economic and
environmental costs of wind energy. In some cases, wind energy
can absorb funding that could otherwise be devoted to more
effective forms of environmental protection [30]. Qualifying the
indirect costs of wind energy helps policy makers, engineers, and
developers to create better policy and technology to create wind
energy projects that are more economically competitive and
environmentally friendly.
 The remainder of this paper is arranged as follows. Section
2 presents the methodology, Section 3 are the results, Section
4 presents the discussion, and Section 5 discusses our
conclusions.

2. Methodology
The research methods for this paper involved a rigorous and
structured approach to the reviewed scientific journal articles. We
first constructed the theoretical basis for questions involving the
negative economic externalities of wind energy development and
then defined a methodology to refine our search. After formulating
specific guidelines for the overall direction of our work, we then
proceeded to collect research on wind energy and externalities. A
comprehensive literature survey was initiated to locate articles
relevant to the topic. Our search was conducted on Science Direct,
MDPI, JSTOR, Google Scholar, and The Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE). Renewable energy data banks and
reference lists were utilized. The primary keywords were “wind
energy”, “externalities”, “renewable energy”, “economics”,
“volatility”, “housing”, “energy employment”, and combinations of
these words. These keywords were input into search engines to
produce the optimal results. Special attention was applied to
journals with high impact factors. The material was sourced from
leading international peer reviewed journals. Scientific articles were
collected and organized before we initiated a cross check to isolate
and remove any duplicate texts, which helped us to analyze the
existing aggregated knowledge for this systematic literature review.
The next step in the process was to remove any studies that did
not fit within the scope of the topic based on title and abstract.
References were taken from papers both supporting and
disapproving of wind energy to provide a more balanced
perspective and minimize bias. Supporting papers were helpful to
provide wind energy statistics, technical attributes, CO2 effects,
government energy policy, and growth data. Bias is possible in any
individual paper, and to counteract this, we included a large sample
size to improve the scope of this study. Each additional step of the
process involved a more in-depth study of the sources, in order to
remove superfluous content. The primary focus of these articles
related to the major topics within our paper: the development of
wind energy, the economics of wind energy, housing price impact,
volatility, unemployment, price increase, and renewable energy
policy. Wind energy panel time series data were sourced from
renewable energy associations in order to construct visuals for
context. By the end of this multifaceted process, we were left with
over 120 citations in which to conduct a comprehensive
assessment of negative externalities of wind energy. A visual
representation of the process is presented in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Article selection process flow chart.

The vast majority of wind energy systems have been installed
this century, therefore we selected this time period for up to date
research to analyze the current state of wind energy. The synthesis
of results from these articles provides a clear and relevant overview
of the negative economic effects associated with the expansion of
wind energy. The scientific articles for this paper were sourced from
the years 2000–2020 (see Figure 4). Before 2000, installed wind
energy capacity was relatively insignificant, making scientific
analysis of economic negative externalities difficult given the small
sample size and lack of global penetration. Therefore, date of
publication was a primary eligibility criterion for inclusion in this
review.
Figure 4. Research papers by date.
After collecting information from these journal articles, we then
proceeded to create four categories to display the primary issues
as presented by the leading experts in the field. These four
categories include electricity market volatility, increased costs to
generate power, job losses in competing energy industries, and
housing value impact.

3. Results of the Negative Economic Impacts of Wind Energy

3.1. Volatility
The intermittency of wind energy creates additional volatility in
electricity markets [16,58]. Intermittency means that the rate of
energy produced by the wind turbines and delivered to market is
not a constant. This creates volatility of the electricity supply. The
volatility inherent in wind energy presents unique challenges [59]. In
times of high wind energy output, the total energy supply in the
system is increased, therefore lowering short term spot prices, but
increasing system volatility [60]. Wind energy is by nature an
intermittent generation technology [61], and as wind farms have
increased, so has the overall intermittency of electricity supply [62].
Intermittent supply leads to higher levels of volatility in the electricity
market, and market stability is also beneficial to consumers and
governments.
Intermittency is the primary technical constraint for the
development of wind power [3,29,39]. Wind turbines are not
capable of producing electricity 24/7 [63]. Quite simply, the wind
does not always blow [64]. Until wind velocity reaches a certain
level (cut in speed), the wind turbine will not produce any amount of
electricity. On the opposite side of the spectrum, during extreme
conditions where wind speeds reach high velocities, the wind
turbine can shut off to minimize damage risk for the turbine blades.
In between these extremes, the wind turbine will produce electricity
(Figure 5). This chart is based off a typical power curve for an
industrial grade 5 MW turbine. Power generation begins at wind
speeds of 3.5 m/s, levels off around 12 m/s, and shuts off at
approximately 24 m/s [65]. The problem is that consumer demand
does not match the intermittent supply of wind energy.

Figure 5. Electricity production based on wind speed. Source: Wind

Power Engineering [65].
The electricity generated from wind energy fluctuates
significantly based on wind speeds, and is therefore impossible to
predict with absolute certainty. A basic characteristic of wind energy
is variability of supply [24]. The volatility of production is a major
issue because industrial scale electricity is not storable yet [66].
The supply must be constantly balanced to meet demand [24]. In
the future, technology may be developed that enables large-scale
energy storage, but currently the technologies are not economically
feasible on a grid-wide scale [53]. The volatility of the energy
generated by wind turbines necessitates conventional backup
power plants to ensure supply base load capacity [63]. In order to
bridge the gap in production shortages, other energy sources are
necessary such as gas and coal fired plants, which are capable of
running practically full time [67]. These traditional power sources
such as fossil fuels and hydropower can supply electricity during
times of low wind speed [53]. Research suggests that governments
should not be overly optimistic that industrial-scale wind projects
will totally overcome our dependence on fossil fuels [3]. Any energy
policy that seeks to rely solely on wind energy would be unrealistic
due to volatility of supply.
One possible solution to moderate dependence on fossil fuel
backup plants is the use of pumped storage hydro stations. These
stations can help increase the penetration of wind energy [68] by
accounting for intermittency, and potentially reducing system costs
[69]. This technology can help guard wind power systems against
disruptions [70] and supply a relatively consistent amount of
electricity for the power grid [71].
Wind energy power generation is dependent on wind speed. The
power generated by a wind turbine is directly proportional to the
cube of the wind speed, therefore doubling wind speed causes the
power produced to increase by a factor of eight [72]. After wind
speed, consistency and reliability are the most important factors. A
typical operational range for wind plants is to be active 65% to 90%
of the time, but not at the level of full capacity [72]. These technical
aspects of wind turbines are the basis of any economic payback
calculations; therefore policy makers and stake holders need an
understanding of both energy economics and the mechanical side
of wind energy. Wind resource potential is often overstated [73],
creating a difficult task of accurately forecasting the net financial
cost of wind energy. The basic mathematical equation for wind
energy production is listed here:
𝑃=12𝐶𝑝𝜌𝐴𝑉3P=12CpρAV3

where P is the wind power produced; 𝐶𝑝Cp is the power

coefficient; ρ is the density of air (kg/m3); A is the area of the wind
turbine blade in m2; and V is the velocity of wind in m/s.
Electricity markets are further distorted by government
interventions to subsidize wind energy. Government support of
wind energy development creates market distortions and long-run
price volatility [74]. These interventions can create artificial price
points in the market by artificially lowering electricity short term
prices, but increases prices in the long term [60]. This can hurt
traditional electricity producers and consumers as well as lowering
long-run economic growth [75]. Electricity markets are complex,
and well-meaning policy can lead to unintended consequences.
Energy companies often understand the impact of government
energy policy better than the legislators themselves. Dominant
energy firms can manipulate emissions markets to their advantage,
in order to raise electricity prices without inflating emissions prices,
and at times of peak energy demand, artificially suppressing
emissions prices [76]. Careful energy planning to promote long
term stability by minimizing volatility is beneficial to consumers,
energy producers, and local governments.
Wind farm electricity production depends on wind speed, which
is a variable that fluctuates greatly [77]. Accurate prediction of
future wind speed enables better market planning to balance supply
and minimize volatility. Wind supply varies highly [78], and
therefore wind availability is difficult to forecast precisely [79]. Even
advanced forecasting methods cannot guarantee the accurate
prediction of short-term wind energy generation [80]. Crafting
comprehensive energy policy that produces stable market
conditions creates efficiency and long-term sustainability. Creating
a balanced energy portfolio with an efficient mix of wind energy,
other forms of renewable energy sources [81], and traditional
energy sources are essential to a sustainable electricity supply. The
cost of wind energy is predicted based on annual wind potential
estimates, but because wind speed is a change significantly based
on weather, electricity production costs can vary significantly [67].
Developing wind farms in prime locations maximizes energy
output. The best wind farm sites are those with relatively flat terrain
and consistent wind speeds. The optimal development site would
also be devoid of trees and manmade structures such as buildings,
airports, hospitals, and houses [82]. Proximity to existing electricity
transmission lines is another important variable in wind farm siting
[8]. Many of these prime locations have already been developed,
meaning that future wind farm development will most likely occur
closer to residential communities or vulnerable natural habitats [1].
This follows the classical economic principals developed by David
Ricardo on the theory of rent [83]. Wind energy can be beneficial,
but the decreasing amount of prime locations limits productivity.
The declining efficiency of wind turbines over the course of their
lifetime is an additional issue. Diminishing output adds another
factor to determine the proper energy mix. Degradation can reduce
a wind farm’s output by 12% over their twenty-year lifetime [78].
This is an important aspect of wind energy that should be
researched further in order to improve wind energy technology and
renewable energy production.

