biology-form-3-for-secondary

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Biology (Form 3) - For secondary
Introduction to Governance (The Catholic University of Malawi)
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Table of Contents
TOPIC1 LIVINGTHINGS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT ................................................................................... 3
Ecosystems
Estimating plant and animal populations
Energy flow in an ecosystem
Nutrient Cycles
TOPIC 2 PLANT STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION .......................................................................................... 14
Photosynthesis
Transport systems in plants
Transpiration
TOPIC 3 : VERTEBRATES AND INVERTEBRATES ........................................................................................ 32
Vertebrates
invertebrates
TOPIC 4 THE HUMAN DIGETIVE SYSTEM ................................................................................................... 38
Types of digestion
Digestive Enzymes
The human alimentary canal
TOPIC 5 THE HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM ........................................................................................... 47
Components of the circulatory system
Problems associated with the circulatory system
TOPIC 6: THE HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM ..................................................................................... 56
The male reproductive system
The Female reproductive system
The menstrual cycle
Cell division
TOPIC 7: GENETICS..................................................................................................................................... 69

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TOPIC 1 : LIVINGTHINGS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

Living things do not live in isolation. They are land and marine conservation reserves for
always surrounded by other living things and threatened species, and modeling how
non-living things. The natural surrounding of natural ecosystems may respond to global
the living things is known as environment. So climate change.
to say, all living things within an environment
depend on each other for survival. On the
ECOLOGICAL TERMS
other hand, activities of an organisms have
an impact on its environment. This implies HABITAT
that there is a relationship between
organisms and their environment. This is a place where living things are found.
For example, water is a habitat for fish and
ECOLOGY other aquatic animals.
Ecology is the study of interactions among ENVIRONMENT
organisms in an environment. Ecosystems
on the other hand refers to a natural self- Environment refers to the total surrounding
sustaining ecological unit in which living of an organism. For instance, environment
organisms interact and influence one of a student in a classroom will comprise of
another. Examples of ecosystems include fellow students, teachers, desks, books, air,
forests, lakes, grasslands etc. Ecosystem is school blocks, trees, lizards and many more.
made up of biotic (living) and abiotic (non The environment comprises both living and
living) factors. People who study ecology are nonliving things. The living environment) of
known as ecologists. an organism and animals surrounding is
referred to as community. It includes all the
Ecologists study interactions among flora (plants) and fauna (animals) of the
organisms in order to understand why there particular environment.
are so many plants and animals
NICHE
(abundance), and why there are so many
different types of plants and animals This refers to the role that an organism plays
(diversity). In other words, ecologists study in an ecosystem.
ecosystems to understand abundance and
diversity of living things. Applied ecology
In order to understand clearly the dynamics
uses information about these relationships
of an ecosystem, ecologists observe
to address issues such as developing
behavior of species in their habitats, in
effective vaccination strategies, managing
additional to studying their population.
fisheries without over-harvesting, designing

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POPULATION a) Quadrat method – in ecology, quadrats

are used to estimate populations of
This is the term used to describe the number
organisms that are too numerous for
of organisms of the same species found in an
example plant populations or slow
area at the same period of time.
moving animals such as snails and
POPULATION DENSITY millipedes. In fact, a quadrat is a light
wooden or metal square frames used to
This refers to the number of organism in a get a representative sample of
population per unit area for example per organisms over a large area being
square kilometers. It usually tells us the way studied. The quadrat is placed at random
population has been distributed in a given over the areas of study and the individual
area. Since organism do not spread evenly, organisms within the quadrat are
then the population density differs from one calculated to obtain sample counts. Then
area to another. Thus, the organism can the average is calculated and then the
have high density in one side of area and low total calculation is estimated. In so
density in other side of the same area. doing, population frequency and
distribution are determined. Generally,
DERTERMINING THE POPULATION SIZE OF
this method is very easy to apply and the
ORGANISMS
quadrat themselves are easy to make.
While it is quite easy to determine the However, quadrats are limited as they
population size of other organism like in cannot be used in animals which are too
human beings, it is not easy to establish mobile.
population of other organisms like birds,
fish, plants in a garden etc. because they are
too mobile or too numerous. b) Transect Method
In order to determine the population of large A transect is a path along which one counts
slow moving animals for instance human and records occurrences of the species
beings or small populations of scattered under study.
plants, a direct counting method for There are two types of transect and these
example census or physical counting is used. are:
 Line transect
However, census or direct counting cannot  Belt transect
be feasible in establishing population of (i). Line transect method
organisms which are too numerous or too This method involves the use of a straight
mobile, rather the following techniques are line cutting across an area in which the
used to estimate population of such organisms to be sampled are found. A
organisms. transect line can be made using a nylon rope
marked and numbered at 0.5m or 1 m

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interval, all the way along its length. A line Then the number of organism in 1𝑚2 =
transect is carried out by unrolling the 100 ×1
10
= 10
transect line along the gradient identified.
The position of the transect line is very This method is suitable for estimating
important and it depends on the direction of population of trees such as those in forest
the environmental gradient you wish to
or woodland.
study. The species touching the line are
recorded along the whole length of the line.
Alternatively, the presence or absence of c) Mark, Release ,Recapture Technique -
This is a method commonly used in ecology
species at each marked point is recorded.
to estimate population size of very active or
The results obtained from a number of such mobile animals such as birds, grasshoppers,
transects made through the study area, are fish, etc. As the name implies, it involves
then combined to obtain the distribution capturing a portion of organisms for
pattern and relative density of the different example grasshopper then mark them and
plant species. From the results, it is easy to then release them back to their habitat to
tell the dominant species or rare species. All mix freely with the unmarked ones. Later
another portion comprising both marked
in all, this method can be used to estimate
and unmarked organisms is captured and
the distribution pattern and relative the number of marked organisms within this
population density of different species in an sample is counted. A formula is then used to
area. calculate the estimated population in the
selected areas as shown below.
(ii). Belt transect Estimated number of organisms =
This method involves the use of two parallel No,of animals in 1st capture ×Total no of animals in 2nd capt
lines or a narrow strip, one meter apart. The No. of marked animals in second capture
lines or the strip cut across an area in which

Although this method is very convenient in
the organisms to be studied are found. The
estimating population size of animals which
length of the belt transect is measured. The
move frequently, it is limited as it cannot be
whole area where the organisms being used to estimate plant populations.
counted are found, is determined. Furthermore, some methods of trapping can
Organisms found between the two lines are cause harm to organisms thereby causing
counted and recorded. them to escape. The painting itself can
For instance, if you counted 100 organisms render the organisms more prone to their
predators.
and the length of the belt is 10 m by 1 m
wide then the area of study is 10𝑚2 .
INTERACTIONS AMONG ORGANISM IN AN
If the number of organisms in 10𝑚2 = 100 ECOSYSTEM

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Living organism depend on each other on

several factors. for example: food,
COMMENSALISM
protection, shelter, reproduction etc. hence,
interaction among these organisms is Under this interaction, one organism
inevitable. There are different interactions benefits but the other one is not affected in
that take place among these organisms. any way. A very good example of
These include: mutualism, parasitism, commensalism is epiphytism. This is a
commensalism, epiphytism, and predation. relation in plants where by one plants
(epiphyte) grow on the other plant so that it
 Mutualism - This is an interaction in
should be exposed to sunlight and air.
which both parties benefit. it is also
known as symbiosis. (a Greek word ENERGY FLOW IN AN ECOSYSTEM
meaning living together). For example, The sun is the principal source of energy
interaction between useful bacteria in input to ecosystems. Energy flow is NOT a
man and man himself. The bacteria gets cycle. It starts from the sun (and obviously
doesn’t go back there) and then that energy
food and shelter while man benefits
is harnessed by plants which are eaten by
from bacteria as it helps in digesting food
animals which are eaten by other animals. At
particles. under this type of interaction, each step, energy is lost to the environment
no organism is harmed or injured. (for example by heat loss).
Another example is the interaction
between beans and rhizobium bacteria The energy flow can be presented in four
which lives in the nodules of beans and different ways namely
(i) food chains
also the lichens which consist of algae
(ii) food webs
and fungi living together. (iii) pyramid of numbers
(iv) pyramid of biomas
 Parasitism- under this relation, one
organism benefits at the expense of the
Trophic level: The position of an organism in
other. The organism that benefits is
a food chain, food web or pyramid of
called parasite while the one that suffers
biomass, numbers. The trophic levels include
is called the host. Example is man and
producers, primary consumers, secondary
HIV.
and tertiary consumers.
 Predation - This refers to an interaction  Producers- are basically plants which
in which one organism kills the other convert simple inorganic substances into
organism. The killer is called the predator organic substances using sunlight as a
while the killed one is called the prey. source of energy. These producers are
For example, interaction between cat also called autotrophs. Organisms that
and rat.

