GEG 126

ENGINEERING
ALGEBRA II

P. 1
 GEG 126: ENGINEERING ALGEBRA II
• The real and the complex number systems
• Mathematical Induction Matrices and determinants
• Complex numbers: representations and algebra.
• Complex functions: Roots of Unity
• De-Moivre’s theorem and applications
• Basic matrix, theory and algebra
• Systems of linear equations:
• Elementary row-reduction,
• Types and methods of solution echelon form
• Application of matrices
• Introduction to systems of inequalities and linear programming.
P. 2
 BASIC MATRIX:
Theory and Algebra

Micheal Ogundero,
Dept. of Systems Engineering,
University of Lagos

P. 3
1.1 Special Matrices
A. Transpose of a Matrix:
If A = [aij] is 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix, then the matrix of order 𝑛 × 𝑚 obtained by
interchanging the rows and columns of A is called the transpose of A.
It is denoted At or A’.

For example, if
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝐴 = 𝑑 𝑒 𝑓
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖

Then,
𝑡
𝑎 𝑑 𝑔
𝐴
= 𝑏 𝑒 ℎ
𝑐 𝑓 𝑖

P. 4
1.1 Special Matrices

For example, if

1 2 3
𝑀 = 4 5 6
7 8 9

Then,

1 4 7
𝑀𝑡 = 2 5 8
3 6 9

P. 5
1.1 Special Matrices
B. Symmetric Matrix:
A square matrix A is called symmetric if A = At

For example, if

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝐴 = 𝑏 𝑒 𝑓
𝑐 𝑓 𝑖
Then,

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝐴𝑡 = 𝑏 𝑒 𝑓 = 𝐴
𝑐 𝑓 𝑖

Thus, A is symmetric

P. 6
1.1 Special Matrices
C. Skew Symmetric Matrix
A square matrix A is called skew symmetric if A = -At
For example, if
𝑎 −𝑏 −𝑐
𝐵 = 𝑏 𝑒 −𝑓
𝑐 𝑓 𝑖
Then,
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝐵𝑡 = −𝑏 𝑒 𝑓
−𝑐 −𝑓 𝑖

𝑎 −𝑏 −𝑐
= (−1) 𝑏 𝑒 −𝑓
𝑐 𝑓 𝑖

𝐵𝑡 = −𝐵
Thus, B is skew symmetric P. 7
1.1 Special Matrices
D. Singular and Non-singular Matrices
A square matrix 𝐴 is called singular if |𝐴| = 0 and is non-singular if

|𝐴| ≠ 0

For example, if
3 2
𝐴 =
9 6

Then,

𝐴 = 3∗6 −2∗9
= 0

Therefore, A is singular
P. 8
1.1 Special Matrices
And if,

3 1 6
𝐴 = −1 3 2
1 0 0
Then,

1 6 3 6 3 1
|𝐴| = 1 −0 +0
3 2 −1 2 −1 3

= 1(2 − 18) − 0(6 + 6) + 0(9 + 1)

= −16

≠ 0

Thus, A is non-singular
P. 9
1.1 Special Matrices
Example:
𝑘−2 1
Find 𝑘 if 𝐴 = is singular.
5 𝑘+2

Since 𝐴 is singular so,

𝑘−2 1
=0
5 𝑘+2

(𝑘 − 2)(𝑘 + 2) – 5 = 0
𝑘2 − 4 − 5 = 0
𝑘2 − 9 = 0
𝑘2 = 9
𝑘 = ±3

P. 10
1.1 Special Matrices
D. Adjoint of a Matrix
Let 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗) be a square matrix of order 𝑛 × 𝑛 and (𝑐𝑖𝑗) is a matrix
obtained by replacing each element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 by its corresponding cofactor 𝑐𝑖𝑗
then (𝑐𝑖𝑗)𝑡 is called the adjoint of 𝐴.
It is written as 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴.

