Ecology and Environment

(5 marks)

BY
KISHOR REGMI (K.R)
FACULTY OF NAME
Kishor Regmi
 Ecology – Interaction and relationship between
living organism and Environment

• First coined by Ernst Haeckel

• Authentic use by Reiter
• Made of Two Greek words Oikos (House) and logos (to study)
• Father of Modern Ecology –EP Odum
• Warming wrote first textbook on Plant ecology.
Ernst Haeckel
 Branches of Ecology
Autecology: Individual / population and Environment Relation
Synecology : Community and Environment Relation
Gene Ecology: Study of Genetic Variability
Paleoecology: Relationship between living organism and environment
in Past
Applied Ecology :Agriculture, Horticulture, Forestry etc
Systems Ecology : Application of Mathematical Principles

Population Ecology Community Ecology

(Autecology) (Synecology)
Ecological Hierarchy

Population = Grouping of Same species

Community = Grouping of different
species
Ecosystem = Abiotic + Biotic
Biome = Large Area with similar climate
Biosphere (Ecosphere) = Area covered by
Plants and Animals
Species = must inbreed
BIOMES
Taiga – Largest Terrestrial
biome,Coniferous/Boreal forest
Tundra – Northern Treeless Biome,low
biodiversity low,low productivity.
Savanna- scattered trees,Acacia,Plants called
Psilophytes
Tropical Rainforest- High
biodiversity/Rainfall/Productivity,Stratification
,Epiphytes common,Crown shyness
Temperate Grassland- Prairies of NA,Steppes
of Russia,Velds of S.Africa,Pampas of SA.
Muskegs-water filled depression in tundra
Latossols-Red coloured nutrient rich fertile in Tropical R Forest
Oasis- fertile land in desert
Lentic – stagnant /standing water
Lotic- running water
 Ecological Terms
▪ Ecotype: Genetic dissimilar but morphology similar
▪ Ecads/Ecophenes: Morphology dissimilar but genetic similar
▪ Ecological Niche: coined by Joseph Grinnel, functional role of an organism, No 2 species share same
ecological niche by Gauss law of competitive exclusion
▪ Ecotone: Transition Zone between 2 ecosystem. Eg ; Esturarine( freshwater/Marine)
▪ Keystone species: High impact on a particular ecosystem, define/influence ecosystem
▪ Flagship species: Act as an ambassador, icon or symbol
▪ Carrying capacity: The maximum capacity of an area which can sustain a certain population size.
▪ Biotic Potential:The maximum reproductive capacity of an organism under optimum environmental
conditions
▪ Phytotron: Enclosed research greenhouse
▪ Lotka-Volterra equations are predator-prey equations used to describe the dynamics of a
biological system in which two species interact.
▪ R-selection is a form of selection that occurs in an environment with plentiful resources and it tends to
favour individuals that reproduce early, quickly and in large numbers.
▪ K-selection occurs when a population nears the carrying capacity of the environment.
▪ Allopatry speciation = caused by Geographical isolation
▪ Sympatry speciation= caused by Reproductive isolation/Polyploidy.
▪ Endemic species, any species whose geographic range or distribution is confined to a single given area

Invasive species: introduced species, alien species, or exotic species

Eg. Mikania macrantha, Lantana camera

Eichhornia crassipes
▪ Population Density : nNumber of individuals that are present per unit area or volume at a specific point
of time
Natality = Birth rate Mortality= death rate Immigration = In Emmigration = Out
Population Growth Models
➢ Exponential Growth- Unlimited supply of food and resources ,J shaped curve.
Eg.Insect,Annual plants
➢ Logistic Growth- Logistic growth is depicted by a sigmoid curve. This is also known as
Verhulst- Pearl Logistic Growth.Eg. human population growth
ECOSYSTEM (ECOLOGICAL SERVICES)
• Provisioning, such as the production of
food and water
• Regulating, such as the control by climate
and disease
• Supporting, such as nutrient cycle and crop
pollination
• Cultural, such as spiritual and recreational
benefits

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Ecological Factors:
▪ Climatic Factors: Stomata open at day- photoactive
Light Heliophytes: Sun loving plants Stomata open at night- scotoactive
Littoral zone- at the edge
Sciophytes: Shade loving Plants
Limnetic zone- upto 40m
Etiolated : Grown on total Darkness Profundal zone- no light reach
Long day plant- lettuce,spinach
Short day plant - Xanthium.
Temperature Day Neutral- Tomato
Erythermal: Tolerate wide range of temperature.
Stenothermal: Tolerate narrow range of temperature.
Microtherm: Grow in low temperature. Taiga
Megatherm: Grow in High temperature . Tropical
Mesotherm: Grow in High and low temperature
Hekistotherm: Grow in very low temperature. Tundra
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Some organisms are tolerant of a wide range of salinities (euryhaline) but others are restricted to a
narrow range (stenohaline).