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feed on autotrophs are called  Secondary consumer gets between

heterotrophs. 10-20% because animal matter is
 Primary consumers – Are organisms that more digestible and has a higher
energy value.
feed on producers. This trophic level
 At each level heat is lost by
encompasses all herbivores for example
respiration.
goats, cattle, grasshoppers etc.
 Secondary Consumers – Are organisms
that feed on primary producers. They
encompass all carnivores for example
lion, hawks, playing mantis etc
 Tertiary Consumers – Are organisms that
feed on secondary consumers. Most of
them have a mixed diet, thus they may
feed on both primary and secondary
consumers. Example includes man.
 Decomposers – organisms that get their
energy from dead or waste organic
matter. They break down organic
compounds, releasing the minerals they Food web
contain back to the soil or into the water. This refers to a network of interconnected
food chains showing the energy flow
Food chain through part of an ecosystem. The following
This refers to an arrow diagram which shows is an example of a food web representing
the energy flow from one organism to flow of energy in an aquatic ecosystem
another.
mahogany tree → caterpillar → song bird → hawk
Food chains usually have fewer than five

trophic levels, because energy transfer is
inefficient:
 Sun produces light, less than 1% of
the energy falls onto leaves.
 Producers ‘fix’ (trap) only about 5-8%
of that energy, because of:
transmission (passing through),
reflection and incorrect wavelength.
 Primary consumer only gets between Pyramid of numbers: Shows the number of
5-10% because some parts are each organism in a food chain. When moving
indigestible (e.g. cellulose) and not up the pyramid, the number of individuals’
eating the whole plant. decreases but their size usually increases
(except when it starts from a large plant like

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an oak tree). The problem is that there might

be thousands or more producers feeding
one single tertiary or quaternary consumer
so this cannot be shown to scale without
using a massive piece of paper, and if there
is one large producer (e.g. an oak tree) and
many if parasites feed on the consumers, the
pyramid will be inverted. The amounts of material and energy
contained in the biomass of organisms is
Pyramid of biomass: a pyramid which shows reduced at each successive stage in a food
the biomass (number of individuals × their chain because:
individual mass). As already stated, energy is – some materials and energy are always lost
lost between each trophic level in a food in the organisms’ waste materials
chain. This means that there is not much – respiration supplies all the energy needs
energy to support the animals towards the for living processes, including movement.
- Much of this energy is eventually lost as
end of the chain, so their populations tend
heat to the surroundings.
to be lower. We can show this by drawing a
pyramid of biomass. For example, if a certain RECYCLING OF MATERIALS IN AN
ecosystem has 4 shrubs, 60 grasshoppers ECOSYSTEM
and 10 birds, the following pyramids can be
constructed
Living things remove materials from the Many microorganisms are also more active
environment for growth and other when there is plenty of oxygen – aerobic
processes. These materials are returned to conditions. The decay process releases
the environment either in waste materials or substances which plants need to grow. In a
when living things die and decay. Materials stable community, the processes which
decay because they are broken down remove materials are balanced by
(digested) by microorganisms processes which return materials. The
(decomposers). Microorganisms digest materials are constantly cycled. The figure
materials faster in warm, moist conditions. below summarizes the recycling of
materials in an ecosystem.
THE CARBON CYCLE

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Carbon dioxide is removed from the THE NITROGEN CYCLE

environment by green plants for
photosynthesis. The carbon from the carbon 1) Nitrogen-fixing bacteria provide usable
dioxide is used to make carbohydrates, fats nitrogen for plants, these may exist in the root
and proteins which make up the body of nodules where they live in symbiosis with the
plants. Some of the carbon dioxide is plants (nitrogen fixation), or this can happen
returned to the atmosphere when green because of lightning, or microorganisms
plants respire. When green plants and algae provide them through decomposition.
are eaten by animals and these animals are 2) Nitrifying bacteria convert nitrogen-
eaten by other animals, some of the carbon containing substances into better nitrogen-
becomes part of the fats and proteins which containing substances for the plants
make up their bodies. When animals respire (nitrification).
some of this carbon becomes carbon dioxide
and is released into the atmosphere. When 3) plants absorb these substances and convert
plants, algae and animals die, some animals them into proteins
(detritus feeders) and microorganisms 4) Primary consumers eat the plants and can
(decomposers) feed on their bodies. Carbon make their own proteins; secondary
is released into the atmosphere as carbon consumers eat primary consumers and so on.
5) Death and decay happens at each trophic
dioxide when these organisms respire. By
level leading to stage one (the decomposers
the time the microorganisms and detritus
bit)
feeders have broken down the waste
6) Denitrifying bacteria carry out
products and dead bodies of organisms in
denitrification: they convert nitrogen-
ecosystems and cycled the materials as plant
nutrients, all the energy originally captured containing substances into atmospheric
by green plants has been transferred. Nitrogen
Combustion of wood and fossil fuels
release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

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TOPIC 2. PLANT STRUCTURE AND THEIR FUNCTION

Plants, like animals, are made up of tissues the following are the internal structures of
that form organs. These organs include the leaf and their functions.
roots, stems, leaves and reproductive 1 Cuticle
structures like flowers, fruits, seeds and
This is waxy substance secreted by the epidermal
many more. One of the major interests
cells. It is thin and forms the outermost layer
among biologists is to understand the found on the upper part and lower part. It is
structures of these organs as well as the water proof and covers the epidermal cells of the
functions of these structures as they relate leaf. Its functions are:
to the general survival of the plants. This
a) To prevent the water loss through the
chapter will discuss the structure and
leaf surface.
functions of the plants.
b) To protect the inner part of the leaf for
example mesophyll cells from physical
THE LEAF forces.
Leaves are one of the most important organs c) To prevent unnecessary entry of water
of a plant as they are the site for through the leaf surface.
photosynthesis. Generally, leaves come in d) Hairy cuticle protects the leaf from
huge variety of sizes and shapes. Despite predators.
these varieties, all leaves share some e) It allows light to enter the mesophyll cells
commonalities. as it Is transparent.
2 Epidermal layers
External structure of a leaf
Generally, the external parts of a leaf include There are two layers of epidermal cells, namely:
leaf blade (lamina), leaf stalk (petiole), main the upper epidermis and the lower epidermis.
vein (mid rib), leaf veins, apex and leaf The epidermal cells and the cuticle together
margin. The figure below shows some of the form a water proof barrier that protects
external parts of a leaf. delicate tissues inside the leaf by slowing down
water loss through transpiration. Since
epidermal cells do not contain chloroplasts, they
allow light to pass through them to reach the
mesophyll layers.
3 Mesophyll layers
There two types of mesophyll layers and these

are spongy and palisade mesophyll layers.
a) Palisade Mesophyll Layer- This is a layer of

The internal structure of a leaf cells below the upper epidermal cells, thus,
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it is found on the upper part of the leaf. It hand, the oxygen produced during
contains palisade cells which are the main photosynthesis leaves the leaf through these
site of photosynthesis. As a matter of fact, stomata. Each stomata is surrounded by two
The palisade mesophyll layers are adapted bean shaped cells called guard cells.
for photosynthesis in the following ways:
(i) They contain numerous chloroplasts.
(ii) They are arranged in a single layer so
that sunlight can pass through them
without passing through other palisade
cells.
(iii) Their cylindrical shape enables them to
be packed together thereby creating a
large surface area for absorption of
sunlight.
(iv) They are found on the upper part of the
leaf hence light does not pass long
distance.
Spongy Mesophyll
Layer
This layer is below the

palisade mesophyll layer.
It has irregular shaped
cells which are loosely
packed with air spaces in
between them and have
fewer chloroplasts so
that less photosynthesis
occurs in these cells. Its
porous nature allows
easy movement of air.
4 Stomata(Singular
Stoma)
The guard cells have a potential of opening and
These are pores on the surface of the leaf closing the stomata thereby regulating the rate
especially in the lower epidermis. They are used of water loss through transpiration. In fact ,when
for transpiration as well as gaseous exchange . the guard cells gain water, they bend into a half
carbon dioxide enters the leaf through these moon shape thereby opening the stomata and
pores passing through the air spaces of the when they lose water, they become more limp
spongy mesophyll to the palisade mesophyll and straightens hence the stoma closes . Guard
where it is used for photosynthesis. On the other cells are different from the epidermal cells in
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such way that the guard cells are bean shaped