For example, if
1 0 −1
𝐴 = 1 3 1
0 1 2

Cofactors are:
A11 = 5, A12 = -2, A13 = 1
A21 = -1, A22 = 2, A33 = -1
A21 = 3, A22 = -2, A33 = 3
P. 11
1.1 Special Matrices

Matrix of cofactors is

5 −2 1
𝐶 = −1 2 −1
3 −2 3
5 −1 3
𝐶 𝑡 = −2 2 −2
1 −1 3

Hence,
5 −1 3
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = 𝐶 𝑡 = −2 2 −2
1 −1 3

P. 12
1.1 Special Matrices
Adjoint of a 2x2 Matrix

Given a 2x2 matrix,

𝑎 𝑏
𝑆𝑎𝑦 𝐴 =
𝑐 𝑑
The cofactors are:
a11 = d a12 = -c a21 = -b a22 = a

The matrix of cofactors is:

𝑑 −𝑐
𝐶 =
−𝑏 𝑎

𝑑 −𝑏
𝐶𝑡 =
−𝑐 𝑎

P. 13
1.1 Special Matrices
Recall that
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = 𝐶 𝑡

𝒅 −𝒃
=
−𝒄 𝒂

This is a special and shorter process for 2x2 matrices.

The adjoint of higher order matrices are found using the process
shown earlier.

P. 14
1.1 Special Matrices
Example:

Get the adjoint of the 2x2 matrix below

7 −3
𝐵=
5 −4
This involves two steps:
•Interchange the elements on the major diagonal
•Multiply the elements on the minor diagonal by -1

Therefore,
−4 3
𝐵𝑡 =
−5 7

P. 15
1.1 Special Matrices
Example:
Get the adjoint of the matrix shown below:

1 2 3
𝐵 = 4 5 6
7 8 9

First, we get the cofactors

5 6 4 6 4 5
C11 = C12 = - C13 =
8 9 7 9 7 8
= -3 =6 = -3

2 3 1 3 1 2
C21 = - C22 = C23 = -
8 9 7 9 7 8
=6 = -12 =6
P. 16
1.1 Special Matrices
2 3 1 3 1 2
C31 = C32 = - C33 =
5 6 4 6 4 5
= -3 =6 = -3

The matrix of cofactors is shown below:

−3 6 −3
𝐶 = 6 −12 6
−3 6 −3
−3 6 −3
𝐶 𝑡 = 6 −12 6
−3 6 −3
Therefore,

−3 6 −3
𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐵 = 6 −12 6
−3 6 −3 P. 17
1.1 Special Matrices
E. Inverse of a Matrix
If 𝐴 is a non-singular matrix, then
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴
𝐴−1 =
|𝐴|

For example, given the matrix below:

3 4
𝐴 =
1 2
Then,
2 −4
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 =
−1 3
And
3 4
|𝐴| =
1 2
= 6– 4
= 2
P. 18
1.1 Special Matrices
Hence,
𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴
𝐴−1 =
|𝐴|

1 2 −4
=
2 −1 3

Alternatively:
For a non-singular matrix 𝐴 of order (𝑛 × 𝑛), if there exists another
matrix 𝐵 of order (𝑛 × 𝑛) such that their product is the identity matrix 𝐼
of order (𝑛 × 𝑛)
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐼

Then 𝐵 is said to be the inverse (or reciprocal) of 𝐴 and is written as

𝐵 = 𝐴−1
P. 19
1.1 Special Matrices
Example:
1 −3 7 3
If 𝐴 = and 𝐵 = then show that 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐼 and
−2 7 2 1
therefore 𝐵 = 𝐴−1

1 −3 7 3 1 0
𝐴𝐵 = =
−2 7 2 1 0 1
And
7 3 1 −3 1 0
𝐵𝐴 = =
2 1 −2 7 0 1

Therefore,
𝐵 = 𝐴−1
7 3
=
2 1

P. 20
1.1 Special Matrices
Example:
Find the inverse, if it exists, of the matrix

0 −2 −3
𝐴 = 1 3 3
−1 −2 −2

|𝐴| = 0 + 2(−2 + 3) – 3(−2 + 3)