Wind : speed of wind measured by Anemometer,High wind -stomata close no

transpiration,low/moderate wind-stomata open
Atmospheric Humidity: Amount of moisture in atmosphere. Rate of transpiration is inversly
proportion to relative humidity. if temp.high RH low . Instrument is psychrometer or
Hygrometer.
Rainfall : most important determining factor of Vegetation. High rainfall in Tropical rain forest
>200 cm,desert <10 cm.

Allens Law: Extremities of mammals like tail,snout,ears shorter in colder parts than warm
Bergmans rule ; Mammals living in cold larger than warmer
Dendrochronology, also known as tree-ring dating,Temperate region
Edaphic Factors: Physical and Chemical properties of
soil
▪ The study of soil is called edaphology or pedology.

▪ Formation of soil is Pedogenesis

▪ Best pH of the soil for cultivation of plant is 6 – 6.5.

Soil Texture

Highest water holding capacity/Best for

agriculture = Loam , Clay
Least porous = Clay
Soil erosion = Loss of top soil
Leaching = loss of essential minerals with
water
Percolation=water moves downward through
the soil under gravitational forces
 Soil Adaptation :
Grow in Rocks = Lithophytes
Sandy soil = Psammophytes
Acidic soil= oxylophytes
Saline= Halophytes
Residual soil = Weathering and formation at same place Cold soil=psychrophytes
Colluvial soil = Soil carried by Gravity Dry soil= xerophytes
Alluvial soil = Soil carried by water/fertile Crevices of rocks=Chasmophytes
Galacial soil= Soil brought by glacier Waste land= Chersophytes
Eolian soil= Soil brought by air/wind Snow /ice= Cryophytes
The decomposition process comprises 5 stages Water = Hydrophytes (Heterophylly)
Fragmentation-leaching-catabolism-humification -mineralization

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Topographic factors

High altitude

Less Vegetation
Interaction Mutualism
Obligatory relationship.
E.g., Termites and aflagellates
(Trichonympha)
E.g., legume plant and Rhizobium.
E.g., Nostoc, Anabaena and Anthoceros
plant.
E.g., Lichens.
E.g., Mycorrhizal association

Commensalism
Lianas : in tropical rainforest. E.g., Bauhinia,
Tinospora
Epiphytes : grow on other plants in tropical
rainforest. They utilize the only the space of host
plant for light and humidity.
E.g., Orchids, hanging mosses.

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Proto-cooperation( + +): non-obligatory relationship
Examples –Crocodile – Bird

Parasitism • Interspecific competition occurs between

Holoparasite : two individuals of two different species
E.g., Rafflesia (Total root parasite). occurring in the same habitat.
Cuscuta (Total stem parasite). • Intraspecific competition occurs between
individuals of the same species for mating,
Hemiparasite :
food etc
E.g., Viscum , Loranthus – partial stem
parasites.
Santalum is a partial root parasite.

Amensalism
▪ Antibiosis –Penicillium fungi secretes penicillin which inhibits the growth of Staphylococcus bacteria.
– Chlorella algae secretes bacteriocytes which not only kill but also inhibit growth of the bacteria.
– Microcystis (BGA) secretes hydroxyl amine which causes the death of fishes.

▪ Allelopathy E.g.,Parthenium : Trans Cinnamic acid is secreted by Parthenium which inhibits the growth of some
plants like Cassia tora and Vinca regia. This phenomenon is known as allelopathy.
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 Insectivorous/Carnivorous Plants:

▪ Found in the nitrogen deficient soil.