and they do contain chloroplasts.
5 Veins
These contain vascular tissues

namely the xylem and the phloem
which transport water plus
minerals and manufactured food
respectively.
hereditary information. In
addition, it produces information
required to manufacture
proteins. However, this structure
is absent in some cells for
example red blood cells, xylem
cells, as well as unicellular
organisms. The nucleolus found
in this structure is made up of
Ribonucleic acid (RNA) which is responsible
1. Nucleus – it controls the activities of a cell for synthesis of ribosomes.
for example cell division. It also carries 2. Cell membrane – this is a thin layer made of
proteins and fats. It is semi
The above diagram shows a mesophyll to pass through. It also protects and
cell as seen under the electron supports the cell.
microscope. The cell comprises of
protoplasm which include all the cell 4. Mitochondrion- this is a sausage shaped
contents apart from the vacuoles. organelle responsible for respiration. Its
inner surface is highly folded thereby
permeable, thus it allows other increasing surface area on which the
substances to pass through depending chemical processes take place.
on their sizes. It separates cells from one
another and also aids in the protection
and support of the cell. 5. Vacuole – mainly found in in plant cells and
3. Cell wall – this organelle is found in plant contains a solution called cell sap which
cells only. It is made up of carbohydrate dissolves sugar substances and salts. It gives
called cellulose and it is fully permeable. It shape to plant cells through its outward
allows water and other dissolved substances pressure.
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6. Ribosomes – these are attached to rough the chloroplast is filled with a fluid and is
endoplasmic reticulum and they are sites for called stroma. The stroma contains enzymes
protein synthesis. However, some involved in photosynthesis.
ribosomes are suspended freely in the
cytoplasm
7. Endoplasmic reticulum – it is divided into

two thus rough and smooth endoplasmic
reticulum.
(a) Rough endoplasmic reticulum – this
is called rough endoplasmic
reticulum because of the ribosomes
which are attached to it and makes
it look rough. It manufactures
membranes and some proteins.
(b) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
This is responsible for
manufacturing of lipids and
detoxification of poisonus
substance.
8. Lysozome – these are also referred to as

clean up crews of the cell. They eliminate
unwanted substances in the cell and also
digest dead cells. They are found mainly in
animals.
9. CHLOROPLASTS - This is an organelle in a
plant cell where photosynthesis takes place
due to the presence of green pigment called
chlorophyll. Chloroplasts are found in a
cytoplasm of cells of palisade mesophyll,
spongy mesophyll and guard cells. These
three structures are called photosynthetic
cells. Each chloroplast is surrounded by two
membranes. Inside each chloroplast are
small units called grana (singular: granum). A
granum consists of a number of discs placed
on each other like a pile of coins. Each disc in
a pile is a flat sac with a single membrane.
One granum is connected to another by the
interregnal lamellae. The remaining part of
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A LEAF AS AN ORGAN FOR surface will receive most sunlight and this
PHOTOSYNTHESIS. will be available to the chloroplasts without
being absorbed by many intervening cell
The process of photosynthesis in green plants walls. The elongated shape of many palisade
takes place to a large extent in leaves. This is due cells may confer the same advantage.
to the fact that the leaves have several  The branching network of veins provides a
structures that enable them to carry out this ready water supply to the photosynthesizing
process efficiently. However, it should be noted cells.
that photosynthesis is not limited to these leaves
alone, rather, it also takes place in other green
parts of the plant for instance some parts of the
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
stem, shoots etc.
This refers to a process by which green
In the leaves, the process of photosynthesis plants manufacture their own food using
takes place in the chloroplasts which are found simple inorganic substances in the presence
in palisade mesophyll cells. The following figures of sunlight. During the process of
show the external and internal structures of a photosynthesis, plants combine simple
leaf. inorganic substances namely water and
carbon dioxide using energy derived from
sunlight to make their food in form of
ADAPTATIONS OF A LEAF FOR glucose. This means that photosynthesis is a
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
type of autotrophic nutrition. The water
Leaves are adapted to photosynthesis in the used for photosynthesis is absorbed from
following ways; the soil by the root system. On the other
hand, the carbon dioxide diffuses into plants
 Their broad, flat shape offers a large surface
from the atmosphere through the stomata.
area for absorption of sunlight and carbon
The sunlight energy is absorbed by the
dioxide.
green pigment known as chlorophyll which is
 Most leaves bare thin, hence, the distance
across which carbon dioxide has to diffuse to found in plant cells. Apart from glucose,
reach the mesophyll cells from the stomata oxygen is also produced during this process.
are very short. However, the oxygen is given off as a by
 The large intercellular spaces in the product.
mesophyll provide easy passage through
which carbon dioxide can diffuse. The process of photosynthesis can be
 Numerous stomata on one or both surfaces summarized as follows;
allow the exchange of carbon dioxide and
oxygen with the atmosphere . (i) Word Equation
 In palisade cells the chloroplasts are more
numerous than in the spongy mesophyll cell.
The palisade cells being on the upper
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This shows that the raw materials for

photosynthesis are water and carbon dioxide
while the products of the process are
glucose (a carbohydrate) and oxygen.
Glucose is the main product while oxygen is
the by product. A by product is a substance
produced besides the main product during a
(ii) Chemical Equation chemical process. In addition, the equation
also indicates that sunlight and chlorophyll
are the necessary conditions for the process
of photosynthesis.
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE PROCESS OF It combines with hydrogen molecules in a

PHOTOSYNTHESIS reduction process to form glucose
The process of photosynthesis requires the d. Water- it provides hydrogen required for
following factors for its occurrence; the formation of glucose.
a. Sunlight STAGES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
It is absorbed by chlorophyll found in The process of photosynthesis occurs in

chloroplasts. Its major role during two stages, these are ;
photosynthesis is to provide energy which is
a. LIGHT STAGE (PHOTO CHEMICAL)
used to split water molecules into Hydrogen
and oxygen. The energy is also used to During this first stage sunlight energy is
combine hydrogen and carbon dioxide in absorbed by chlorophyll found in the
order to form glucose. chloroplast of plant cells. This energy is used
to split water molecules into hydrogen and
b. Chlorophyll
oxygen atoms in the process called
This is the green pigment found in the photolysis. The oxygen atoms are released
chloroplasts in plant cells. Its major role is to as a byproduct and on the other hand, the
absorb sunlight energy. hydrogen atoms are carried over to the next
stage. Some sunlight energy is converted
c. Carbon dioxide
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into adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The ATP The carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
is a compound by which energy can be diffuses into the leaf through the stomata up
stored and easily accessed by every living to the chloroplasts of the leaf cell , during
thing. this stage hydrogen reduces carbon dioxide
to form glucose using energy from ATP.
b. DARK STAGE (CARBON STAGE)
However even though it is called dark stage,
it does not occur during the night but the
fact is that it does not require sunlight.
THE FATE OF GLUCOSE PRODUCED DURING MINERAL REQUIREMENTS DURING