= 2−3
= −1
Since |𝐴| is not 0, therefore the solution exists

Cofactors of 𝑨 are:
A11 = 0 A12 = 1 A13 = 1
A21 = 2 A22 = -3 A23 = 2
A31 = 3 A32 = -3 A33 = 2 P. 21
1.1 Special Matrices
Transpose of matrix of cofactors is

0 2 3
𝐴𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = 𝐶’ = −1 −3 −3
1 2 2

So
1
𝐴−1 = 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴
𝐴

0 2 3
1
= −1 −3 −3
−1
1 2 2

0 −2 −3
= 1 3 3
−1 −2 −2
P. 22
1.2 Properties of the Determinant
The following properties of determinants are frequently useful in their
evaluation:

1. Interchanging the corresponding rows and columns of a determinant

does not change its value (𝒊. 𝒆. |𝑨| = |𝑨’|)
For example, consider a determinant

𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
|𝐴| = 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3

= 𝑎1(𝑏2𝑐3 – 𝑏3𝑐2) – 𝑏1(𝑎2𝑐3 – 𝑎3𝑐2) + 𝑐1(𝑎2𝑏3 – 𝑎3𝑏2)

P. 23
1.2 Properties of the Determinant
Now again consider

𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
|𝐵| = 𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3

Expanding along the first column gives:

|𝐵| = 𝑎1(𝑏2𝑐3 – 𝑏3𝑐2) – 𝑏1(𝑎2𝑐3 – 𝑎3𝑐2) + 𝑐1(𝑎2𝑏3 – 𝑎3𝑏2)

Which is same as |𝐴|

So |𝐵| = |𝐴|

P. 24
1.2 Properties of the Determinant

2. If two rows or two columns of a determinant are interchanged, the

sign of the determinant is changed but its absolute value is unchanged.

For example, if
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
|𝐴| = 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3

P. 25
1.2 Properties of the Determinant
Consider the determinant:

𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
|𝐵| = 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3

Expanding along the second row gives:

|𝐵| = −𝑎1(𝑏2𝑐3 – 𝑏3𝑐2) + 𝑏1(𝑎2𝑐3 – 𝑎3𝑐2) – 𝑐1(𝑎2𝑏3 – 𝑎3𝑏2)

= −[𝑎1(𝑏2𝑐3 – 𝑏3𝑐2) − 𝑏1(𝑎2𝑐3 – 𝑎3𝑐2) + 𝑐1(𝑎2𝑏3 – 𝑎3𝑏2)]

The term in the bracket is same as |𝐴|

Therefore, |𝐵| = −|𝐴|

P. 26
1.2 Properties of the Determinant

3. If every element of a row or column of a determinant is zero, the

value of the determinant is zero.

For example, if

0 0 0
|𝐴| = 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3

= 0

P. 27
1.2 Properties of the Determinant

4. If two rows or columns of a determinant are identical, the value of

the determinant is zero.

For example, if
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
|𝐴| = 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3

= 𝑎1𝑏1𝑐3 − 𝑎1𝑏3𝑐1 – 𝑎1𝑏1𝑐3 + 𝑎3𝑏1𝑐1 + 𝑎1𝑏3𝑐1 – 𝑎3𝑏1𝑐1

= 0

P. 28
1.2 Properties of the Determinant
5. If every element of a row or column of a determinant is multiplied by
the same k, then the value of the determinant is multiplied by that
constant.
For example, if
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑘𝑎1 𝑘𝑏1 𝑘𝑐1
𝐴 = 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 And 𝐵 = 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3

|𝐵| = 𝑘𝑎1(𝑏2𝑐3 – 𝑏3𝑐2) – 𝑘𝑏1(𝑎2𝑐3 – 𝑎3𝑐2) + 𝑘𝑐1(𝑎2𝑏3 – 𝑎3𝑏2)