▪ Secrete digestive enzymes

Nepenthes : Pitcher plant

Sundew = Drosera ( Tentacles)
Venus Flytrap= Dionea (Bilobed)
Bladderwort = Utricularia
Ecosystem (Open system)
▪ Ecosystem is the smallest structural and functional unit of ecology.
➢ Word ecosystem was coined by A.G. Tansley
➢ E.P. Odum – Father of ecosystem
➢ Karl Mobius – Used term Biocoenosis for ecosystem
TYPE OF ECOSYSTEM
A. Natural Ecosystem –
a. Terrestrial Ecosystem – e.g. forest, grassland, tree, desert ecosystem
b. Aquatic ecosystem –
(i) Lentic ecosystem - stagnant fresh water, lake, pond, swamp.
(ii) Lotic – Running fresh water ecosystem e.g. - river.
B. Artificial Ecosystem Man made e.g. cropland, Gardens etc.
(i) Mega ecosystem – Ocean/Sea (ii) Macroecosystem – Forest (iii) Microecosystem – Pond (iv)
Nanoecosystem – Drop of water
FOOD CHAIN
GRAZING FOODS CHAIN
Begins with producers (plants)

PARASITIC FOOD CHAIN :

it goes from big organism to the smaller organism.

DETRITUS FOOD CHAIN

Begins with decomposition of dead organic
Food Web
▪ Stable
▪ Complex
Flow of energy = unidirectional
Only about 10% Energy is retained at each trophic level. This is called 10% law of Lindeman

Ecosystem obeys 1st and 2nd law of thermodynamics

BIOTIC COMPONENT

1. Producers = (Transducers or converters) phytoplankton, Green plants , 1st tropic level

2.Primary consumer = Zooplankton, Herbivores , 2nd tropic level

3.Secondary consumer = Dog, cat, snake, 3rd tropic level
4. Tertiary consumer = Lion, man, hawk, peacock , 4th tropic level
Decomposers ( osmotrophs
Decomposers,saptrotrophs,Reducers) -Bacteria ,Fungi -Bacteria ,Fungi
( osmotrophs ,saptrotrophs,Reducers)
Ecological pyramid
▪ Graphical representation , Pyramid was formed by Charls Elton; so called as Eltonian
pyramids. Biomass is measured by bomb calorimeter.
▪ There are three types of pyramids –
– Pyramids of number: Inverted for tree ecosystem, parasitic ecosystem.
– Pyramids of Biomass : Inverted for Pond ecosystem.
– Pyramids of Energy : All are upright
– Standing crop : Total amount of living organic matter present in particular area in particular
time in an ecosystem
– Standing quality or Standing state : Total amount of inorganic substances such as P, S, N,
H present in particular area at a particular time in an ecosystem
Productivity
Rate of biomass production.
▪ It is generally expressed in g–2 yr –1 or (kcal m–2) yr–1.
PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY : Amount of biomass by plants during photosynthesis/inorganic molecules.
▪ Gross primary productivity (G.P.P.) is the total amount of energy fixed (organic food) in an
ecosystem (in producers) in unit time including the organic matter used up in respiration during the
measurement period.
▪ Net primary productivity (N.P.P.) is the amount of stored organic matter in plant tissues after
respiratory utilization.
NPP = GPP – R
SECONDARY PRODUCTIVITY
Secondary productivity is the rate of formation of new organic matter by
consumers/Animals/Heterotrophs/organic molecules.

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Highest productivity = Coral
reefs/Estuaries Factors affecting productivity
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
▪ Gradual replacement of one community by another. Term given by Hult
▪ Sere : The entire series of communities is called sere
Ecological succession characteristics :
– Gradual replacement
– Increased species diversity, biomass, niche specialization, humus content.
– Decreased net community productivity or annual yield.

Succession in fresh water → Hydrosere

Succession in salty water → Halosere
Succession in acidic water → Oxalosere
Succession at dry region → Xerosere
Succession on rocks → Lithosere
Succession on sand → Psammosere
Succession at moistened region → Mesosere
Succession of microbes → Serula
 Primary succession = occurs at
bare area

Secondary sucession = occurs at

pre existing community

Steps

1.Migration
2.Ecessis - Establishment
3.Aggregation
HYDROSERE

▪ Phytoplankton stage :

It is pioneer community,

E.g., soft mud diatom, cyanobacteria.

▪ Rooted submerged stages :

E.g., Vallisneria, Hydrilla

▪ Rooted floating stages :

E.g., Nymphaea, Wolffia.

▪ Reed swamp stage (amphibious stage)

E.g., Typha, Sagittaria.

▪ Sedge Meadow stage or marsh meadow stage : Muddy plants. E.g., Ipomea.

▪ Scrub stage : E.g., Cornus, Salix, Almus.

▪ Climax forest stage : e.g., Tree

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▪ LITHOSERE / XEROSERE
• Crustose lichens stage : It is a pionner community, E.g., Rhizocarpon, Rinodina.

• Foliose lichens stage : E.g., Parmellia, Dermatocarpon.