3.2. Increased Costs

 Electricity produced from wind energy is generally more
expensive than electricity generated by traditional sources
[3,17,75,84,85]. The increased cost is ultimately passed on to the
consumer [53,63] for which there are a number of reasons. These
reasons differ by country depending on the structure of government
subsidies and energy. Governments throughout the world use
economic incentives to promote the expansion of wind energy with
the end goal of reducing CO2 emissions [20,86]. Governments
often tax fossil electricity producers in order to reduce greenhouse
gas emissions [87]. These taxes can raise the price of electricity as
a whole. Government policies are a primary driver of international
wind energy growth, and development is also promoted by financial
support programs such as renewable energy certificates, feed-in
tariffs (FIT), grants, and taxation benefits [88]. Wind energy
production requires proper geographic characteristics for the wind
farm site [82] and sufficient wind speeds for generation of
electricity, but these factors do not explain the capacity differential
between nations [89]. Resource potential is essential, but not
necessarily the primary driver for development [90]. Federal
support mechanisms are a major factor in the increased price to the
consumer, but the technical aspects of intermittency are also a
contributing factor. The overall price of electricity is also impacted
by volatility of wind energy production [58]. Wind energy receives
such significant levels of federal support that it is important to
understand who receives these financial benefits and who pays the
costs [54].
Legislative bodies around the world have devoted significant
budget resources to the promotion of renewable energy
development [84]. As subsidies have increased, the wind energy
has grown to become dependent on the government for mandates
and financial support [53]. Billions of dollars of subsidies from tax
revenues have gone to private wind energy producers [53]. Policy
makers promote the construction of wind farms by contracting
private firms not only with subsidies, but also with regulatory
support, energy credits, and quotas that require electricity
producers to purchase a certain amount of their supply from wind
farms [91]. These wind energy promotion policies are essential to
the growth and increase in market share [92]. Tax credits are a
large part of the wind energy support structure [93]. An example of
this is the federal production tax credit (PTC) in the USA. The PTC
is a program that provides tax credits to qualifying renewable
energy builders [94]. It is a primary driver of wind energy
development in the U.S. [72]. As Westwood [95] states, the PTC
provides economic stability for wind energy producers. A number of
peer reviewed publications have studied the impact of the PTC on
wind power development [56,75,94], which have concluded that
there is a positive relationship between wind energy development
and these kinds of public energy programs. The structure of these
government provided incentive programs varies in different
countries, but in the majority of cases, the increase in cost is
ultimately passed on to the consumer or tax payer [53].
Wind energy faces various barriers to entry such as financial
disadvantages [7] and technical limitations. In order to overcome
these challenges, governments have instituted instruments such as
feed-in-tariffs, financial subsidies, tradable energy certificates, and
regulatory support [3]. Many governments operate by the economic
rationale that the solution is for society to subsidize wind-power
generation [3] to reduce CO2 emissions [27]. The goals of these
policies are to enhance the public good by protecting the natural
environment through financial programs like environmental taxation
[96]. The intentions of the lawmakers creating these support
policies may be noble, but the reality is that many of these
decisions have subverted existing incentives in electricity markets,
creating long term economic negative externalities [17]. In the
process, energy policy creators have at times inefficiently used tax
revenue [53], and many of these governments have a poor track
record for allocating federal funds [91]. Lesser [75] goes as far as to
say that there is no economic rationale for governmental
subsidization of wind energy development. We take a slightly more
neutral stance in our analysis of wind energy, which is aligned
much closer to the recommendation of Zerrahn [24], where a wind
policy design should be for optimum efficiency and guided by sound
public economics. The economics of wind energy ultimately comes
down to price. The final cost to consumers should be forefront in
the thought process of any policy maker responsibly representing
the financial interests of their constituents. The goal should be to
create green energy solutions that are not too costly for consumers.
Germany is an excellent case study in wind energy impact on
consumer energy prices because it was an early adopter of wind
turbine technology [12]. The country has a significant wind energy
saturation. Unfortunately, the massive wind energy focus has
produced significant negative externalities for German citizens, who
pay the highest electricity prices in the entire European Union [63].
The German model has not produced cost effective results
because of a failure to harness market incentives [17]. The national
energy transition has almost doubled the price of electricity in just
15 years, which has had a disproportionally negative impact on
vulnerable households living close to the poverty line who have to
devote a greater percentage of income to utility expenses [63].
The increased cost to consumers resulting from expanded wind
energy subsidization is not limited to Germany. Upton and Snyder
[85] found that in the USA, energy prices increased by as much as
10.9%–11.4%. Staffell and Green [78] also found an increase of 9%
in the levelized cost of electricity from wind turbines. Carbon taxes
to combat climate change and support renewable energy can
increase electricity costs by as much as 19% [97]. The amount of
price increase varies drastically from country to country. The
generation of electricity from renewable sources causes a
significant drain on household income with regressive distributive
effects [98]. Economically prudent energy plans should protect the
most vulnerable households in their districts. Electricity is a
necessary good, so it is beneficial to households to keep prices
lower [99]. The regressive impact of increased electricity prices is a
topic that deserves additional legislative and academic attention.
Electricity markets are extremely complex, and prices fluctuate
dramatically over time [100]. There are many factors to consider
when assessing wind energy prices. If wind energy is “expensive”
or “inexpensive”, these terms are only in relation to competing
sources of energy. In times of increased electricity prices, wind
energy development becomes more economically feasible [94].
Fluctuating oil and natural gas prices can make wind energy more
or less affordable in comparison [101]. Even competing renewable
sources of energy can fluctuate in price based on materials used in
manufacturing products such as solar panels. The price premium is
further extenuated by offshore wind farm electricity generation
[102]. Subsidies can further distort markets, reduce competition,
and remove the incentives to innovate and improve efficiency [75].
Energy produced from wind turbines is still more expensive [84]
and requires government support in many cases. Therefore,
improved innovation and planning are necessary to increase cost
competitiveness.
Wind energy cost is also of importance to wind farm developers.
Return on investment and payback periods determine if projects will
begin development. Wind turbines have a projected lifespan of
approximately 20 years [49]. The major challenge in the financing
of renewable energy is the lower rate of return of green projects
when compared to traditional fossil fuel sources [99]. Texas is the
state with most installed wind power capacity in the United States
as the state has the most optimal conditions for developing wind
energy. The payback period for a wind farm in Texas including
federal tax credits is approximately 13 years [103]. The issue with
this projection is that it includes the federal tax credits, and
therefore cannot be applied to other projects that would have
different levels of government funding.
Connecting wind farms to the existing electricity grid is a
practical aspect of wind energy that is often overlooked. Prime
locations are often situated in remote areas far from existing power
grid infrastructure. The ability to generate wind energy is growing
faster than the ability to transmit it, meaning that infrastructure
improvements are essential for continued growth [53]. Massive
infrastructure investment is required for industrial scale electricity
transmission lines, driving up the electricity supply cost [8]. To meet
growing demand, these projects will require billions of dollars in
capital investment [75].
The task of connection to the electricity grid is even more of a
challenge for off shore wind farms [104]. Ocean depths and
distance from the shore combine to drive up construction
expenditures. The connection costs of offshore wind farms are
even higher than traditional wind farms, requiring even more
government assistance [104]. Specialized equipment and labor are
required for these difficult installations. Water depth and distance
from shore can require up to 50% more front end capital for grid
connection [104]. Whether onshore or offshore, grid connection
remains a barrier to wind energy that must be realistically
considered in the early planning phases of wind energy
development. Continued innovation and improved design is
essential for the continued growth of the energy source [105]. More
research should be conducted on topics such as grid connection
costs and the declining rate of wind production over the life cycle of
wind turbines.
The continued subsidization of the wind energy market can
create drains on overall Gross Domestic Product (GDP) [75] by
staining tax budgets and decreasing expendable household income
[17]. Böhringer et al [96] states that at the macroeconomic level, the
aggregate losses in economies of scale are greater than the
aggregate gains. Energy supply that works together for the overall
economy to produce greater growth and efficiency is best for
economic development. Certain research touting the benefits of
wind energy states that wind is free, therefore the energy produced
from wind will be economically efficient [82]. Simplistic analysis
such as this lacks acknowledgement of the basic economic realities
of such costs to create the turbines themselves in order to harness
the wind power, and then the expenses involved in maintenance
and grid connection. Realistic economic evaluation of the benefits
and limitations of wind energy is necessary for sustainable energy
planning.

3.3. Unemployment
Employment in wind energy often comes at the expense of
employment in competing industries due to a crowding out effect
[14]. There is little debate about this, but the net employment
impact is still an area of contention in the field of peer reviewed
articles on the topic of wind energy. Macroeconomic research from
Borenstein [106] and Edenhofer et al. [11] indicates that there is
scant evidence of a net increase in employment from the increase
in renewable energy share. The majority of wind energy scenarios
lead to an increase in the level of equilibrium unemployment [107].
The initial phase of wind energy introduction leads to an increase in
overall employment, but the later stages result in a contractive
effect where job losses in competing industries begin to mount,
leading to an overall slightly negative net employment balance [64].
Politicians from across the spectrum are hopeful over the
prospect of green job growth from wind energy [96], but the total
employment impact is often negative for the economy as a whole
[107]. Wind energy is promoted as having positive effects on
employment, but a minimal amount of research has systematically
dealt with the net employment impact [108]. The total
socioeconomic impact of wind energy is still unresolved [24]. Net
employment impact is not entirely straightforward and results often
differ based on the methods and assumptions of research [14].
Energy sector employment is a significant driver of GDP at a
national level [109], therefore the economic effect of wind power on
employment is of importance for the economy as a whole.
The employment effect of wind energy creates employment
tradeoffs with competing energy sources, both renewables and
fossil fuels. Employment in the coal industry has been hit especially
hard. Haerer and Pratson [110] conducted thorough research
analyzing the coal industry impact in the United States, which
revealed that this industry lost over 49,000 (12%) jobs in the five-
year time period of 2008–2012. The same study found that a
percentage of these job losses were caused by the tightening of
regulations on coal burning power plants to increase the market
share of alternative electricity sources. While some of these losses
in employment were offset by wind energy employment to lessen
the net impact, the jobs were not in the same geographical regions
[110]. This creates socioeconomic issues involving the retraining of
the labor force to avoid the negative impacts associated with long
term chronic unemployment in affected areas. Wind energy does
provide employment, especially in the manufacturing phase, which
makes up the majority of the employment created by wind energy
[108], but the debate centers around the net employment effect,
and how to repurpose displaced workers from other energy sectors.
The coal industry in the U.S. has experienced a drastic economic
decline over recent decades, which has culminated in job losses
and severe economic hardships in many communities [111]. Gains
in employment from wind energy are not in the same geographic
locations as the displaced labor force, therefore transitioning
workers from one energy industry to the other is often not possible
based on proximity and skillset. In areas where the coal industry is
a dominant employer such as Appalachia, fewer employment
alternatives exist outside of mining [112]. Throughout history, job
losses from disruptive technology have been commonplace. The
issue in this specific case is the negative economic impact from
geographically concentrated levels of high unemployment causing
significant societal issues for these communities. As energy
portfolios become more based on renewable energy sources,
innovative solutions need to be implemented in order to deal with
unemployment in competing industries.
Louie and Pearce [21] stated that “a relatively minor investment
in retraining would allow the vast majority of coal workers to switch
to PV-related positions even in the event of the elimination of the
coal industry”. Simplistic statements such as this are unrealistic and
unhelpful in solving this complex issue. Retraining entire industries
of workers for completely new skill sets is a drastic undertaking, not
to mention the fact that the coal jobs are not in the same locations
as the renewable energy jobs that can replace them. This is the
case for both PV and wind energy as wind energy employment
displacement does not only affect fossil fuels. Alternative forms of
energy can also be impacted by the crowding out effect [14].
Prudent energy development should consist of a portfolio
containing a diversified mix of renewable electricity sources [81].
The employment aspect of wind energy is not limited to the
energy industry as the effects are wide ranging. As technology has
advanced, the geographic options for wind energy have also
increased. Offshore wind energy has added a new set of
externalities to research. Wind farms located in oceans create
disruptions for various marine based operations such as fishing,
aquaculture farms, shipping routes, and naval exercises [49]. The
scale of wind turbines is so immense that wind farms can have
economic impact miles from the farm. Broekel and Alfken [113]
utilized spatial panel regression methods to discover a negative
relationship between wind farms and tourism. This is especially
concerning for countries where tourism accounts for a significant
share of GDP.
Wind energy creates jobs, especially in the manufacturing
industry [108], but after factoring in losses in competing industries,
the net employment impact for the economy as a whole is slightly
negative [64]. These job tradeoffs are highly significant in the coal
industry [110,111], but also affect other alternative sources of
electricity production [14]. Although the net employment effect of
wind energy on employment is still a contentious issue that has not
been empirically resolved [24], research has shown that if the wind
energy development is subsidized from labor taxes, the
employment impact will be negative [96]. Given the minimal number
of systematic empirical studies dealing with this topic [108], we
recommend that more research be conducted on specific
employment relationships between wind energy development and
competing energy production industries. These studies should
focus on net employment effects, geographic implications, and the
retraining of the displaced labor force.