PHOTOSYNTHESIS PHOTOSYNTHESIS
The glucose which is produced during The glucose compound comprises hydrogen,
photosynthesis is used in different ways carbon and oxygen atoms which are assimilated
during the process of photosynthesis. However,
some of them include;
this process of photosynthesis also requires
(a) It is used for respiration thereby enabling other elements which are derived from the soil.
the plant to reduce energy required for Some of them include
its everyday activities for example cell  Potassium - controls opening and
division , growth , active transport etc. closing of stomata. It also controls the
(b) it is stored in organs like roots , stems rate of photosynthesis and respiration
and leaves for future in form of starch.  Magnesium - for formation of
(c) it is used for formation of lipids chlorophyll
(d) it is used for the formation of lipids  Iron - facilitates the process of
(e) it is used for the formation of cellulose chrolophyll formation
which is an integral part of cell walls  Nitrogen and sulphur – for formation of
amino acids (proteins)
(f) it combines with mineral elements like
 Phosphorus – for energy changes and
nitrogen to form proteins
formation of amino acids, nucleic acids,
(g) it is also used to form lignin which ATP, etc
hardens the plant cell  Calcium – for making chemicals which
(h) it combines with nitrogen and other cement cell walls and formation of some
minerals to form amino acids and enzymes
proteins
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LIMITING FACTORS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS Materials
The rate of photosynthesis is affected by the  Fresh leaves , Mortar, Pestal, Beakers,
following factors Ethanol or Acetone, Filter paper, Razor
blade
 Temperature - when temperature is
high, the rate of photosynthesis is also Procedure
high. Similarly, when the temperature is
low, the rate of photosynthesis is also 1) cut the fresh green leaves using the
low. However, the rate of razor blade and put them in the mortar.
photosynthesis decreases when 2) Add small amount of ethanol and
temperature goes beyond 40 C.o /acetone and grind the small pieces
 Light intensity – as light intensity thoroughly.
increases, the rate of photosynthesis 3) Squeeze the green extracts into a beaker
also increases until the plant carry out 4) Cut the filter paper into a rectangular
photosynthesis to the maximum level. shape and mark on one side
 Carbon dioxide – the concentration of 5) Put a drop of the green extract on the
carbon dioxide also determines the rate green spot and immediately put it on
of photosynthesis as Co2 is the raw the beaker with ethanol.
material for this process. *Ensure that the green extracts does
 Water – the speed at which not come in contact with ethanol in
photosynthesis occur also depends on the beaker.
the availability of water. RESULTS
PIGMENTS IN THE LEAVES The ethanol will rise through the filter paper and
There are three types of pigments found in plant separates the pigments. In fact, the initial green
leaves and other parts. These are colour will separate into yellow, orange and
green
a) Chlorophyll - green in color
b) Carotene – orange in colour CONCLUSSION
c) Xanthophylls – yellow in colour Green leaves contain three types of pigments
These three pigments co exist. The orange IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
carotene is responsible for orange colour of
carrot. The yellow color of xanthophylls is The process of photosynthesis is very important
responsible for the yellow color in many flowers as it results into
and fruits. The green color of chlorophyll is
a) Food production
responsible for green colour of leaves and other
b) Oxygen production
parts of the plants.
c) Reduction of carbon dioxide
EXPERIMENT TO SHOW THAT GREEN LEAVES d) Various plant products eg medicines and
CONTAIN THTREE TYPES OF PIGMENTS industrial products like timber.
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TRANSPORT SYTEMS IN PLANTS lignin. As the vessels get order, lignin is laid
down on the original cell wall. This makes
Plants like other living organisms need food
them stronger but less flexible. Finally the
which they use for growth and maintenance.
xylem vessel s can become filled with lignin
Unlike animals which depend on already
forming the woody centre of tree trunk or
made food, plants manufacture their foods
stem. Movement in xylem is restricted to
in their leaves using carbon dioxide and
one direction only, thus from the roots to up
water. However, the distance from the roots
to the stem and leaves.
where water and mineral absorption takes
place to the photosynthesis sites is very THE PHLOEM TUBES.
great and similarly, the distance from the
sites of photosynthesis to some parts of the These are structures in plants responsible for
plant where the manufactured food is to be transportation of manufactured food from
used for various activities is again very great. the site of photosynthesis to all parts of the
This necessitates the presence of transport plant body. They are made up of sieve tube
systems to ferry different substances in cells and companion cells. The sieve tube
plants body. The movement of substances elements are living individual cells arranged
from the regions where they are produced to end to end so that they form long tubes. The
the region where they are used or stored in cross walls between these cells have tiny
plants is called translocation. holes called sieve pores. the sieve tube
contains cytoplasm, however they lack
The transport system in plants is made up of nuclei. On the other hand, the companion
two tissues namely; the xylem vessels and cells are found alongside the sieve tube.
the phloem tubes. They contain both cytoplasm and nuclei.
They are thought to serve their adjacent
THE XYLEM VESSELS
sieve elements.
Xylem vessels are tissues in plants which
Both the sieve tube cells and companion are
run from the roots up to the stem and every
not lignified hence they are soft and do not
leaf of the plant. They are responsible for
live long as they may be crushed easily by
transportation of water and minerals from
the growth of other cells.
roots to leaves and other parts where
photosynthesis takes place. They consist of
dead cylindrical cells which lost their cross
walls and fit together like a series of pipe.
They lack cytoplasm and nucleus. Their
elements are shorter, fatter and more
specialized for transport. The cell walls of
xylem vessels are thickened and hardened
by a tough water proof substance called
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FLOW OF MANUFACTURED FOOD IN A

PHLOEM.
XYLEM PHLOEM
Made up of dead Made up of living

cells. cells
No companion cells Companion cells

available
Lignified (hardened Not lignified

by lignin)
Cytoplasm absent Cytoplasm present

STRUCTURAL
Nuclei absent Nuclei present
Transport water Transport

and minerals from manufactured
roots to sites of food from site of THE XYLEM AND PHLOEM COMPARISON
photosynthesis eg photosynthesis to
leaves all parts of the The xylem, phloem and cambium together
form a vascular bundle. The cambium
FUNCTIONAL
plant.
separates the xylem and phloem tube and
Support for woody Little or no further more it provide new cells to these
plants support two tubes as the cambium is a region of
active cell division.
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in dicotyledonous plants for instance beans,

the vascular bundles are arranged in a
pattern as shown in the figure below
A cross section of a dicotyledonous plant

stem
DIFFUSION, OSMOSIS AND ACTIVE

TRANSPORT
DIFFUSION
This refers to the net movement of

substances from the region of high
In monocotyledous plants for example maize
concentration to a region of low
plant the vascular bundles are just scattered
concentration.
without forming a definite pattern as
illustrated in the figure below. Molecules, atoms and ions of a fluid or a
solute like sugar, salt etc are always moving
 the xylem transports water and about. This results into particles spreading
minerals. It also provides support to apart evenly to fill up available space.
the plant. Therefore diffusion may also defined as the
 The phloem transports movement of particles along their
manufactured foods. concentration gradient
 The cambium separates xylem and
phloem. It also provides new cells to A concentration gradient is the difference in
xylem and phloem as it is a meristem concentration between two regions.
(region of active cell growth.
 The cortex and pith stores food and
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE RATE OF
also provide support to the plant.
DIFUSION
 Epidermis- the outer part of the stem
responsible for shape of the stem  Size of particle-the smaller the particle
and also for gaseous exchange as it the faster the rate of diffusion. For
contains stomates. example, table salt diffuse quickly than
kitchen salt.
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 Temperature-high temperature makes 1. It helps in distributing water evenly

particles in a solution or a gas to move throughout the organism because every
faster than in low temperature solution organism is surrounded by semi
and gases thereby increasing the rate of permeable membrane.
diffusion 2. It controls movement of water into and
 Surface area-the bigger the area of out of cells
diffusion the faster the rate of diffusion 3. It helps in absorption of water from the
 Concentration gradient-if the difference roots by root hairs
between the concentration is bigger, the
rate of diffusion will be high and vice
versa. EXPERIMENT: Osmosis in plants
SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFUSION Procedure
 Oxygen and carbon dioxide move in Cut 3 stripes of fresh potatoes each of mass
and out of the plant leaves. 3g and length of 7cm and test the flexibility
 Plant roots take up minerals from the of each stripe by trying to bend it. Collect 3
soil. test tubes and label them. Pour sugar
 Gaseous exchange in the lungs of solution in one test tube and distilled water
some large animals. in another then put the stripes in each test
 Excretion of waste substances in tube. Leave the apparatus for 20 minutes
animals. and test the flexibility, mass and length of
 Digested food enter in the blood each stripe and record. Observe the changes
stream from the gut. in the flexibility, mass and length of strips.
 Unicellular animals take in oxygen
Osmosis in body cells.
and get rid of carbon dioxide.
Since cells are surrounded by a membrane
OSMOSIS
which is semi permeable, it is inevitable that
This refers to the movement of water from osmosis takes place in these cells. The figure
region of high concentration to the region of below summarizes the osmosis in plant cells.
low concentration across semi permeable
membrane
When two solution have the same water

concentration they said to be isotonic
solution
SIGNIFICANCE OF OSMOSIS
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 Turgidity – this refers the stiffening of  Transpiration pull - a pulling force