= 𝑘 𝑎1 𝑏2𝑐3 – 𝑏3𝑐2 – 𝑏1 𝑎2𝑐3 – 𝑎3𝑐2 – 𝑐1 𝑎2𝑏3 – 𝑎3𝑏2

𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
= 𝑘 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3

= 𝑘|𝐴|
P. 29
1.2 Properties of the Determinant
6. The value of a determinant is not changed if each element of any row
or of any column is added to (or subtracted from a constant) multiple of
the corresponding element of another row or column.
For example, if
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
|𝐴| = 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3

Consider a matrix,

𝑎1 + 𝑘𝑎2 𝑏1 + 𝑘𝑏2 𝑐1 + 𝑘𝑐2

𝐵 = 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3

P. 30
1.2 Properties of the Determinant

= 𝑎1 + 𝑘𝑎2 𝑏2𝑐3 – 𝑏3𝑐2 – 𝑏1 + 𝑘𝑏2 𝑎2𝑐3 – 𝑎3𝑐2

– (𝑐1 + 𝑘𝑐2)(𝑎2𝑏3 – 𝑎3𝑏2)

+[𝑘𝑎2(𝑏2𝑐3 – 𝑏3𝑐2) – 𝑘𝑏2(𝑎2𝑐3 – 𝑎3𝑐2) – 𝑘𝑐2(𝑎2𝑏3 – 𝑎3𝑏2)]

𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
= 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 + 𝑘 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3

𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
= 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 + 𝑘(0)
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3

= |𝐴|
P. 31
1.2 Properties of the Determinant
7. The determinant of a diagonal matrix is equal to the product of its
diagonal elements.

For example, if
𝑎 0 0
|𝐴| = 0 𝑏 0
0 0 𝑐

= 𝑎𝑏𝑐

P. 32
1.2 Properties of the Determinant
8. The determinant of the product of two matrices is equal to the
product of the determinant of the two matrices. That is

|𝐴𝐵| = |𝐴||𝐵|
For example, if
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑏11 𝑏12
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 =
𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑏21 𝑏22

𝑎11𝑏11 + 𝑎12𝑏21 𝑎11𝑏12 + 𝑎12𝑏22

Then |𝐴𝐵| =
𝑎21𝑏11 + 𝑎22𝑏21 𝑎21𝑏12 + 𝑎22𝑏22

= (𝑎11𝑏11 + 𝑎12𝑏21)( 𝑎21𝑏12 + 𝑎22𝑏22)

−( 𝑎11𝑏12 + 𝑎12𝑏22)(𝑎21𝑏11 + 𝑎22𝑏21

−𝑎12𝑏22 ∙ 𝑎21𝑏11 + 𝑎12𝑏22 ∙ 𝑎22𝑏21

P. 33
1.2 Properties of the Determinant
= 𝑎11𝑏11 ∙ 𝑎22𝑏22 + 𝑎12𝑏21 ∙ 𝑎21𝑏12
−𝑎11𝑏12 ∙ 𝑎22𝑏21 − 𝑎12𝑏22 ∙ 𝑎21𝑏11

And,
|𝐴| = 𝑎11𝑎22 − 𝑎12𝑎21

|𝐵| = 𝑏11𝑏22 − 𝑏12𝑏21

|𝐴||𝐵| = (𝑎11𝑎22 − 𝑎12𝑎21)( 𝑏11𝑏22 − 𝑏12𝑏21)

= 𝑎11𝑏11 ∙ 𝑎22𝑏22 + 𝑎12𝑏21 ∙ 𝑎21𝑏12 − 𝑎11𝑏12 ∙ 𝑎22𝑏21

− 𝑎12𝑏22 ∙ 𝑎21𝑏11

Therefore,

|𝐴𝐵| = |𝐴||𝐵|
P. 34
1.2 Properties of the Determinant
9. The determinant in which each element in any row, or column,
consists of two terms, then the determinant can be expressed as the
sum of two other determinants.
i.e.
𝑎1 + 𝑘1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑘1 𝑏1 𝑐1
𝑎2 + 𝑘2 𝑏2 𝑐2 = 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 + 𝑘2 𝑏2 𝑐2
𝑎3 + 𝑘3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑘3 𝑏3 𝑐3