3.4. Housing Values

Peer reviewed empirical research has found that wind farms can
decrease the value of homes anywhere from a low of 1.4% [27], a
median of 3–6% [114], or a high of 17% [31]. This value decrease
is affected by the proximity and visibility of the wind farm [114]. The
wind turbine effect on housing values is a contentious issue in the
wind turbine debate. As wind energy has expanded, the potential
negative externalities have become more apparent [13]. Residents
living close to proposed wind farms can be quite vocal in their
concerns over property devaluation [115]. This is understandable
considering that home equity makes up the largest percentage of
net worth for the average citizen [116]. In 2015, home equity
accounted for approximately 35% of the net worth of the average
home owner in the U.S. [117]. Local home owner concern is not
unfounded; a minor negative change in home percentage of home
value can impact the home owner for thousands of dollars. Ceteris
paribus, wind farms should be constructed as far away from
residential housing as possible [15].
The causes of the wind turbine impact on housing values are
multifaceted. Issues such as noise, visual obstruction [13], shadow
flicker, and even electromagnetic fields [118,119] can impact those
living within close proximity to wind farms. These particular types of
issues are even more evident to those living in the country side
near wind farms [120], where manmade wind farms can interfere
with the natural landscape aesthetics of rural communities [20].
Part of this is because houses located in the countryside are less
accustomed to large manmade structures dominating the
landscape than urban environments. The construction phase of
wind farm development has also been found to cause significant
detrimental effects on residential well-being [20]. The impact of
wind turbines on housing values decreases as the distance from
the turbines increases. Additionally, additional turbines in the wind
farm increase the negative impact, although at a marginally
declining rate for each additional turbine [15]. In order to better
understand how wind turbines could impact housing value, it is
important to comprehend the immense scale of modern wind
turbines. Figure 6 provides a perspective for how wind farms can
affect homeowners in a large proximity.
Figure 6. Wind turbine historical height and future projections.
Source: Berkeley National Laboratory [121].
The overall effect of wind turbines on housing values is still
highly controversial [13], but a closer look at the sources of the
research helps to bring clarity to the subject. Wind energy
associations report that there is no definitive causal connection
between wind turbines and decreased housing values. The
American Wind Energy Association reports that there are no
studies to its knowledge that conclude that wind farms have a
negative impact on housing values [122]. The Canadian Wind
Energy Association commissioned a study by Canning and
Simmons [123] that supported their position that there is no clear
statistical proof that rural property values are negatively impacted
by the presence of wind turbines [124]. Conversely, organizations
that oppose wind energy development report that there is a strong
relationship between wind energy and decreased housing values.
National Wind Watch reports that the negative relationship between
wind farms and housing values is indisputable [125]. Similarly,
Wind Concerns Ontario [126] reports that there is a devaluation
effect on local housing due to the presence of wind turbines.
Certain papers have come to the conclusion that there is no causal
relationship, or that the relationship is not statistically significant
[55,127,128]. However, it is also important to note that a lack of
statistical significance does not necessarily equate to no effect [13].
It is possible that individual houses or small numbers of houses
could be affected negatively [128]. Research conducted by property
appraisers has found that wind farms have a negative impact on
housing values [129,130]. There are also credibility issues with
regard to the methods used by certain studies that reported no
impact [131]. Much of the debate comes down to the empirical
methodology employed and the funding sources. This issue is
extremely important to both wind energy developers and local
homeowners.
During our review of the scientific literature, we did not find a
consensus on this issue. This finding is supported by Gulden [13],
who reports that there is still significant disagreement regarding the
effect of wind farms on local housing values. We found studies that
reported a significant decrease in house value
[15,27,31,129,130,132], and studies that were inconclusive, or
found no significant effect [55,127,128], but we did not find any
studies that reported a significant increase in home value caused
by wind farms. Proximity is a primary factor, and the radius for
housing value impact is approximately 3 km [114]. Instead of
continued debate on the topic, the interests of governments,
homeowners, wind energy developers, and stakeholders may be
better served by acknowledging that in some cases, property
devaluations are inevitable and provide compensation to affected
homeowners [13]. Fostering cooperation between local home
owners and wind energy producers is more conducive to progress
than continued debate on the topic of wind turbines and housing
values.

3.5. Summary of Results

The development of wind power is economically limited by the
intermittency that is inherent to the technology [3,29,39,61]. This
intermittency of wind energy leads to additional volatility in
electricity markets [16,58]. Volatility of the electricity generated from
wind turbines creates a scenario where fossil fuel backup power
plants are required to ensure stable base load electricity supply
[63,67]. This volatility of supply in the system leads to long term
electricity market price increases. Electricity produced from wind
energy is more expensive than electricity generated by traditional
sources [3,17,75,84,85]. The cost increased is ultimately passed
through to the consumer [53,63]. Considering the amount of tax
payer dollars spent by governments on wind energy support
programs, it is essential to quantify who receives the benefits and
who bears the cost of wind energy development [54].
Wind energy can lead to growth in the “green jobs” industries,
but these jobs come at the expense of jobs in competing energy
sectors due to a crowding out effect [14]. Analysis has found that
wind energy can lead to an increase in equilibrium unemployment
[107], creating an overall slightly negative net employment balance
[64]. On a local level, perhaps the most significant cause of concern
over wind energy is the negative effect on housing values. This
negative externality has been verified by several studies
[15,27,31,129,130,132]. Creating cooperation between local home
owners and wind energy developers is more conducive to progress
than continued debate on the issue of wind turbines and housing
values. We recommend that more research is conducted by teams
of researchers with experts in the fields of both renewable energy
and property appraisal to produce more comprehensive results.
The primary results are displayed below in Table 1.
Table 1. Summary of results.

4. Discussion

4.1. Policy Implications

Wind power expansion has broad implications for energy
legislators across the globe [62]. This research can better equip
decision makers to create more optimal energy systems for their
citizens. Extreme positions in absolute support of or in total
opposition to wind energy are unhelpful. With increasing levels of
environmental and socio-economic awareness, governments
across the globe are reconsidering the pollution-related challenges
that influence the energy paradigm [25]. Strategic energy policy is
vital to the mitigation of negative externalities produced by fossil
fuel electricity generation [133]. Wind energy is one option for
CO2 reduction, but in many cases, the externalities outweigh the
benefits [75]. The technology faces many barriers that traditional
fossil fuels do not [134]. Sustainable energy planning should
consider the employment, housing value, volatility, and price
impacts of wind energy.
Although wind energy has been increasing rapidly this century,
the vast majority of electricity is still produced from fossil fuels.
Fossil fuels produce approximately 80% of global energy supplies,
and this percentage is not expected to change significantly if
current trajectories hold [3]. Even though these traditional fuel
sources still have a dominant market share in many countries, they
still suffer from economic limitations. They also face issues such as
a decreasing supply that renewables do not face. The increased
volume of wind energy has to be measured against the rising
population and standards of living statistics, which increase the
demand for electricity. Elected officials should be realistic when
planning for the energy future of their citizens. The current trends
and technological limitations of wind energy dictate that as a
society, we should not be overly optimistic about the ability of wind
farms to overcome the need for fossil fuels [3]. The externalities
discussed in this paper differ in impact from country to country. In
certain locations, wind energy can be economically viable, based
on factors such as resource supply and wind farm proximity to
existing power grids. In other locations, wind energy is impractical.
In these cases, wind energy development can divert capital and
energy away from more effective means of environmental
protection [135]. A balanced energy portfolio containing both wind
power and other energy sources should be the goal for national
energy policy to protect from volatility and supply distortions.
In many nations, it is now time to redesign government support
strategies for renewable energy [136]. The amount of life cycle data
have reached a point where developers and policy makers can
clearly see the cost benefits analysis on a country by country basis
across the globe. Considering the significant amount of public
financial support going toward wind energy subsidization, it is
important to understand who receives the benefits and who bears
the costs [54]. This paper highlights the external impacts often
overlooked by legislators.