cells. It takes place when a cell has been generated by evaporation of water
surrounded by pure water from the plant.
 Flaccidity – this refers to shrinking of a  Root pressure- a push force generated
cell especially when it has been put in a by the roots. It is developed by
concentrated solution. osmosis
 Plasmolysis – this refers to a condition  Capillarity which is the ability of water
where the cytoplasms pulls away from to move along a fine tube
the cell resulting into damaging of cell
membrane and eventually death of the
cell Mineral salts are absorbed by diffusion
through symplast pathway until it reaches
ACTIVE TRANSPORT
the xylem where it is carried along with
This is the movement of soluble substances water in the transpiration stream to leaves
from region of low concentration to the or various growing points.
region of high concentration. Thus in this,
TRANSPORT OF ORGANIC SUBSTANCES IN
process substances move against the
THE PHLOEM
concentration gradient. Active transport
uses a lot of energy unlike osmosis and Food substances in form sucrose and amino
diffusion. acids enter the sieve tube and it is believed
that movement of the substances in the
SIGNIFICANCE OF ACTIVE TRANSPORT
phloem is facilitated by turgor pressure
1. It helps in transportation gradient. The direction of substance
manufactured food and ions. movement may at times change for instance
2. It helps the food to be always when plants shed their leaves, substances
available since it is faster than move from roots upwards.
diffusion.
Experiments to show that the phloem
TRANSPORT OF WATER IN THE XYLEM transports manufactured food (organic)
substances.
Water is absorbed from root hair through
diffusion and it passes from cell to cell by (a) RINGING OR GIRDLING EXPERIMENTS
osmosis through vacuolar pathway or
Procedure
apoplast pathway until water molecules
reach the xylem tissues where it moves Cut off a complete ring of bark including the
against against the gravitational force by phloem and cambium from the main stem
of a woody twig so that the xylem is exposed.
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Leave it for some days and observe the This refers to the loss of water in form of
results. water vapour from the leaves and other
aerial organs through the stomata. Small
RESULTS
amount of water is lost to the atmosphere
through the stem which has tiny poles called
lenticles. The movement of water within the
plant is called transpiration stream while the
movement of dissolved substances within
the plant is called translocation
Water is removed from the xylem vessel and

tracheoids in the leaves by transpiration.
This water is replaced by water moving up
the xylem vessels from the roots. The
Girdling just above the soil level causes process of respiration is regulated by the
reduced root growth and swelling of the opening and closing of stomata.
tissues above the girdle as the products
IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPIRATION
of photosynthesis destined for the roots
accumulate. 1. It helps to cool the leaves when it is
Girdling just below developing buds or exposed to intense sunlight.
fruits prevents the development of the 2. It provides a mechanism of
fruits or the buds. transporting mineral salts upwards.
3. It helps in the uptake of water from
The results show that food is transported in
the roots to the leaves.
phloem tubes.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE RATE OF
(b) EXPERIMENTS WITH APHIDS.
TRANSPIRATION
Aphids feed on the phloem. If an aphid is
allowed to pierce the phloem of a plant TEMPERATURE. On a hot day the rate of
and its body is then removed . The transpiration is high as a lot of water
analysis of the contents that will drip out evaporates quickly from plants. On the
of the stylets of aphids will show the other hand, during the cold days, the rate of
presence of organic food substances. transpiration is reduced as minimal amount
Hence, it can be concluded against this of water evaporate from the plant to
background that the phloem transports atmosphere.
food substances.
HUMIDITY- this refers to the amount of
TRANSPIRATION water vapour in the atmosphere. When
humidity is high, transpiration is low and
when humidity is low the rate of
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transpiration is high. This is due to the fact plant and the assumption is that the rate of
that when humidity is high the absorption is equal to the rate of
concentration of water molecules in the transpiration hence the potometer is used to
atmosphere decreases, thereby decreasing measure the rate of transpiration.
the diffusion gradient and when humidity is
To measure the rate of transpiration in a
low the concentration of water vapour in the
shoot; firstly, cut the shoot under water then
atmosphere decreases thereby increasing
follow the following steps.
the diffusion gradient.
1. Insert the shoot through the hole in the
WIND SPEED- on a windy day the rate of
cork of the photometer.
transpiration is higher than on the calm day.
2. Open the tap of the reservoir to fill the
This is because in a strong wind ,a layer of
graduated capillary tube with water.
humid air that surrounds the leaf becomes
Close the tube when the water is full. As
very thin.
the shoot transpires it absorbs water
LIGHT INTENSITY from the potometer to replace that is
lost during transpiration. This causes the
In a bright sunlight a plant may open its
water column in the capillary tube to
stomata to supply plenty of carbon dioxide
move from one side A to another B.
for photosynthesis. Therefore, more water
3. Record the time taken for end of water
can evaporate from the leaves. Thus, the
column from A to B. a reading is taken
rate of transpiration increases as light
from the air bubble which moves with
intensity increases.
the water column
WATER SUPPLY- if water is in the short
supply , the plant will close its stomata. This
will cut out the rate of photosynthesis.
Hence, the rate of transpiration decreases
when water supply decreases.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESURE- the lower the

atmospheric pressure, the greater the rate
of transpiration
MEASURING THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION
An instrument called potometer is used to to

measure the rate of absorption of water by
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TOPIC 3 : VERTEBRATES AND INVERTABRATES

Living things are divided into two kingdoms d. Myriapods: many legs, many
namely plant and animal kingdom. As a matter of segments, 2 antennae e.g. centipede
fact, there are many types of plants and animals Annelids - these include ringed worms
and this is called biodiversity. Generally, all without legs, for instance earthworms.
animals share many similarities as well as Nematodes - these include un-segmented
differences. One of the major differences is that worms which have no legs for instance
some have backbone while others do not have Molluscs: these include un-segmented
backbone. This enables classification of animals animals with gills and one muscular foot
into two main groups namely vertebrates and for example snails.
invertebrate.
Invertebrates Vertebrates
Invertebrates are the most abundant animals on Vertebrates are larger animals and less
earth. They are generally small in size, they numerous compared to the invertebrates. They
include animals like: insects, annelids, include animals like: fish, amphibians, reptiles,
crustaceans, arachnids, Mollusca among others. birds and mammals
Invertebrates are animals that do not have a CHARACTERISTICS OF VERTEBRATES

backbone. This group is made up of several phyla
Vertebrates are animals with backbones. They
(singular-phylum). A phylum is a group of
have a common body structure modified for life
organisms that have some common
in water, on land and in air. Vertebrates are
characteristics. The phyla for invertebrates
divided into the following groups. Fish,
include:
amphibians, reptiles, aves (birds) and mammals.
Arthropods: these are invertebrates with
jointed legs, a hard exoskeleton
(carapace), body divided into segments. As
FISH
a matter of fact, there are different types
of arthropods and these are: These are vertebrates that live in water and have
a. Insects: 6 legs, 3 body parts (head, streamlined bodies covered with scales. Other
thorax and abdomen), made of many characteristics of fish include
segments, and two antennae e.g. bees.
b. Crustaceans: many legs, 4 antennae, 2  Presence of gills for gaseous exchange.
body parts (head-thorax and  Presence of fins for locomotion.
abdomen), made of many segments
e.g. crabs.
BIRDS
c. Arachnids: 8 legs, no antennae, 2 body
parts (head-thorax and abdomen) e.g. These are warm blooded (endothermic)
spiders, scorpions, mites and ticks vertebrates with feathers, wings and beaks. They
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reproduce by laying eggs. Their bodies are

hollow and have scales on their feet.
AMPHIBIANS
These incudes animals like frogs, toads and

many others. They have four limbs and
smooth moist skins without scales. Have
moist skin. They breed in water and
(b) Internal structure of a frog
fertilization is external. They have three
When a frog is dissected some of the
chambered heart. Their gaseous exchange is
structures that are observed include the
through the skin, gills and lungs. On land
heart, the spleen, the kidneys, the lungs
they breath with lungs while in water they
and the alimentary canal as shown in the
can breathe with their skin or gills. They are
figure below
cold blooded.
REPTILES
These vertebrates live on land and their skins are

dry covered with scales. Their fertilization is
external. They are cold blooded animals. They
have well developed lungs for gaseous exchange.
MAMMALS
Animals in this group are warm blooded and are

also covered with hair in their bodiesThey Have
hammary glands. Furthermore, they have teeth
LOCOMOTION IN VERTEBRATES
of different types and sizes. Their gaseous
exchange is through lungs and have highly Locomotion is the ability of an organism to
developed brain. move from one place to another. It can be
also defined as a change in position of an
INTERNAL STRUCTURES OF VERTEBRATES organism from one place to another.
(a) INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A FISH Movement is the change in position of part
of the body of an organism. Generally,
If a fish is dissected, some of the organs that can locomotion is very important in living
be observed include: the liver, alimentary canal, organisms in the following ways;
testis or ovaries, kidneys, spines, gills as well as  It helps organisms to search for food.
urinary tract as shown in the figure below.  It helps animals to escape from danger.
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 It helps animal to find mates for

reproduction.
 It allows young animals to disperse
thereby preventing overcrowding.
Locomotion is brought about by the action of

muscles and bones of the skeleton.
LOCOMOTORY STRUCTURES IN FISH
The fish has fins; the fins help in controlling The fish also has other features that enable them
movements of fish in water. There are several to move in water. They have air filled sacs called
types of fins some of these fins are found singly swim bladder for buoyancy. Tail fin is long to
(unpaired) and others are found in pairs (paired). increase tail power to displace more water. They
Fish use fins as structures of locomotion. have strong tail muscles to create more force in
movement.
(a) Unpaired fins