• Autogenic succession : During
• Moss stage : E.g. Polytrichum, Torula. the succession, the community
• Herb stage : Annual hardy grasses, E.g., Poa, Eleusin, Aristida.
reacts with the environment and
changes it. This community is
• Shrub stage : E.g., Zizyphus, Rhus. replaced by new community.
This is known as autogenic
• Climax forest stage (Mesophytic) : E.g., Tree.
succession.
• Allogenic succession :
Community is replaced due to
external conditions or forces, not
by existing vegetation itself. This
kind of succession is known as
allogenic succession. E.g., Fire,
flood.
Plant adaptation
Hydrophytes
▪ Root poorly developed, reduced or absent. Root cap and root hairs are generally absent
▪ Lemna, Ecchorhnia species having root pocket
▪ Finely dissected leaves,no stomata in submerged,thin cuticle
▪ Gas exchange by general body surface
▪ Arenchyma present,vascular tissue/Mechanical Tissue poorly developed
Suspended = Utricularia,Hydrilla,Ceratophyllum
Rooted= Vallisneria,Isoetes
Free Floating = Wolffia ( smallest angiosperm),lemnaa ,Azolla
 Xerophytes
▪ Well developed root system,root hair,root cap,thick cuticle
▪ Maintain water level constant by accumulating water
▪ Sunken stomata,succulent,reduced to spines
▪ Well developed mechanical/vascular tissue
▪ No arenchyma,Multilayered leaf epidermins = Nerium,Ficus
▪ Phylloclades= Opuntia, Asparagus,Ruscus

Ephemerals ( Drought escapers)= Cassia tora,Tribulus,solanum xanthocarpum

Succulents ( Drought avoiders)= Stem Succulents- Opuntia,Euphorbia
Root S.- Asparagus
Leaf S.-Aloe,Agave,Begonia
Non Succulents ( Drought tolerant)-True xerophytes –Casuarina,Nerium,Acacia

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Biogeochemical cycle ( Nutrient cycle)

• Gaseous cycle : C, H, N, O cycles. Reservoir is in the atmosphere (air) or in hydrosphere (water).

• Sedimentary cycle : P, S, Ca cycles. Reservoirs earth's crust Nitrogen fixation = Atm N2 – NH3
Biological Nitrogen Fixation:
Free-LivingAerobic- Azotobacter, Beijerinckia
and Derxia
Anaerobic- Clostridium

Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation:

Rhizobium with the roots of several legumes
such as alfa-alfa, sweet clover, sweet pea,
lentils, garden pea, broad bean, clover bean,
etc.
The microbe Frankia also produces nitrogen-
fixing nodules on the roots of non-leguminous
plants, e.g. Alnus.
• Enzyme – Nitrogenase(fe-Mo Proein),
coded by nif genes
• Leghaemoglobin ( oxygen scavenger)
makes nodule pink
• Ammonification is the process of
converting natural nitrogen
compounds into
ammonia. Examples of
ammonifying bacteria contain
bacillus, proteus, clostridium,
pseudomonas and streptomyces.

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Carbon cycle

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Forest types of Nepal
▪ Tropical Zone (upto 1000) : Shorea robusta (sal) ,T. Belerica(barro), T. chebula
(Harr0),Acacia catechu( khair), Dalbergia sissoo (sisam),Butea frondosa/monosperma (
Forest flame/fire)
▪ Sub tropical (1000-2000m): Schima wallichii, Castanopsis indica,Pinus roxburghii (3
needle),Engelhardia spicata,Alnus species.
▪ Temperate (2000-3000m):Pinus wallichiana,Quercus semecarpifolia, Tsuga dumosa,
Rhododendron arboreum, Cedrus deodara,Mahonia napaulensis
▪ Sub-alpine (3000-4000m):Abies spectabilis(silver fir),Rhododendron
campanulatum,Betula utilis,Juniperus species
▪ Alpine (above 4000m):grasses (Gramineae) and sedges (Cyperaceae) and alpine scrub

*Nival (above 5000m): A zone of permanent snow

Wildlife
▪ IUCN : The International Union for Conservation of Nature
▪ Red Data Book = Enlist endangered plants and animals Main cause of wildlife extinction= Habitat
destruction
Protected areas of Nepal (23.39%)
National Park = 12
Wildlife Reserve=1
Hunting Reserve= 1
Buffer zone =13
Conservation Area = 6