4.2. Suggestions for Future Research

Although a significant amount of peer reviewed research papers
has been published on the overall topic of wind energy, the field is
expanding so rapidly [11,12] that the body of research needs to be
updated frequently. Comprehensive analysis of the economic
impacts of wind energy is still relatively minimal in the field. There
are a number of areas where further research would prove
beneficial.
Wind energy has the potential to create a regressive pricing
impact [98], which is because of the higher price of wind energy
compared to traditional fossil fuels [17,84,85], combined with the
fact that households at the lower end of the economic spectrum feel
a greater effect from higher electricity prices. These lower income
households must devote a higher percentage of their total income
to electricity bills. Econometric analysis of the price impact of wind
energy is essential to clearly quantify the impact on lower income
households. Currently research on this topic has been conducted in
Germany, which has one of the most mature and extensive wind
energy portfolios in the world. The country also pays the highest
electricity rates in Europe [63]. Conducting research to quantify the
impact of wind energy on lower income households would help to
advance the cause of energy justice. Future studies should be
conducted in more countries to determine if the regressive impact is
an international phenomenon. These studies would be of great
importance to countries such as India and China because of their
development of wind power and focus on raising the standards of
living for their citizens.
The rural communities that produce wind energy are often
located significant distances away from the urban centers that
consume the electricity [8]. Although the energy is produced in
these rural areas, they often do not receive the benefits of this
production. Researchers can create studies that highlight the rural
urban divide between the producers and consumers of wind energy
and propose options to solve this inequality. Strategies for
financially compensating rural communities where the turbines are
located would advance economic justice, and potentially decrease
local resistance to the development of wind farms. These research
papers could highlight solutions that would benefit both wind farm
builders and local residents.
Renewable energy resource potential varies significantly from
country to country. Any energy policy that seeks to rely solely on
wind energy would be unrealistic because of intermittency [3]. A
diverse mix of energy resources to meet the electricity of the nation
is essential [81]. In order to reduce climate change, a multifaceted
energy strategy must be employed to best utilize the available
resources of individual countries. Wind energy may be
environmentally beneficial and economically feasible in some
countries and not in others. A mixed method research employing
empirical methodology should be applied to study panel datasets to
determine the best renewable energy mix on an individual national
level.
Comprehensive economic life cycle analysis is also a promising
area of future research. A more in depth understanding of the life
cycle of renewable energy technologies is essential [137]. The
primary economic characteristics of wind energy are a heavy
capital outlay at the beginning, low operating expenses over the life
span of the turbine, and additional capital outlays for the
decommissioning phase. Once operational, wind farms require
minimal financial investment, but the upstream processes such as
the extraction of raw materials, production of finished materials and
components, transportation, and manufacturing as well as the
downstream activities such as decommissioning require massive
amounts of capital. In order to understand the entire assessment of
economic performance, the entire life cycle of production from use
to disposal has to be understood [138]. The decommissioning stage
is where the blades are removed from the site and is recycled as
much as possible [139]. Most of the total installed global wind
energy capacity has been built this century, meaning that we are
just now reaching the end of the decommissioning phase of many
turbines. Building wind turbines in factories is a major undertaking.
Accounting for the economic cost over the life cycle of the turbine is
necessary to accurately compare the full expenses of wind energy
to other sources of renewable energy such as hydro or solar.
Economic life cycle analysis can also provide insight into the best
options for renewable energy to match a country’s financial profile.
Wind energy is promoted based on its environmental qualities as
a way to reduce negative externalities from fossil fuels, but it is not
completely free of negative impacts [38]. Wind energy creates
negative externalities for birds [39,40], humans [24,41] bats [42,43]
ground animals [44], habitats [45], and even aquatic environments
in the case of offshore wind power [51,112]. Authors should
conduct research comparing the environmental negative
externalities of different forms of renewable energy sources from an
international perspective to provide comprehensive analysis of
which energy sources would provide the greatest environmental
benefits in their location.

5. Conclusions
This paper provides a systematic literature review of the negative
economic effects associated with the development of wind energy.
We place these issues in context by providing international growth
data and the basic wind production equation to explain the
expansion of wind energy and the basic technical aspects of wind
turbines. This study has limitations inherent to any structured
literature review. It is impossible to collect and review all relevant
wind energy externality literature, but we conducted a broad and
detailed search to incorporate a large sample size of studies from
top international journals in order to minimize these limitations.
Additionally, there are more than four economic effects produced
by wind energy, however, this paper presents four major categories
as sourced from the body of literature in the field. The large sample
size of papers analyzed also serves to minimize bias. After
collecting >400 articles for review, and screening and incorporating
>120 of these studies as citations for this paper, we believe that we
have accomplished our initial aim of providing a condensed
overview of the negative externalities of wind energy.
As wind energy has expanded, the negative impacts have
become more evident [13]. Our paper presents the primary
negative externalities produced by wind energy according to the
field of peer reviewed scientific research. The impact of wind
energy is certainly not entirely negative and there are also
significant positive externalities. We focused on the negative
aspects to bring balance to the current literature. We recommend
that policy makers also read positivist literature on the benefits of
wind energy for a more holistic view of wind energy. An efficient
electricity supply is essential to modern economies and is therefore
fundamentally linked together with human development [140].
Electricity has a significant impact on the economy as a whole,
therefore efficient energy production is necessary for the well-being
of society [131]. Wind energy offers benefits in many ways, but the
negative externalities must also be taken into account to produce
effective energy policy.
Wind energy has a place in the future of energy development,
but a more realistic approach must be implemented for
economically sustainable growth that will produce the best
outcomes for all parties. We acknowledge that in many cases, the
costs of wind power exceed the benefits [66], and that the financial
costs often make wind energy development economically inefficient
[53], but balanced energy policy containing a mix of wind energy
and other renewables can provide a sustainable energy future [81].
A realistic and pragmatic approach to wind energy development
offers the best chance for optimal outcomes for all parties involved.
The middle ground provides a chance for climate change mitigation
policies that will be broadly accepted by society [141]. Wind energy
can be helpful in certain communities, but in many situations, it can
divert resources away from other more efficient sources of green
energy [30]. The challenge is to develop an energy strategy that
minimizes environmental negative externalities while providing
 financially feasible energy to citizens. By understanding the
negative effects of wind energy on the surrounding areas, policy
makers, engineers, and developers can develop better policy and
wind energy technology. This will help create wind energy projects
that are more economically efficient and environmentally
sustainable for future generations.

Author Contributions
J.D. and K.L. equally contributed. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding
This research was funded the National Research Foundation of
Korea: NRF-2017S1A5B8057488.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References
. Rand, J.; Hoen, B. Thirty years of North American wind energy
acceptance research: What have we learned? Energy Res. Soc.
Sci. 2017, 29, 135–148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green
Version]
. Brown, J.P.; Pender, J.; Wiser, R.; Lantz, E.; Hoen, B. Ex post
analysis of economic impacts from wind power development in US
counties. Energy Econ. 2012, 34, 1743–1754. [Google Scholar]
[CrossRef] [Green Version]

]Disadvantages of wind energy

Wind energy is intermittent
A wind turbine's effectiveness in generating electricity depends on the
weather; thus, it can be difficult to predict exactly how much electricity a
wind turbine will generate over time. If wind speeds are too low on any
given day, the turbine's rotor won't spin.

This means wind energy isn't always available for dispatch in times of peak
electricity demand. In order to use wind energy exclusively, wind turbines
need to be paired with some sort of energy storage technology.

Wind energy causes noise and visual pollution

One of the biggest downsides of wind energy is the noise and visual
pollution. Wind turbines can be noisy when operating due to both the
mechanical operation and the wind vortex created when the blades are
rotating. Additionally, because wind turbines need to be built up high
enough to capture a good amount of wind, the turbines can often interrupt
otherwise scenic landscapes, such as mountain ranges, lakes, oceans, and
more.
Wind turbines have some negative impacts on their surrounding
environment
A wind turbine's blades are very large and rotate at very high speeds.
Unfortunately, their blades can harm and kill species that fly into them, like
birds and bats. The construction of wind farms can also disrupt the natural
habitats of local species if not conducted sustainably. However, these
problems can be solved to some extent with technological advancements
and properly-siting wind farms.

Wind energy is remote

Wind energy requires transmission. In many cases, turbines and generation
sites may be located quite far from the population centers where electricity
is needed. Therefore, transmission lines are an additional piece of
infrastructure that must be built for this form of energy generation to be
successful.

https://www.energysage.com/about-clean-energy/wind/pros-cons-wind-
energy/
mpacts of Wind-Energy Development on Humans
INTRODUCTION
Although they have some unusual characteristics, such as visibility at a
distance, wind-energy projects are not unique in their impacts on people.
They share many characteristics with other projects—not only energy-
production projects but also landfills, waste incinerators, etc.—that
create both benefits and burdens. In considering how to undertake local
interactions and how to temper negative socioeconomic impacts while
enhancing benefits, much can be learned from past experiences with
other potentially controversial issues.

One important lesson—and an important prelude to this chapter—is that

concern about visual, auditory, and other impacts is a natural reaction,
especially when the source of the impacts is or will be close to one’s
home. The project’s potential for negative impacts as well as benefits,
and the fact that different people have different values as well as
different levels of sensitivity, are important aspects of impact
assessment.

This chapter addresses some key potential human impacts, positive and
negative, of wind-energy projects on people in surrounding areas. The
impacts discussed here include aesthetic impacts; impacts on cultural
resources such as historic and archeological sites and recreation sites;
impacts on human health and well-being, specifically, from noise and
from shadow flicker; economic and fiscal impacts; and the potential for
electromagnetic interference with television and radio broadcasting,
cellular phones, and radar.

The topics covered in this chapter do not represent an exhaustive list

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of all possible human impacts from wind-energy projects. For example,
we have not addressed potentially significant social impacts on
community cohesion, sometimes exacerbated by differences in
community make-up (e.g., differences in values and in amounts and
sources of wealth between newcomers and long-time residents). Also not
covered are psychological impacts—positive as well as negative—that
can arise in confronting a controversial project (Gramling and
Freudenburg 1992; NRC 2003). We have not focused on these matters
because they can vary greatly from one local region or project site to
another; and also as a function of population density and local and
regional economic, social, and economic conditions; and in other ways.
As a result, it is very difficult to generalize about them. In addition, not
covered in this chapter but discussed elsewhere in this report (see
especially Chapter 2) are diffuse health and economic effects of wind-
energy projects. The topics covered in this chapter are, however, the
chief local environmental impacts that have been recognized to date.

Thus far, there has been relatively little dispassionate analysis of the
human impacts of wind-energy projects. Much that has been written has
been from the vantage points of either proponents or opponents. There
also are few data that have been systematically gathered on these
impacts. In the absence of extensive data, this chapter is focused mainly
on appropriate methods for analysis and assessment and on
recommended practices in the face of uncertainty. Several of the
methods discussed follow general principles and practice in
socioeconomic impact assessments conducted as part of environmental
impact statements; nevertheless, the chapter is tailored to the potential
local human impacts of wind-energy projects and to their predominantly
rural settings.

Wind-energy projects, like other potentially controversial developments,

vary in their social context and thus in their social complexity. In this
chapter, comments and methodological recommendations are directed
toward relatively complex wind-energy facilities such as those being
proposed for the Mid-Atlantic Highlands. While still applicable to smaller,
less controversial installations, recommended methods should be
simplified accordingly.