 Tail fin – it is also known as caudal fin. This
fin is located at the end of the tail. The vertebral column is flexible to allow efficient
 Dorsal fin – it is found along the back or movement.
the dorsal part of the fish.
 Ventral fin – it is also known as anal fin. It
is found on the lower part of the fish. This LOMOTION IN FISH
side is also known as the ventral side.
Fish move through water which is more resistant
than air. This resistance is called drag. However,
(b) Paired fins fish overcome this drag by the following
 Pectoral fins – are found on the sides of the adaptations;
near the operculum.
 Pelvis fins – are found on the sides of the  They have stream lined body shape
body below the pectoral fin near the ventral  The backward pointing scales and the
edge. covering of mucus over the scales also
reduce friction.
During slow movements the fish uses all of its

fins. The paired fin e.g. pectoral and pelvis fins
are like the paddles. The caudal fin is used for
forward or backward movement while the dorsal
fin and anal fin are for mobility ie. Control rolling
of the fish and yawning (side to side movement).
Bony fish has air bladders which are used to
control its buoyancy. Fast forward movement is
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brought about by the side to side action of the to generate lift and also insulate the
tail and is caused by alternate contraction of bird, helping it to stay warm and
powerful muscles arranged down the side of the regulates its body temperature.
fish.
TYPES OF FEATHERS
LOCOMOTION IN BIRDS
There are four main types of feathers. These are;
Birds can run, swim but most of them fly. flight, contour, down and filoprumes.
FLIGHT OR QUILL FEATHERS
They are used for flight. They cover the large

wing and the tail. They are made up of a quill
which is hallow and light, vane which is flat and
made up of shaft and barbs. Barbs have branches
called barbules which have hooks.
ADAPTATIONS OF BIRDS
i. Have powerful and large flight muscle

which provide the power to flap the
wings in flight
ii. Have large sternum which has a deep CONTOUR FEATHER
keel, to which the flight muscles are
These are the feathers that cover the body of the
attached which forms a rigid
birds. Their functions
framework.
include providing
iii. Have streamlined shape to reduce air
streamlining shape of the
resistance
bird, camouflage and sexual
iv. Have very strong and light bones, in
display.
addition they contain air sacs which
lighten them even further thereby DOWN FEATHERS
overcoming gravity.
v. Birds wings acts as an aerofoil which These are feathers whose
generates lifts function is mainly for insulation. The whole vane
vi. they have feather which provide a large is loose due to absence of hooks.
surface area when the wings are flapped
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FILOPLUMES animal forward. The whole mechanism of

movement is controlled by the nervous system.
These are small hair like feathers which assist in
insulation. Down the filoprumes feathers are TISSUE OF THE SKELETON
found between the flight and contour feathers to
form a complete insulation. All birds have oil these are tough elastic tissue that join bones
glands on their tails which they obtain oil using together at a joint.
their beaks to smear the feathers to ensure that
they are water proof. Body temperature of birds Ligament is a strip of connective tissue
is higher than of the human beings as they have which attaches bones to each other. They
high metabolic rate to carter for more energy are made of proteins called collagen which is
needed for flight. flexible but resistant to stretching and
another protein called elastin which is more
MECHANISM OF FLIGHT IN BIRDS
elastic.
Flight is possible in birds because the birds wings
TENDONS-these are tough inelastic tissue
act as an aerofoil (an aerofoil is a structure with
curved surface which generates lift in flights) the
that joins muscles to bones. They are made
distance over the top of the wing is greater than of collagen, making them elastic. This means
the distance over the bottom of the wing thus that when muscles contract, it will move the
the air on top moves faster than the air on the bone and not just stretch the tendon.
bottom. this means that the air molecules
becomes more spaced out as they move over the
CARTILAGE-this is very flexible. It is a dense
top of the wing compared to those molecules fibrous tissue which acts as a shock absorber
moving over the bottom, this result in air and also reduces friction. Furthermore, it
pressure being less above the wing below it and joins the bones together for instance the
this generate an upward force called lift, in fact vertebral column and also provides support
the lift is generated on both the down and the for body parts that do not carry much
upper stroke, quill feather will tilt allowing air to weight.
flow between them, while on the down stroke
they lock into position, maximizing air resistance. BONE-this is a complex tissue in which living
The tail and the wings control steering. cells and long twisted protein called collagen
are supported by the crystals of a matrix
LOCOMOTION IN MAMMALS
formed by calcium and phosphate ions.
Mammals move by creating a propulsion force Bones provide support for our bodies and
that moves the body forward. This force is help form shape. The skull protects the brain
provided by the contraction of muscles of the and forms the shape of our face.
legs. As the muscles contract they move the
bone back and forth. The bones cause JOINTS
movement of the locomotory structures
This refers to a place where two or more
producing a propulsion force that moves the
bones meet. The movement of bones
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relative to each other can occur only at a moved from side to side and also up
joint. and down.
Adaptation of mammals to locomotion
The mammalian body is adapted to locomotion

in the following ways.
 Presence of skeleton – the bones of the

forelimb and those of the hind limb are
adapted to locomotion. The bones of the
Joints can be movable or immovable. hind limb are always longer than those of the
forelimb. This enables creation of greater
 Immovable joints are found in places like force to propel the body forward during
between bones of cranium called movement. The bones of the forelimb are
sutures, between the sacrum and the shorter to provide stability to the body
pelvic girdle. during movement.
 movable joints include;  Presence of muscles
i. Hinge joint- this allows movement of
The human body has more than 650 muscles,
the bones in one plane or one
which make up half of the person’s body weight.
direction only. For example elbow
They are connected to the bones by a tough cord
and knee joints.
like tissue called tendons which allow the muscle
to pull on the bones.
ii. Ball and socket joints- these are the
joints where the round head of one TYPES OF MUSCLES
bone fits into a socket or cavity of
another bone, allowing movements There are three types of muscle. these are
in all planes. Example includes hip skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles.
and shoulder joints. a) Skeletal muscles- These are also known
as voluntary or striated muscles. In fact
iii. Gliding joints-these are type of joints they are under organism conscious
where bones slide over one another. control. They move the bones of the
This type of joint is found in the wrist skeleton. They are attached to tondons
between carpals and in the ankle which join to the bones. They work by
between the tarsal. contraction only. this implies that to
iv. Pivot joints- these joints are found move a bone it requires two sets of
between the atlas and the axis muscles, when one set contacts it moves
vertebrae. They permit rotation in all the bone in one direction, and when the
sides for example a head can be other contracts it moves the bone in
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opposite direction. These two sets of  Presence of ligaments – Ligaments joins a

muscles work in opposite direction. bone to a bone at the joints. This makes sure
These two muscles work in opposite to that the two bones do not separate even
each other are called antagonistic when strong movement activity is taking
muscle, thus pair muscle which on place.
contraction, and produce opposite Some animals such as the carnivore have flexible
effects to each other. trunks due to a flexible backbone. This enhances
b) Cardiac or heart muscle- this is a special flexibility of the whole body during locomotion.
form of muscle which occurs in the walls
of the heart. They are very strong and
does not get tire until the organisms die.
FUNCTIONS OF THE HUMAN SKELETON
 Presence of movable joints – Locomotion is a) Attachment of muscles and
enhanced by the presence of hinge joints
movement.
 and ball and socket joints. These joints allow
the bone to move freely to enhance faster b) Maintenance of the body shape.
movement. Joints are found where two c) Storage of calcium and phosphate
bones meet. The surface of bones at the ions.
joints is covered by a cartilage tissue to
absorb shock and reduce friction during d) Production of blood cells.
movement.
 Presence of tendons – These are tough Protection of vital organs e.g. brain is
connective tissues that join a muscle to a protected by bones of cranium.
bone.
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TOPIC 4: THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Feeding is one of the basic characteristics of There are two types of digestion. These
all living things. Both plants and animals are physical and chemical digestion.
need food for their everyday activities.
A) PHYSICAL OR MECHANICAL
However, most of the foods that are eaten
DIGESTION
by animals are not in a form that can be
readily absorbed and used by the body. As a This refers to the breaking down of large
matter of fact, most foods that animals eat particles of food without changing its
are insoluble and cannot pass through the chemical or molecular make up. This
cell membranes into cells. Furthermore, implies that, when food has been
most foods are chemically different from digested physically, it is just reduced in
substances that make up body tissues. its size without forming any new
Meaning to say, the food has to be substances. In the alimentary canal, this
processed and rendered into a state that can type of digestion takes place in the
be readily absorbed by the body. This topic mouth, stomach and duodenum. In the
purports to explore how large particles of mouth it is accomplished by the action of
food are broken down into smaller particles teeth in a process called mastication
and how these food particles are used by the (chewing) while in the stomach it is done
body. by the churning movements. In the
duodenum it is done by the action of bile
DIGESTION
which breaks down large particles of fats
This refers to the process by which large into smaller molecules in a process called
particles of food substances are broken emulsification. Generally, physical
down into smaller particles. The process of digestion renders the food in a state that
digestion makes insoluble food particles to can subsequently be accessed easily by
be soluble there by maximizing their rate of enzymes during chemical digestion.
absorption. The digested food which is in
IMPORTANCE OF PHYSICAL DIGESTION
solution form, passes through the walls of
intestine and eventually enters the blood  It makes food easy to swallow.
stream through the process of absorption.  It increases the surface area of the
Furthermore, digestion makes food easy to food thereby enabling digestive
swallow and also increases its surface area enzymes to act or work on it easily.
so that enzymes can work on it easily. B) CHEMICAL DIGESTION
This refers to the breakdown of large