Ecosystem =118
Ramsar site = 10
Oldest NP= Chitwan
Smallest/largest= Rara/Shey phoksundo
World Heritage site= Chitwan /Sagarmatha
Panda= Langtang
Arna /wild buffalo= Koshi tappu
 Nepal Biodiversity
There are over 22,000 species reported from Nepal i.e., 1.3% of the global biodiversity. There are 6653
species and sub-species of angiosperms, 28 species of gymnosperms, 1001 algae, 2025 fungi, 771 lichens,
1150 bryophyte and 534 pteridophyte in Nepal. 210 mammals, 871 birds, 228 fishes, over 12957 insects, 137
reptiles, 53 amphibians.
Endangered plants of Nepal:

Rauvolfia serpentina, Gnetum montanum, Podocarpus neriifolius, Michelia champaca

Yarsagumba- Cordyceps sinensis

CITES listed plants in Nepal

Appendix I: Saussurea lappa
Appendix II: Podophyllum hexandrum,Orchidaceae,,Rauvolfia serpentina,​
Appendix III: Cycas pectinata,Gnetum montanum,,Meconopsis regia
,podocarpus​
➢ Montreal Protocol was signed at Montreal (Canada) to control the emission of ozone depleting substances.
➢ Convention on biological diversity held in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) is known as the Earth Summit (Ist).
➢ CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild flora and fauna) has helped in
restricting poaching
➢ Desertification is When large barren patches extend and meet over time, a desert is created.
➢ Incineration is carried out at very high temperature, i.e. 900ºC-1300ºC.
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Environment
– Primary pollutants : These are present in the same form in which they are produced. e.g., carbon
monoxide, DDT.
– Secondary pollutants : These are formed by reaction between the primary pollutants in the presence of
sunlight, e.g., PAN, Ozone, HNO 3, H2SO4 etc. Nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons react photochemically
to produce peroxyacetyl nitrates (PAN) and ozone.
The secondary pollutants may be more toxic than the primary one. The phenomenon is called synergism.

▪ Biodegradable pollutants: e.g., domestic sewage, clothes, paper, etc.

▪ Non Biodegradable ; Eg -DDT, glass, plastics, aluminium cans, phenolic compounds, pesticides, radioactive
substances, heavy metals like mercury, lead, cadmium etc.

▪ Main air pollutant = CO from vehicles

▪ Scrubbers are used to clean air for both dust and gases

▪ Photochemical smog or Los Angeles smog: Nitrogen oxides + Hydrocarbons PAN + Ozone

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Greenhouse effect:
▪ Global warming/ absorbs Infrared radiation

▪ Main greenhouse gases are CO2, CH4, N2O, CFC, O3, water vapour

Ozone layer Depletion: concentration of ozone is maximum in

stratosphere.
Ozone hole was first discovered in 1985 over Antarctica by
Nimbus-7 satellite.
Ozone hole; thining of ozone layer.
Aerosols like C.F.Cs. (Chlorofluorocarbons) released into the
atmosphere from refrigerators, air conditioners and jet planes
deplete or reduce the ozone layer. This is called ozone
depletion - Snow blindness
The Dobson Unit is the most common unit for measuring ozone
concentration
Acid Rain :mix SO2 and NO2
Damages Historical monuments/Building materials/ Stone Leprosy
Eutrophication:
▪ Presence of extra nutrients brings about dense growth of plants and animals. The phenomenon is
called Eutrophication and lake is known as eutrophic lake. In this process, the presence of
nutrients in lake stimulates growth of algae (algal bloom) which increases organic loading and
brings about reduction in the oxygen content of water causing death of aquatic animals.

BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) is the amount of oxygen required by microorganisms

to metabolise the waste present in water . B.O.D. of pure drinking water is less than 1ppm or mg/litre.

▪ The degree of water pollution is directly proportional to BOD.

▪ D.O. is measured by Oximeter.

▪ B.O. D. ∝ input of organic wastes.

▪ Some organism like Daphnia, Trout and fishes are sensitive to water pollution, they are indicators of
water pollution.(lichens indicators of air pollution)

▪ C.O.D. (Chemical Oxygen demand) is the amount of oxygen required to oxidise all pollutant materials
▪ Biomagnification: Increase of Non biodegradable pollutant like Al, Hg, Fe, D.D.T., pesticides along
food chain/Tropic level
▪ Minamata disease: Hg

▪ Iti-iti disease= cadmium

▪ Generally 80 dB or more than that, the unwanted sound is called noise pollution.

▪ Noise pollution is measured in dB.

Eutrophic lake
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