AESTHETIC IMPACTS
Aesthetics is often a primary reason for expressed concern about wind-
energy projects (Figure 4-1). Unfortunately, few regulatory review
processes adequately address aesthetic issues, and far fewer address the
unique aesthetic issues associated with wind-energy projects in a rational
manner. This section begins by describing some of the aesthetic issues
associated with wind-energy projects. It then discusses existing methods
for identifying visual resources and evaluating visual impacts in general,
and it

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FIGURE 4-1 View of Mountaineer Project from .5 mile. The project

includes a total of 44 wind turbines.

SOURCE: Photograph by Jean Vissering.

provides recommendations for adapting those methods to the

assessment of visual impacts associated with wind-energy projects.
Finally, the section briefly examines the potential for developing
guidelines to protect scenic resources when planning for, siting, and
evaluating prospective wind-energy projects.

Visual impacts are the focus of this discussion of aesthetic impacts, but
noise is considered to the extent that it is related to the overall character
of a particular landscape. Noise and shadow flicker are discussed further
in this chapter, under the section addressing potential impacts on human
health and well-being associated with wind-energy projects.

Aesthetic Issues
The essence of aesthetics is that humans experience their surroundings
with multiple senses. We often have a strong attachment to place and an
inherent tendency to protect our “nest.” Concern over changes in our
personal landscapes is a universal phenomenon; it is not limited to the
United States or to the present day. Public perceptions of wind-energy
projects vary widely. To some, wind turbines appear visually pleasing,
while others view them as intrusive industrial machines. Unlike some
forms of development (e.g., cell towers), there are many people who find
wind turbines to

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be beautiful. Nevertheless, even beautiful objects may not be desirable in
one’s current surroundings. Research has shown strong support for wind
energy generally but substantially less support for projects close to one’s
home (Thayer and Hansen 1989; Wolsink 1990; Gipe 2002).

There are a number of reasons why proposed wind-energy projects

evoke strong emotional reactions. Modern wind turbines are relatively
new to the United States. Some of the early projects were built in remote
areas, but increasingly, they are being built in or proposed for areas that
are close to residential and recreational uses, and often in areas never
before considered for industrial land uses. They must be sited where
wind resources, transmission lines, and access exist; in some cases,
particularly in the eastern United States, these sites are relatively high in
elevation (e.g., mountain ridgelines) and highly visible. Some projects
extend over fairly extensive land areas, though only small portions of the
area are occupied by the turbines themselves. The turbines1 often are
taller than any local zoning ordinance ever envisioned, and they are
impossible to screen from view. The movement of the blades makes it
more likely that they will draw attention (Thayer and Hanson 1988; Gipe
2002).

Federal Aviation Administration obstruction lighting (pulsing red or white

lights at night) is another aesthetic issue, and one that may result in some
of the greatest aesthetic concerns (Hecklau 2005). In addition, wind
turbines may produce noise, and the movement of the blades can result
in shadow flicker from certain vantage points. Both the noise and the
shadow flicker can be aesthetically troubling for some people who live
nearby. While less concern has been raised about other project
infrastructure such as meteorological towers, roads, power lines, and
substations along with their associated site clearing and regrading, these
can also result in negative visual impacts. Finally, a lack of regulatory
guidance and stakeholder participation can contribute to fears of
cumulative impacts if numerous projects are within a single viewshed.

Based on the few studies that have been conducted, it appears that
despite low public acceptance during the project-proposal phase,
acceptance levels generally have increased following construction
(Thayer and Hanson 1989; Wolsink 1990; Palmer 1997). It is possible to
find communities that identify their local wind projects as tourist
attractions. Part of the positive image many people hold is linked to wind
energy’s “green image” and spe-

Currently (late 2006), the most common commercial turbines being

installed in the United States are 1.5 MW machines, usually 65-80 meters
tall to the center of the rotor with rotor diameters of around 70 meters.
The material in this chapter applies to turbines of this size. At several
sites in the United States, 2.5 MW turbines are being used but are not yet
in wide-spread use.
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cifically to its potential for replacing CO2-emitting electricity sources, with
the hopeful prospect of reducing air pollution and global warming.

When evaluating the visual impacts of wind-energy projects, the essential

question is not whether people will find them beautiful or not, but
instead to what degree they may affect the important visual resources in
the surrounding area. It is impossible to predict how any one individual
will react to a wind-energy project. It is, however, possible to identify the
visual character and scenic resources of a particular site and region.
Evaluating the aesthetic impacts of wind-energy projects needs to focus
on the relationship of the proposed project to the scenic landscape
features of the site and its surrounding context. The factors that
contribute to scenic quality can be identified and described with
reasonable accuracy (Appleton 1975; Zube and Mills 1976; Litton 1979).
This is especially true when viewing natural landscapes. Preferences are
harder to predict for altered landscapes, although particular qualities of
such landscapes have been identified in research of human preferences
(Palmer 1983; Smardon et al. 1986). Nevertheless, we know enough to
develop meaningful processes for reviewing aesthetic impacts. Despite
the tremendous importance of a wind-energy project’s aesthetic impacts,
especially on nearby residents, this issue is too often inadequately
addressed.

Current Information
There is a growing body of information concerning the aesthetic impacts
of wind-energy projects. The National Wind Coordinating Committee
(NWCC) provides general outlines of aesthetic issues and some examples
of local ordinances addressing wind-energy projects. The latter are very
basic and do not address the broader issues of protecting particular
landscape values. More comprehensive are the Proceedings of the NWCC
Siting Technical Meeting (December 2005), which cover a range of
relevant topics and provide a useful bibliography. The visual issues are
addressed at length by Pasqualetti et al. (2002). While providing an
excellent overview, that book predates the use of modern 1.5-3 MW
turbines. And while it provides excellent guidance for mitigating impacts,
it does not address siting or landscape characteristics. Research on public
perceptions of specific wind-energy projects is fairly common in Europe
(both pre- and post-construction studies), but there are fewer examples
in the United States (Stanton 2005). Of those in the United States, most
are focused on western landscapes (Thayer and Hansen 1989), while few
are focused on eastern landscapes, including wooded ridgelines. While
such studies are useful in understanding public reactions generally, visual
impacts are largely site-specific (Pasqualetti 2005). Other available
resources include legal and regulatory guidelines for review of wind-
energy projects. New York’s State Environmental Quality Review Act
(SEQRA) is one of the more explicit in the eastern United

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States in terms of specifying what applicants need to submit and what
will be considered (NYSDEC 2005; NYSERDA 2005a). Maine’s Department
of Environmental Protection adopted similar language in its
environmentalreview process (MEDEP 2003). In addition, there are
several visual resource methods used for identifying scenic landscapes
and for addressing visual impacts. Some important ones are discussed
below.

Visual Assessment Methods

Two complementary approaches have been used to identify scenic
resources and assess the impacts of proposed development projects. The
first often is called a “professional approach” and relies on an individual
or group with training in visual-resource and visual-impact assessment.
These assessments rely on the research concerning human perceptions of
landscapes (USFS 1979; Smardon et al. 1986) and on the adaptation of
well-established methods for evaluating scenic landscape quality and for
assessing visual impacts on particular landscapes. The second approach
involves an assessment of public perceptions, attitudes, and values
concerning a proposed project and its visual impacts on scenic resources.
Landscapes are complex and imbued with cultural meaning that may not
be understood by outside professionals. Techniques for assessing public
perceptions, values, and attitudes include surveys, public meetings,
interviews, and forums as well as examination of public documents
identifying valued scenic resources (Smardon et al. 1986; Priestley 2006).

Among the best known and established methods for evaluating the
scenic attributes of landscapes are the Visual Management System (USFS
1974) and the later Scenery Management System (USFS 1995)
established by the U.S. Forest Service (USFS). Similarly, the U.S. Bureau of
Land Management (BLM) uses a method called Visual Impact
Assessment. The USFS and the BLM assessment methods have been used
and adapted by numerous state and local agencies either for planning
purposes (e.g., identifying scenic landscapes) or for assessing the impacts
of proposed projects such as highways, ski areas, power plants, and
forest harvesting (MADEM 1982; Smardon et al. 1986; RIDEM 1990).

While these methods are useful starting points, federal agencies such as
the USFS usually go further in managing visual impacts on federal lands:
they generally have plans in place that identify scenic values and set
acceptable thresholds for alterations to the landscape. Even with detailed
plans, these methods often fall short of providing meaningful guidance
for evaluating the visual impacts of projects such as wind-energy
facilities.

Most wind-energy projects are proposed on private land where there is

far less guidance, especially with respect to evaluating aesthetic impacts.
Many regulatory requirements adopted by states focus only on the tools
for understanding the visibility of projects and fail to describe how visual
im-

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pacts should be evaluated. In other words, most processes are not very
successful in addressing questions of what landscape or project
characteristics would make a project aesthetically unacceptable or the
impacts “undue.”

Below we outline a process for evaluating the conditions under which the
aesthetic impacts of a proposed wind project might become
unacceptable or “undue” in regulatory terms.

An Assessment Process for Evaluating the Visual Impacts of Wind-Energy

Projects
The following steps summarize a process for moving from collecting
measurable and observable information about visibility and landscape
characteristics to analyzing the significance and importance of the visual
resources involved and the effects of the proposed project on the
landscape character and scenic resources of the surrounding area. Finally
and most important, this process helps to inform the regulatory process
about whether a proposed project is acceptable as designed, potentially
acceptable with appropriate mitigation techniques, or unacceptable. The
steps outlined below are described in greater detail in Appendix D.

Project Description
All site alterations that will have potential visual impacts must be
identified by the developer in detail. These should include the turbine
characteristics (height, rotor diameter, color, rated noise levels, proposed
lighting) as well as the number of turbines and their locations;
meteorological towers; roads; collector, distribution, and transmission
lines; permanent and temporary storage “laydown” areas; substations;
and any other structures associated with the project. In addition, all site
clearings should be identified, including clearings for turbines, roads,
power lines, substations, and laydown areas. All site regrading should be
presented in sufficient detail to indicate the amount of cut and fill,
locations, and clearing required. This information forms the basis for the
visual assessment.
Project Visibility, Appearance, and Landscape Context
Viewshed mapping, photographic and virtual simulations, and field
inventories of views are useful tools for determining with reasonable
accuracy the visibility of the proposed project and for describing the
characteristics of the views as well as identifying distinctive features
within views (see Appendix D for more detail). Viewshed maps show
areas of potential project visibility based on digital-elevation modeling.
The modeling also can be used to determine the number of turbines that
would be visible from a par-

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ticular viewpoint. Actual visibility must be field-verified as trees,
buildings, and other objects may restrict views. Field inventories also are
necessary to document descriptive characteristics of the view.
Inventories normally focus on areas of public use within a 10-mile radius
of a project (Box 4-1). These include public roads, recreation areas, trails,
wilderness and natural areas, historic sites, village centers, and other
important scenic or cultural features identified in planning documents or
in public meetings.