TYPES OF DIGESTION complex molecules of food into smaller
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soluble molecules by the action of chemicals they cannot function properly. It should also
called enzymes. be noted that when the temperature is very
low, the enzymes become inactive. The
An enzyme is a protein that works as a
graph below summarises the effect of
biological catalyst. A catalyst is a substance
temperature on enzymatic reactions.
that can alter the rate of chemical reaction
without itself being altered. Thus enzymes
speed up chemical reaction in the alimentary  Enzymes are pH dependent.
canal without themselves being used up or
changed. All enzymes are proteins.
PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES
 Enzymes are specific to the reaction

they catalyze.
The substance on which an enzyme acts is

called its substrate. The substrate molecule
fits into a cleft in the enzyme molecule,
called the active site. They must fit exactly,
like a key fitting into a lock. This means that The reaction of enzymes also depends on the
each kind of enzyme can only work on one measure of acidity or alkalinity of its
kind of substrate whose molecules fits and environment. This is due to the fact that pH
binds. can also affect the shape of the active site. It
does this by affecting the forces that hold
 Enzymes are temperature dependent. the enzyme molecule together. A change in
Like most chemical reactions, the rate of pH can stop the enzyme completely.
enzyme-controlled reactions increases as Different enzymes work best at different pH
the temperature increases. The temperature values. Eg. Stomach enzymes for instance
when the enzyme is working fastest is called pepsin and rennin work best in acidic
the optimum temperature. In human beings conditions. Mouth enzymes like ptyalin work
the optimum temperature for enzyme best in neutral conditions. In fact, every
controlled reactions is 37oC – 40oC. enzyme works best at a specific pH.
However, if temperature is higher than the
optimum temperature the structure of the  Enzymes are Proteins in nature.
enzyme changes. As a result, the active site Enzymes are protein molecules made
becomes a different shape and the substrate up of long chains of amino acids.
no longer fits this process is called These long chains are folded to
denaturation. When denaturation occurs, produce a special shape which
enzymes are destroyed to the extent that
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enables other molecules to fit into Digestive enzymes are categorized according
the enzyme. to the food substances which they act upon.
. The main types of these digestive enzymes
include proteases which act on protein foods
However, it should be noted that not all
and examples include pepsin, renin, trypsin,
enzymes are digestive enzymes, some
and peptidase; lipase which act catalyses the
enzymes catalyzes other metabolic
breakdown of lipids into fatty acids and
processes in the body for instance thrombin
glycerol and finally carbohydrase (amylase)
is used in blood clotting, carbonic anhydrase
which act on carbohydrates and examples
is used for conversion of carbon dioxide into
include salivary amylase (ptyalin), pancreatic
carbonic acid during respiration.
amylase, maltase, sucrose and lactase.
TYPES OF DIGESTIVE ENZYMES
A summary of enzymes and their functions
Name of enzyme Digestive juice Site for Where the Food acted Product
containing the production enzymes upon
enzyme of juice acts
Ptyalin Saliva Salivary Mouth Cooked Maltose

glands starch
Pepsin Gastric Stomach Stomach Proteins Polypeptides
Lipase Pancreatic Pancreas Duodenum Fats Fatty acids

and glycerol
Trypsin Pancreatic Pancreas Duodenum Polypeptides Peptides
Pancreatic Pancreatic Pancreas Duodenum Uncooked Maltose

amylase starch
Sucrase Intestinal Small Ileum Sucrose Glucose and

intestine starch
Maltase Intestinal Small Ileum Maltose Glucose

intestine
Lactase Intestinal Small Ileum Lactose Glucose and

intestine galactose
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THE HUMAN ALIMENTARY CANAL
Digestion in human beings takes place in a

special system called alimentary canal or gut
which runs from the mouth to anus. Apart
from digestion, the following processes also
takes place in alimentary canal
 Ingestion - taking in of solid food into the

mouth.
 Absorption - entering of food into blood
stream.
 Assimilation - this is the process by
which food is made part of the body and
used for different activities for example
respiration.
 Egestion – the removal of indigested
food by anus.
Generally, the human alimentary canal has

the following characteristics
(i) It is lubricated with mucus – this

helps in easy movement of food
during peristalsis and also
prevents the lining of the canal
from being damaged by the acid
found in some parts
(ii) It has a dense network of blood
capillaries – this enhances the
process of absorption especially
in the ileum.
(iii) Numerous digestive glands are
present in designated places-
these are responsible for
production of enzymes
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1. THE MOUTH (BUCCAL CAVITY) action of salivary amylase (ptyalin). It is

also lubricated and moistened for easy
Food enters the mouth in a process called
swallowing by the mucus and saliva
ingestion. After ingestion, it is digested
respectively.
physically by the action of the teeth in a
process called mastication (chewing). 2. OESOPHAGUS
Generally, there are four different sets of
After chewing, a bolus is formed by the
teeth in the mouth responsible for this
tongue, it is swallowed and enter the
mastication namely; the incisors, the
oesophagus which is a muscular tissue
canines, the premolars and the molars. The
running from back of the mouth to stomach.
incisors bite the food chunk while the
Swallowing starts as a voluntary action but
canines tear it and the premolars in
later becomes an involuntary action. During
conjunction with molars grind the food.
swallowing, the epiglottis seals the trachea,
Furthermore, while the food is still in the
preventing food from entering the wind
mouth, the tongue mixes it with saliva which
pipe. The oesophagus has two types of
is produced by three pairs of the salivary
smooth muscles namely; the circular and
glands to form bolus. The saliva contains
longitudinal muscles. The contraction of
four substances namely; salivary amylase,
these muscles is responsible for movement
mucus, water and salts.
of food along the alimentary canal. This
 The salivary amylase- this is also called movement is called peristalisis. Little
ptyalin. It is an enzyme which starts digestion of cooked starch continues in the
chemical digestion of cooked starch to oesophagus and sometimes it doesn’t occur
disaccharide called maltose at all.
 The mucus-is very important in
3. STOMACH
lubricating the food for easy swallowing
and formation of a bolus which is a ball This is the muscular bag where food is stored
like structure formed after food particles for processing later by the rest of the
have stuck together. alimentally canal. Apart from storing food
 Water-moisten the food and dissolves temporarily, the stomach wall also produces
the soluble food substances for example hydrochrolic acid , gastric juice and mucus.
glucose The entry point of the stomach has a ring of
 The salt- neautrises the PH in the mouth muscles called cardiac sphincter which
in order for the salivary amylase to act on prevents the food from going back into the
the cooked starch easily. oesophagus and further allowing gases
swallowed with food to escape. When food
In a nutshell, when food enters the
enters the stomach, starch digestion stops
mouth, it is digested physically by the
because salivary amylase is not active due to
action of the teeth and chemically by the
the presence of hydrochloric acid. The
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chemical digestion of proteins starts in the amount of chime into the duodenum, the
stomach due to the presence of proteases first part of the small intestines.
like pepsin and rennin.
The gastric juice which is produced by 4. The small intestines