Proof:
Expanding along the first column gives
𝐿. 𝐻. 𝑆 = [(𝑎1 + 𝑘1)(𝑏2𝑐3 – 𝑏3𝑐2) – (𝑎2 + 𝑘2)(𝑏1𝑐3 – 𝑏3𝑐1)
– (𝑎3 + 𝑘3)(𝑏1𝑐2 – 𝑏2𝑐1)]

= [𝑎1(𝑏2𝑐3 – 𝑏3𝑐2) – 𝑎2(𝑏1𝑐3 – 𝑏3𝑐1) – 𝑎3(𝑏1𝑐2 – 𝑏2𝑐1)]

+ [𝑘1(𝑏2𝑐3 – 𝑏3𝑐2) – 𝑘2(𝑏1𝑐3 – 𝑏3𝑐1) – 𝑘3(𝑏1𝑐2 – 𝑏2𝑐1)]

P. 35
(Cont’d)
1.2 Properties of the Determinant
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑘1 𝑏1 𝑐1
= 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 + 𝑘2 𝑏2 𝑐2
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑘3 𝑏3 𝑐3

= 𝑅. 𝐻. 𝑆
Similarly,

𝑎1 + 𝑘1 𝑏1 + 𝑙1 𝑐1
𝑎2 + 𝑘2 𝑏2 + 𝑙2 𝑐2
𝑎3 + 𝑘3 𝑏3 + 𝑙3 𝑐3

𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑎1 𝑙1 𝑐1
= 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 + 𝑎2 𝑙2 𝑐2
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑎3 𝑙3 𝑐3
𝑘1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑘1 𝑙1 𝑐1
+ 𝑘2 𝑏2 𝑐2 + 𝑘2 𝑙2 𝑐2
𝑘3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑘3 𝑙3 𝑐3
P. 36
1.2 Properties of the Determinant
And in the same way, to expand

𝑎1 + 𝑘1 𝑏1 + 𝑙1 𝑐1 + 𝑚1
𝑎2 + 𝑘2 𝑏2 + 𝑙2 𝑐2 + 𝑚2
𝑎3 + 𝑘3 𝑏3 + 𝑙3 𝑐3 + 𝑚3

1. We first get the matrix without the additional terms.

2. We then add all possible matrices gotten by replacing just one
column (or rows) with the corresponding additional terms. This
gives three matrices.
3. We then add all possible matrices gotten by replacing just two
columns (or rows) with the corresponding additional terms. This
gives three matrices.
4. We then add the matrix gotten by replacing all the columns (or
rows) by with the corresponding additional terms.

P. 37
1.2 Properties of the Determinant
Therefore,
𝑎1 + 𝑘1 𝑏1 + 𝑙1 𝑐1 + 𝑚1
𝑎2 + 𝑘2 𝑏2 + 𝑙2 𝑐2 + 𝑚2
𝑎3 + 𝑘3 𝑏3 + 𝑙3 𝑐3 + 𝑚3

𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑘1 𝑏1 𝑐1 𝑎1 𝑙1 𝑐1 𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑚1
= 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 + 𝑘2 𝑏2 𝑐2 + 𝑎2 𝑙2 𝑐2 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑚2
𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑘3 𝑏3 𝑐3 𝑎3 𝑙3 𝑐3 𝑎3 𝑏3 𝑚3
𝑘1 𝑙1 𝑐1 𝑎1 𝑙1 𝑚1 𝑘1 𝑏1 𝑚1 𝑘1 𝑙1 𝑚1
+ 𝑘2 𝑙2 𝑐2 + 𝑎2 𝑙2 𝑚2 + 𝑘2 𝑏2 𝑚2 + 𝑘2 𝑙2 𝑚2
𝑘3 𝑙3 𝑐3 𝑎3 𝑙3 𝑚3 𝑘3 𝑏3 𝑚3 𝑘3 𝑙3 𝑚3

P. 38