Photomontages or simulations provide critical project information for

analysis. They should most usefully illustrate visually sensitive viewpoints
and a range of perspectives and distances. They should also illustrate
“worst-case” conditions to the greatest extent possible (clear weather
and leaf-off conditions). Excellent software is available for creating
simulations, but the technical requirements for accuracy should be
clearly understood and specified (see Appendix D).

Identifying impacts from private residences can be more difficult without

entering private property. Viewshed mapping can identify potential
visibility. Geographic Information System (GIS) data generally provide
additional information concerning existing vegetation and structures
along with their primary use (residence, camp, or business). Providing
regular notices to residents within a certain distance of the project can
offer a means of learning more about visibility from private properties.

BOX 4-1

Area of Assessment: 10-Mile Radius

The size of the area for analysis may vary from location to location
depending on the particular geography of the area and on the size of the
project being proposed. Modern wind turbines of 1.5-3 MW can be seen
in the landscape from 20 miles away or more (barring topographic or
vegetative screening), but as one moves away from the project itself, the
turbines appear smaller and smaller, and occupy an increasingly small
part of the overall view. The most significant impacts are likely to occur
within 3 miles of the project, with impacts possible from sensitive viewing
areas up to 8 miles from the project. At 10 miles away the project is less
likely to result in significant impacts unless it is located in or can be seen
from a particularly sensitive site or the project is in an area that might be
considered a regional focal point. Thus, a 10-mile radius provides a good
basis for analysis including viewshed mapping and field assessment for
current turbines. In some landscapes a 15-mile radius may be preferred if
highly sensitive viewpoints occur at these distances, the overall scale of
the project warrants a broader assessment, or if more than one project is
proposed in an area. In the western United States, landscape scale and
visibility may require a larger area of assessment.

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Scenic Resource Values and Sensitivity Levels
Some landscapes are more visually sensitive than others due to such
factors as numbers of viewers, viewer expectations, and identified scenic
values. Processes exist for determining the relative visual quality of
landscapes, the features that contribute to visual quality, and the
sensitivity levels of particular landscape features and their uses. These
are outlined in Appendix D and also can be found in methods used by the
USFS Visual Management System (USFS 1974) and its later Scenery
Management System (USFS 1995). Scenic resources values can also be
determined in public planning documents and through public meetings.

Assessment of Visual Impacts

Visual impacts vary considerably depending on the particular
characteristics of the project and its landscape context. Visibility of a
project is only one of many variables that should be examined. Significant
visual impacts generally arise because of the combination of many factors
such as proximity of views, sensitivity of views, duration of views, the
presence of scenic resources of statewide or national significance, and
the scale of the project in relation to its setting (see Appendix D). Some
examples of potentially significant impacts might include the following:

The project is located within a scenic context and is viewed in close

proximity, for an extended duration (e.g., broad area or linear miles) from
a highly sensitive use area, especially one for which the enjoyment of
natural scenery is important, and that is an identified resource of
statewide or national significance.

The project is located on a landform that is an important focal point that

is highly visible throughout the region.

The project is of a scale that would dominate views throughout a region

(or 10-mile assessment area) so that few other scenic natural views
would be possible without including turbines.

Mitigation Techniques
A well-designed project will incorporate a number of techniques into the
planning and design of the project to minimize visual impacts, including
sensitive siting and ensuring that project infrastructure is well screened
from view. Establishing “Best Practice” Guidelines can help ensure that
minimum standards are met before project permit applications are
submitted. Nevertheless, a thorough review by interested parties may
result in further adjustments. If the visual impacts are deemed
unacceptable, additional

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mitigation techniques can be explored (see Appendix D). In some cases,
however, mitigation techniques may not solve inherent concerns, and the
project may be found to have “undue aesthetic impacts.”

Determination of Unacceptable or Undue Aesthetic Impacts

Guidance on when projects may be found unacceptable tends to be
lacking or inadequate in many review processes. The information
gathered in the above process can inform this decision by providing a
detailed understanding of the particular issues involved in the visual
relationship between the project and its surrounding context. Appendix D
provides questions that could help determine the degree of visual
impact.

Among the factors to consider are:

Has the applicant provided sufficient information with which to make a

decision? These would include detailed information about the visibility of
the proposed project and simulations (photomontages) from sensitive
viewing areas. New York’s SEQRA process offers an example of clearly
identifying the information required and the mitigation measures that
need to be considered.

Are scenic resources of local, statewide, or national significance located

on or near the project site? Is the surrounding landscape unique in any
way? What landscape characteristics are important to the experience and
visual integrity of these scenic features?
Would these scenic resources be significantly degraded by the
construction of the proposed project?

Would the scale of the project interfere with the general enjoyment of
scenic landscape features throughout the region? Would the project
appear as a dominant feature throughout the region or study area?

Has the applicant employed reasonable mitigation measures in the

overall design and layout of the proposed project so that it fits
reasonably well into the character of the area?

Would the project violate a clear, written community standard intended

to protect the scenic or natural beauty of the area? Such standards can
be developed at the community, county, region, or state level.

Guidelines for Protecting Scenic Resources

Planning and Siting Guidelines
Siting guidelines that prospectively identify suitable and unsuitable
locations for wind-energy projects have been considered in many
regions. Problems with such guidelines arise, however. Each site is
visually different,

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local attitudes toward wind-energy development vary, and a wind
developer must grapple with several non-aesthetic factors in locating a
potentially developable site (e.g., willing property lessors, adequate wind
resources, access to transmission lines, and a market for the electricity
generated). Several combined approaches may be the most feasible. As
discussed in more detail in Chapter 5, they would include the following:

State and regional guidance providing criteria concerning site conditions

that may be inherently suited or unsuited to wind development due to
particular scenic values, and/or sensitivity levels that would raise
concerns requiring additional detailed study. Policies regarding aesthetic
conditions and wind development on state-owned lands would also be
appropriate.

Local and state planning documents that identify valuable scenic,

recreational, and cultural assets. Defining particular landscape attributes
or other public values that contribute to the resources is helpful when
making decisions concerning proposed landscape development
proposals.2 In addition, insofar as a “comprehensive plan” is voted on by
the local governing body, the plan may provide guidance to a developer
as an expression of the will of the community.

Statewide policies that address the relationship between the

development of wind energy and the protection of valuable scenic
resources.

Guidelines for Evaluating Cumulative Aesthetic Impacts

While wind-energy development is relatively new in the United States,
the potential for cumulative aesthetic impacts resulting either from
several new projects in a particular region or from expansion of existing
projects is likely to become an issue that may need to be addressed at
local, regional, and state levels. The following questions could help to
evaluate the potential for undue cumulative aesthetic impacts:

Clear and reasonably objective guidance is more useful than vague

statements such as “the ridgelines in our town are valuable to our rural
character and no development is allowed.” A statement that identifies
the resource(s), its particular valued attributes, and appropriate and
inappropriate development characteristics provides a clear written
community standard. Statements that exclude wind development are
generally not appropriate unless clear reasons are provided for this
exclusion. For example, “the Town of Jonesville is characterized by the
Green Range, which is composed of numerous hills and ridges. Several of
the hills stand out because of their distinct shapes, including Mount
Grant, Morris Mountain, and Jones Peak. Mount Grant is also valued for a
popular hiking trail and the spectacular views looking west…” Such
statements provide helpful guidance in decision making. In other words,
a project located on another ridge but out of the view from the summit
of Mount Grant might be acceptable, whereas a wind project located on
Mount Grant probably would not be.

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Are projects at scales appropriate to the landscape context?

Are turbine types and sizes uniform within the wind resource area and
over time?

How great is the offsite visibility of infrastructure?

Have areas that are inappropriate for wind projects due to terrain or
important scenic, cultural, or recreational values been identified and
described?

If the project is built as proposed, would each region retain undeveloped

scenic vistas?

Would any one region be unduly burdened with wind-energy projects?

Considerations for Improving the Evaluation of Aesthetics and

Implementation of Projects
Accurate and detailed information about the visual appearance of all
aspects of a proposed project is extremely important. Incomplete or
inaccurate information often results in public mistrust.

Generally, an area of 10 miles surrounding the project site is adequate for

viewshed mapping and field assessment for turbines of a size currently
used in the United States. In some landscapes, a 15- to 20-mile radius
may be preferred, especially if highly sensitive viewpoints occur at these
distances, the overall scale of the project warrants a broader assessment,
or more than one project is proposed in an area.

In evaluating the aesthetic impacts of wind-energy projects, the

discussion should focus not on whether people find wind-energy projects
attractive but on the characteristics of the landscapes in which the
projects will be located; the particular landscape features that contribute
to scenic quality; the relative sensitivity of viewing areas; and the degree
of degradation that would result to valued scenic resources, especially
documented scenic values.

Computerized viewshed analyses provide useful information about

potential project visibility but are best used as the basis for conducting
field investigations. Within forested areas, views are likely to be minimal
at best. The software allows more detailed analysis of numbers of
turbines that can be seen from any one point.

Photomontages and photo simulations are essential tools in

understanding project visibility, and appearance. Accurate
representations involve exact technical requirements, such as precise
camera focal lengths, Global Positioning System records of the photo
location, and digital elevation (GIS-based) software. The technologies are
changing, and it is important that simulations are accurately constructed
(Stanton 2005). Local planning boards and the general public should be
consulted in determining photo-

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montage locations. They should illustrate sensitive or scenic viewpoints
as well as “worst-case” situations such good weather conditions and the
most scenic perspectives.
An independent assessment of visual impacts by trained professionals
can provide more unbiased information than assessments provided on
behalf of either developers or other interested and affected parties, and
can provide useful comparisons with those assessments.

Meaningful public involvement is essential, and standards for providing

information and opportunities for involvement can be helpful (see also
Chapter 5).

Equally important are perceptions of clear benefits from wind-energy

projects. Aesthetic perceptions are linked to our sense of general
wellbeing. This has to do both with financial or material benefits
(contributions to local taxes, payments for use of property, offsets such
as protection of open space) and with making a real difference in terms
of reducing pollution and CO2 levels (Damborg 2002).

Towns, counties, regions, and states can provide helpful guidance to

developers and decision makers by identifying landscape resources of
value. This process is particularly useful when it is part of formally
adopted documents such as comprehensive land-use plans, but it can
also be used for developing guidelines.

Wind-energy projects will not necessarily conflict with areas of moderate

to high scenic quality, and may even appear more attractive in these
settings. Problems can arise when the setting is an important regional
focal point, or when a project will be seen close to highly sensitive
viewing areas where a natural or intact landscape is important.

The potential for cumulative impacts either from the location of several
projects within a region, or from future expansions of existing projects,
could become a problem. Cumulative impacts cannot be addressed at the
project or local scale, and so a regional or statewide perspective is
needed.

Scale is relative. The apparent size of a wind turbine in relation to its

surrounding is most relevant. Despite their large sizes, modern wind
turbines can fit well in many landscapes. Vertical scale is likely to be an
issue primarily if the turbines appear to overwhelm an important
ridgeline, focal point, or cultural feature that appears diminished in
prominence due to the relative height of the turbines.

The number of turbines or horizontal scale of wind projects will be an

important determination of reasonable fit within a region. A project that
dominates views throughout a region is more likely to have aesthetic
impacts judged unacceptable than one that permits other scenic or
natural views to remain unimpaired throughout the region. If residences,
especially those not directly benefiting from a proposed project, are
surrounded by wind turbines, adverse aesthetic impacts are likely to be
reported.

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Visual clutter often is adversely perceived and commonly results from the
combination of human-made elements in close association that are of
differing shapes, colors, forms, patterns, or scales. Generally simple and
uniform arrays or groupings of wind turbines are more visually appealing
than mixed types and sizes. Screening of associated infrastructure also is
important in reducing visual clutter.

Turbines with rotating blades have been shown to be more visually

appealing than those that are still. Maintenance or removal of poorly
functioning turbines can be important.

Turbine noise usually is most critical within a half-mile of a project. Efforts

to reduce potential noise impacts on nearby residents therefore may be
most important within that distance.

Decommissioning wind-energy projects appropriately would be

considered in initial permit approvals. While some wind-energy projects
may have longer life spans than originally anticipated, provisions are
needed for removal of site structures that no longer contribute to the
project, and for site restoration. Funding provided in escrow for
decommissioning is sometimes essential.

Obstruction lighting required on objects more than 200 feet tall often is
an extremely important aesthetic concern. Eliminating or reducing major
lighting impacts merits a high priority.

CULTURAL IMPACTS
Recreation
Wind-energy facilities create both positive and negative recreational
impacts. On the positive side, many wind-energy projects are listed as
tourist sights: some offer tours or provide information areas about the
facility and wind energy in general; and several are considering
incorporating visitor centers. Some developers allow open access to
project sites that may provide additional opportunities for hunting,
hiking, snowmobiling, and other activities.

There are two types of potential negative impacts on recreational

opportunities: direct and indirect. Direct impacts can result when existing
recreational activities are either precluded or require rerouting around a
wind-energy facility. Indirect impacts include aesthetic impacts
(addressed above) that may affect the recreational experience. These
impacts can occur when scenic or natural values are critical to the
recreational experience.

Most wind projects to date have been located on or proposed for private
land. Policies vary regarding public use around wind turbines on both
private and public lands. At project sites, access roads are often gated to

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prevent public access along roads, but projects are not usually fenced
from public use, although signage may discourage use.
Evaluating Recreational Impacts
In most cases, recreational uses will be identified in state and local
documents and often on maps, although there may be times when
recreational uses are only locally known. Some developers conduct
recreation surveys to determine recreational uses in the study area and
attitudes of users toward the development of wind-energy projects.
Recreational concerns and interests are often identified in informal
meetings and at public hearings. The USFS ranks recreational facilities as
shown in Table 4-1. This provides an example that may need to be
adapted by states or local communities in evaluating the impacts of wind-
energy facilities.

Most aesthetic and recreational-assessment methods identify relative

“sensitivity levels” of recreational uses related to factors such as the
amount of use and the expectations of users. A high sensitivity level does
not necessarily mean that a wind-energy facility should not be visible, but
instead is an indication that further study is needed. The USFS defines the
following levels for evaluating impacts on USFS recreational experiences:

Sensitivity Level 1 areas (highly sensitive areas) include all areas seen
from primary travel routes, use areas, and water bodies where a
minimum of one-fourth of the forest visitors have a major concern for
the scenic qualities. Areas specifically considered to be highly sensitive
include roads providing access to highly sensitive recreation sites (i.e.,
sites where a natural environment, non-motorized use, and quiet are
characteristic); National Scenic or Recreation Trails; heavily used seasonal
trails through areas recognized as scenic attractions; significant
recreational streams; water bodies with heavy fishing, boating,
swimming, and other uses highly dependent on viewing scenery;
wilderness and primitive areas; and observation sites along highly
sensitive travelways.

TABLE 4-1 U.S. Forest Service Recreational Facilities Rankings

Primary Use Areas/Travel Routes

Secondary Use Areas/Travel Routes

 National importance

Local importance

High use volume

Low use volume

Long use duration

Short use duration

Large size

Small size

SOURCE: Adapted from Visual Management System (USFS 1974) and the
later Scenery Management System (USFS 1995).

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National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2007.

Environmental Impacts of Wind-Energy Projects. Washington, DC: The
National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/11935.
Disadvantages of Wind Energy: Do
Wind Turbines Affect Health?
By: Julia Layton & Austin Henderson | Updated: Sep 23, 2023






 Hydropower, though a renewable energy source, can have negative environmental impacts, including:

Disrupted fish migration


Dams can block fish migration routes, which can harm fish populations.



Water quality


Dams and reservoirs can alter water temperature, chemistry, flow, and silt levels, which can harm river habitats.



Greenhouse gas emissions


The construction of dams and reservoirs requires large amounts of concrete and steel, which can produce emissions. Reservoirs can also produce
methane, a potent greenhouse gas, due to decaying organic matter in the water.



Regional climate change


Dams can alter local water cycles, which can impact precipitation and evapotranspiration patterns. These changes can alter vegetation and land use,
which can impact local weather patterns and temperatures.


Displacement of people and wildlife


Reservoirs can cover important natural areas, agricultural land, or archeological sites, which can lead to the relocation of people and wildlife.


Hydrology-dependent


Hydropower generation is controlled by weather and precipitation trends, so droughts can impact hydroelectric generation capacity.

Hydroelectric power includes both massive hydroelectric dams and small run-of-the-river plants. Large-
scale hydroelectric dams continue to be built in many parts of the world (including China and Brazil), but
it is unlikely that new facilities will be added to the existing U.S. fleet in the future.
Instead, the future of hydroelectric power in the United States will likely involve increased capacity at
current dams and new run-of-the-river projects. There are environmental impacts at both types of plants.

EXPLAINER

Benefits of Renewable Energy Use

Renewable energy—wind, solar, geothermal, hydroelectric, and biomass—provides substantial benefits
for our climate, our health, and our economy.
Land use
The size of the reservoir created by a hydroelectric project can vary widely, depending largely on the size
of the hydroelectric generators and the topography of the land. Hydroelectric plants in flat areas tend to
require much more land than those in hilly areas or canyons where deeper reservoirs can hold more
volume of water in a smaller space.
At one extreme, the large Balbina hydroelectric plant, which was built in a flat area of Brazil, flooded
2,360 square kilometers—an area the size of Delaware—and it only provides 250 MW of power
generating capacity (equal to more than 2,000 acres per MW) [1]. In contrast, a small 10 MW run-of-the-
river plant in a hilly location can use as little 2.5 acres (equal to a quarter of an acre per MW) [2].
Flooding land for a hydroelectric reservoir has an extreme environmental impact: it destroys forest,
wildlife habitat, agricultural land, and scenic lands. In many instances, such as the Three Gorges Dam in
China, entire communities have also had to be relocated to make way for reservoirs [3].

Wildlife impacts
Dammed reservoirs are used for multiple purposes, such as agricultural irrigation, flood control, and
recreation, so not all wildlife impacts associated with dams can be directly attributed to hydroelectric
power. However, hydroelectric facilities can still have a major impact on aquatic ecosystems. For
example, though there are a variety of methods to minimize the impact (including fish ladders and in-take
screens), fish and other organisms can be injured and killed by turbine blades.
Apart from direct contact, there can also be wildlife impacts both within the dammed reservoirs and
downstream from the facility. Reservoir water is usually more stagnant than normal river water. As a
result, the reservoir will have higher than normal amounts of sediments and nutrients, which can
cultivate an excess of algae and other aquatic weeds. These weeds can crowd out other river animal and
plant-life, and they must be controlled through manual harvesting or by introducing fish that eat these
plants [4]. In addition, water is lost through evaporation in dammed reservoirs at a much higher rate
than in flowing rivers.
In addition, if too much water is stored behind the reservoir, segments of the river downstream from the
reservoir can dry out. Thus, most hydroelectric operators are required to release a minimum amount of
water at certain times of year. If not released appropriately, water levels downstream will drop and
animal and plant life can be harmed. In addition, reservoir water is typically low in dissolved oxygen and
colder than normal river water. When this water is released, it could have negative impacts on
downstream plants and animals. To mitigate these impacts, aerating turbines can be installed to increase
dissolved oxygen and multi-level water intakes can help ensure that water released from the reservoir
comes from all levels of the reservoir, rather than just the bottom (which is the coldest and has the lowest
dissolved oxygen).

Life-cycle global warming emissions

Global warming emissions are produced during the installation and dismantling of hydroelectric power
plants, but recent research suggests that emissions during a facility’s operation can also be significant.
Such emissions vary greatly depending on the size of the reservoir and the nature of the land that was
flooded by the reservoir.
Small run-of-the-river plants emit between 0.01 and 0.03 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per
kilowatt-hour. Life-cycle emissions from large-scale hydroelectric plants built in semi-arid regions are
also modest: approximately 0.06 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour. However,
estimates for life-cycle global warming emissions from hydroelectric plants built in tropical areas or
temperate peatlands are much higher. After the area is flooded, the vegetation and soil in these areas
decomposes and releases both carbon dioxide and methane. The exact amount of emissions depends
greatly on site-specific characteristics. However, current estimates suggest that life-cycle emissions can
be over 0.5 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour [5,6].
To put this into context, estimates of life-cycle global warming emissions for natural gas generated
electricity are between 0.6 and 2 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour and estimates for
coal-generated electricity are 1.4 and 3.6 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalent per kilowatt-hour [7].
References:
[1] Fearnside, Phillip M. 1989. Brazil's Balbina Dam: Environment versus the legacy of the Pharaohs in
Amazonia. Environmental Management, July/Aug 1989, Volume 13, Issue 4, pp 401-423.
[2] National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). 2012. Renewable Electricity Futures Study. Hand,
M.M.; Baldwin, S.; DeMeo, E.; Reilly, J.M.; Mai, T.; Arent, D.; Porro, G.; Meshek, M.; Sandor, D. eds. 4
vols. NREL/TP-6A20-52409. Golden, CO: National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
[3] Yardley, Jim. November 19, 2007. Chinese Dam Projects Criticized for Their Human Costs. New York
Times.
[4] National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). 2012. Renewable Electricity Futures Study.
[5] IPCC, 2011: IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation.
Prepared by Working Group III of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [O. Edenhofer, R.
Pichs-Madruga, Y. Sokona, K. Seyboth, P. Matschoss, S. Kadner, T. Zwickel, P. Eickemeier, G. Hansen, S.
Schlömer, C. von Stechow (eds)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New
York, NY, USA, 1075 pp. (Chapter 5 & 9).
[6] National Academy of Sciences. 2010. Electricity from Renewable Resources: Status, Prospects, and
Impediments. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Online at
http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=12619
[7] IPCC, 2011: IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigat

90 percent of proposed Canadian hydroelectric projects may expose local

indigenous communities to methylmercury

In a new study, Harvard University researchers find that more than 90 percent of potential new Canadian
hydroelectric projects are likely to increase concentrations of the neurotoxin methylmercury in food webs near
indigenous communities.

The research forecasts potential human health impacts of hydroelectric projects and identifies areas where
mitigation efforts, such as removing the top layer of soil before flooding, would be most helpful. The works uses
factors such as soil carbon and reservoir design to forecast methylmercury increases for 22 hydroelectric
reservoirs under consideration or construction in Canada.

“The human and ecological impacts associated with increased methylmercury exposures from flooding for
hydroelectric projects have only been understood retrospectively, after the damage is done,” said Elsie
Sunderland, the Thomas D. Cabot Associate Professor of Environmental Science and Engineering at
the Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences (SEAS) and the Harvard T.H.
Chan School for Public Health and senior author of the study. “This paper establishes a prospective
framework for forecasting the impacts of proposed hydroelectric development on local communities.”

The research is published in Environmental Science & Technology.

Muskrat Falls in
Labrador, Canada, is the site of the upcoming Muskrat Falls hydroelectric facility. Credit: Prentiss
Balcom/Harvard SEAS

Microbes convert naturally occurring mercury in soils into potent methylmercury when land is flooded, such as
when dams are built for hydroelectric projects. The methylmercury moves into the water and animals,
magnifying as it moves up the food chain. This makes the toxin especially dangerous for indigenous
 communities living near hydroelectric projects because they tend to have diets rich in local fish, birds, and
marine mammals such as seals.

To understand how methylmercury impacts human populations, the Harvard team studied three Inuit
communities downstream from the proposed Muskrat Falls hydroelectric facility in Labrador. The project will
require the flooding of land bordering the Churchill River, upstream from an estuarine fjord called Lake Melville.

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

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

Mercury pollution, still spreading



August 9, 20124 min read

Sunderland and her team have been working in this region since 2012, conducting a multipronged
investigation into how methylmercury accumulates in the ecosystem and how it may impact
communities who rely on the ecosystem for food and resources.

To build the framework, the team collected extensive measurements of how different forms of mercury cycle
through this ecosystem and formalized a mathematical model to forecast post-flooding methylmercury levels in
the Churchill River and downstream estuary. They then used measurements of levels of methylmercury in the
food web and unique chemical tracers to determine where each food item, such as salmon or trout, obtained its
methylmercury to project levels of the toxin in different species of fish and wildlife. Finally, the team studied the
diets and baseline methylmercury exposures of more than 1,000 Inuit who live on Lake Melville’s shore to
understand how changes in their food would affect individual exposures.
“After collecting all of this information, we can rapidly see how all these people’s exposures will change with the
increased methylmercury levels in local wildlife and who will be most affected in this population,” said Ryan
Calder, first author of the paper and graduate student in the Sunderland Lab.

The project will

require the flooding of land bordering the Churchill River (pictured). Credit: Prentiss Balcom/Harvard SEAS

The team found that while there were large differences in exposure to methylmercury across the population, on
average exposure to the toxin will double after the upstream area is flooded. While some people are still below
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s reference dose for methylmercury, any increase in exposure is
associated with increased risks of cardiovascular disease and neurodevelopmental delays in children.

The people at the highest risk of mercury exposure are those who eat locally caught wildlife nearly every day,
especially river fish, where the increase of methylmercury is expected to be highest. Pregnant women and
children are especially at risk for health impacts of methylmercury.

“For a population that relies heavily on locally caught food, the increase in exposure is drastic,” said Calder. “We
see substantial fractions of this population whose pre-flooding methylmercury exposure is at or below regulatory
thresholds and post-flooding are pushed way above them without mitigation measures. What our study allows is
time to consider mitigation measures that will reduce these potential exposures for the most vulnerable
people.”

The team applied the prospective framework to the 22 other proposed hydroelectric sites in Canada, plugging in
publically available, site-specific data. They found that 11 sites had methylmercury concentrations equal to or
greater than those in Muskrat Falls.

“Our research suggests that low-impact hydroelectric projects are possible with careful site selection. Mitigation
measures such as removing topsoil that provides the substrate for methylation in these ecosystems may need
to be considered in areas where forecasted exposures are high,” said Sunderland. “This research opens the door
to anticipating environmental impacts before the damage is done and moving forward with green energy
alternatives in a manner that does not impose an unfair burden on nearby indigenous communities.”

The research was supported by the U.S. National Science Foundation, Canada’s Northern Contaminants
Program, ArcticNet Inc., Tides Canada’s Oak Arctic Marine Fund Program, the Nunatsiavut Government, and the
Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada.

Environmental impacts
Unlike fossil fuel power plants that may emit GHGs, GEs have a modest influence on the environment. The development of better
technology and the recognition of a need for environmental protection has significantly reduced GE impacts [34]. Here,
environmental impacts of GEs are reviewed in comparison with alternatives. In the first section, the environmental benefits of GE
such as reduced gas emissions and a low land-use footprint are studied. Then, the challenges facing this type of energy such

Economic investigation of geothermal systems

The main factor that investors consider in making a decision on investing in development of resource is the economic feasibility and
financial profitability. In the case of GE, the situation is more complicated because geothermal power plants typically have longer
payback times (about 5–7 years) and higher investment costs than other renewable-energy power plants [93]. Moreover, a
geothermal resource size and quality is unknown before the completion of the well drilling. As a result, the risk

Social impacts
The social perspective is one of the primary considerations, which can accelerate the selection cycle for adoption and support for
innovation. The impact on society and the prosperity of the community and its individuals are defined as social impacts (SIs).
Another meaning of SIs can be defined as any activity may have consequences on their society which can change or affect people's
lifestyles, business, communication, and so on. These activities can also have cultural impacts by changing the

Barriers and strategies

 Similar to other renewable energy sources, the efficiency of a geothermal plant is affected by a series of obstacles and problems.
For example, one of the most considerable environmental impacts is geological hazards and the most important is seismicity. The
extraction of geothermal fluid also has problems such as land subsidence, landslides, and lowering of water levels, which has led to
the loss of thermal features such as hot springs. The wells activity has the highest environmental effects,

Management of geothermal resources

Geothermal resources management involves controlled extraction to maximize the returns without excessive rapid depletion.
Deciding on different periods and improving conditions, such as optimizing production strategy, is necessary for proper
management [151,152]. Experts in geothermal resources should explore the possibilities for different periods of their actions. Often
the geothermal resources production capacity is unclear but unexpectedly responds to long-term use. Due to the uncertainties

GE future
One of the most important challenges in use of GE is the seismicity hazards. In the past years, various devices have been invented
to be able to predict earthquakes and land subsidence as well as possible and reduce their risks. With the growth of big data and
artificial intelligence in the last decade, it is expected to help geothermal power plants reduce their damage. In addition to these
sciences, the development of operating methods and more efficient power plants like hybrid power plants,

Conclusion and future outlook

With the compelling need to reduce fossil fuel emissions, the use of renewable energy in the world has expanded and GE is being
increasingly considered as an important potential contributor. In addition to the benefits of being a renewable resource with low
carbon GHG emissions, the land footprint of GEs is minimum. Geological hazards are considered as the most important
environmental impacts on these plants. Due to GE in protected areas, management measures and legal measures can reduce the

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

References (193)

 C. Wolf et al.

Environmental effects of shifts in a regional heating mix through variations in the utilization of solid biofuels
Disadvantages of biomass
Costs
Outside of the upfront costs to get the plants up and running, additional costs are associated with extracting, transporting, and
storing biomass before electricity generation. This is an added cost that other renewable technologies don't need to account for, as
they rely on free, onsite resources (tides, sunshine, wind, etc.) for fuel.

Costs can vary widely from biomass energy plant to biomass energy plant, and in some cases, bioenergy has the potential to be cost-
competitive with solar and wind. Overall costs largely depend on the type of biomass and how it's converted to electricity. That said,
even though biomass is often more expensive than alternative renewable energy options, the most expensive types of bioenergy are
still on par with or cheaper than fossil fuels: bioenergy does not require drilling into the earth, which carries a high capital (and
environmental) cost.

Space requirements
Biomass energy plants require a lot of space, limiting the areas where you can place a plant. Often, companies also need to put these
plants near their source of biomass to cut down on transportation and storage costs.

Additional space may also be necessary to grow the organic matter; if power companies are growing crops or trees for bioenergy
rather than using agricultural waste, this contributes to a larger land footprint per unit of electricity production.

Adverse environmental impacts

Like many other forms of energy, producing electricity from biomass can come with several environmental downsides.

For one, depending on the type of biomass used to generate electricity, unsustainable bioenergy practices can result in deforestation
over time. Companies that clear-cut forests to provide material for biomass energy plants harm the natural environment and disrupt
the habitats of plants and animals in the process. Clearing plants and organic material from the earth can also impact the
surrounding soil's health, which requires compost and fertilization biomass.

Growing crops for the sole purpose of bioenergy resources also requires a good amount of water: all plants need water to grow, and
continuous irrigation of these resources can make an area more vulnerable to drought.

Additionally, while often viewed as an environmentally friendly alternative to coal, producing electricity from biomass does release
pollutants into the air, such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds, and more. In some cases, the emissions
and pollutants from biomass can be worse than those from fossil fuel resources. These pollutants have adverse impacts on
environmental and human health.

The environmental and health consequences of bioenergy can be minimized through several efforts, including more sustainable land-
use practices, re-planting efforts, and technological innovation.

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