gastric glands in the walls of the stomach
This is the longest part of the alimentary
contains several substances for instance;
canal, almost 7m long. It is where most of
pepsin, rennin, hydrochloric acid and water.
chemical digestion and absorption takes
These substances play the following roles;
place and perhaps completed. The
 Pepsin – a protease secreted in an completion of digestion is made possible due
inactive form pepsinogen and it to presence of pancreatic juice, bile an
catalyses the hydrolysis of proteins to intestinal juice. Infact the small intestine
peptides. comprises duodenum, jejunum and ileum.
 Renin- another protease mainly found in
i. Duodenum- this is the first part of the
children in large quantities and it
small intestines, it is the region where
coagulates milk proteins (casein),
food is mixed with bile and pancreatic
thereby increasing their surface area for
juices. Bile is produced by the liver
pepsin to work on them easily.
stored by the gall bladder and conducted
 Hydrochloric Acid – this substance plays
to duodenum by bile duct while
different roles for instance
pancreatic juice is produced by the
- Creating acidic environment (pH 1.5 – 4)
pancreas. The bile is an alkaline green
in the stomach to ceate optimum PH for
watery fluid which contain inorganic
pepsin and rennin.
salts and organic salts. The inorganic
- converting active pepsin from passive
salts neutralizes the acidic chime coming
pepsinogen.
from stomach while the organic salt
- dissolving bones that might have been
emulsify lipids. Emulsification is a
taken together with food.
process by which large molecules of fats
- -Providing body immunity by killing
are broken down into smaller molecules.
germs for example bacteria ingested
The emulsification increases the surface
with food.
area on which the lipids digestive
 Water- it continues dissolving the
enzymes can work on, this is physical
products of digestion.
digestion as it involves reducing the size
As food is being churned and mixed by of lipids particles without changing their
peristalsis, chime is produced . At the exit form and also because no enzyme is
point of stomach there is another ring of used. The bile also contains some waste
muscles called pyloric sphincter muscles products produced by the liver. the
which relaxes at intervals releasing small pancreatic juice is also an alkaline fluid
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with PH within 7-8. It contains trypsin, Absorption is the process by which the small
lipase, pancreatic amylase and salts. The soluble molecules of food enter the blood
trypsin catalyses the hydrolysis of and lymph from the lumen of alimentary
proteins to peptides while the lipase canal. It mainly takes place in the ileum. the
catalyses the hydrolysis of lipids to fatty ileum is adapted to this function in the
acids and glycerol. The pancreatic following ways
amylase catalyses the hydrolysis of
a) It is the longest part of the alimentary
starch to maltose while the salts
canal, ensuring that most of the soluble
neutralizes the acidic chime from
food is absorbed, thus providing a large
stomach to creatre optimum pH for the
surface area for absorption.
action of lipase, trypsin and pancreatic
b) It has inner surface highly folded into
amylase.
finger like structures called villi. This
ii. Jejunum- this is the middle part of the
produces a very large surface area for
small intestines.
absorption of the end products of
iii. Ileum-this is the longest part of the small
digestion.
intestines which is about 6m long. The
lining of the ileum contains glands which
Structure of a Villus
produces intestinal juice containing the
following enzymes.
a) Lipase- responsible for chemical
digestion of lipids into fatty acids and
glycerol
b) Maltose-responsible for chemical
digestion of maltose into glucose.
c) Lactase-responsible for chemical
digestion of lactose into glucose and
galactose.
d) Sucrose-catalyses the hydrolysis of
sucrose to glucose and fructose.
e) Peptidase-catalyses the hydrolysis of c) The ileum has dense network of blood
peptides into amino acids. It also capillaries called lacteals to pick up
contain the mucus which prevent the molecules produced by digestion and
enzymes which digest proteins from transport them away from the
digesting the walls of intestines. alimentary canal.
Digestion is completed in the ileum by
the enzymes listed above. Furthermore the ileum is also adapted for
completion of digestion by having good PH
ABSORPTION IN THE ILEUM and production of different enzymes and
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presence of epithelium (a single layered ASSIMILATION

membrane) which covers the villi and allows
Once absorbed into the blood stream, the
dissolved substances to pass through the
molecules produced by digestion are taken
blood capillaries and lacteals. Its cell has
by the hepatic portal vein to the liver. These
many mitochondria. Lacteal absorbs the
end products include glucose, amino acids,
following substances; glycerol, fatty acids,
fatty acids and glycerol. The liver process
and fat soluble vitamins like vitamin A,D,E
these end products in the following ways
and K. Other food substances like fructose,
galactose, amino acids and water soluble i. Glucose- Most glucose is transported out
vitamins like vitamin B and C are taken by the liver through hepatic portal vein to
blood. different parts of the body where it is
used for respiration. However excess
The blood capillaries from the ileum join
glucose is converted to glycogen for
together to form hepatic portal vein which
storage by the liver.
carries glucose and other products to the
ii. Amino acids- They are synthesized into
liver where they are stored temporarily or
blood proteins like prothombin and
processed by liver before being transported
fibrinogen while some are taken to
to other tissues
different glands both endocrine and
Glycerol and fatty acids which pass into the exocrine gland for synthesis of hormone
lacteals are transported through the and enzymes respectively. Excess amino
lymphatic system. At the end of the ileum acids are broken down in a process called
there found the appendix and caecum which deamination where the amine group is
has no specific role in digestion. converted to urea as a waste product
and the carboxyl (acid) group is
THE LARGE INTESTINES
converted into glucose in a process
a) COLON- it is wider than ileum and its called transmination which is later
ridged lining contains many mucus cells. converted into Glycogen (animal starch )
Digestion doesn’t take place in the colon, which is stored in the liver and muscles
rather the colon play the following roles, for future use.
absorbing of mineral salts, preparing iii. Fatty acids and glycerol- These are used
faeces for egesting for respiration and excess are taken out
b) RECTUM- this part stores faeces for to connective tissues or different vital
about 24 hours before being egested parts of the body and under the skin for
through the anus during DEFAECATION. storage as fats.
the anus has anal sphincter which when
FUNCTIONS OF THE LIVER IN RELATION TO
it relaxes the faeces are released.
DIGESTION
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The liver is the second largest organ, reddish to form another amino acid. During this process,
brown in colour which lies just before the the liver makes amino acids that are deficient in
diaphragm in the body. It has several functions. the diet. It does this by transferring amino
The following are the functions of the liver in groups from one available amino acid to an
digestion; organic molecule like a sugar or an acid to form
the required amino acid. For instance glutamic
acid can be made by removing an amino group
A. PRODUCTION OF BILE from alamine and combining it with an organic
sugar. Alamine → Amino group + Organic acid
The liver produces bile by breaking down red
→ Glutamic acid
blood cells into green and yellow pigments. Bile
is passed to the duodenum through the bile duct.
Bile is a greenish liquid.it contains bile salts like
E. CONTROL OF LIPIDS
sodium bicarbonate and bile pigments. Bile salts
play a big role in digestion fats. They split up fat The liver controls the amount of lipids in the
in the digestive system into tiny fat droplets in a blood. One of the lipids that the liver controls is
process called emulsification. cholesterol which also makes. Cholesterol is
necessary for the formation of membranes. It
has a very low solubility in body fluids.
B. STORAGE ORGAN
The first function of the liver in related to Excess cholesterol may form deposits in the
digestion is this that it acts as a storage organ. As arteries leading to heart attack and stroke in
a matter of fact, the liver stores a lot of severe cases. Gallstones may be formed as a
substances like iron, potassium, vitamins like result of accumulation of excess insoluble
Vitamin A,B,C,D, E and K cholesterol in the gall bladder.
C. DEAMINATION
F. CONTROL OF SUGAR
Amino acids are the end products of protein
Under the influence of insulin, the liver converts
digestion. Because excess amino acids cannot be
excess glucose and amino acids to glycogen for
stored in the body, they are broken down in the
storage when are above their normal content.
liver in a process called deamination. From each
Glycogen I an insoluble carbohydrate. Under the
amino acids, the amino group (𝑁𝐻2 ) is changed
influence of glucagon, it converts the stored
to ammonia (𝑁𝐻3 ). The rest of the amino acid
glycogen to glucose when blood sugar levels are
molecule is changed o glycogen or fat for
below normal.
storage. The ammonia produced from the amino
group is very quickly converted to a less toxic
substance, which is usually urea.
MAIN FOOD SUBSTANCES (FOOD
NUTRIENTS)
D. TRANSAMINATION
Food nutrients are chemical substances that
This refers to the transfer of an amino group
are found in food and have a specific
from one amino acid to another substance so as
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function. As a matter of fact, there are six (iii) Galactose – single sugar found in
food nutrients namely carbohydrates, milk
proteins, fats/lipids, vitamins, minerals and
water. II. DISACCHARIDES
A. CARBOHYDRATES These are sugars consisting of two

monosaccharides molecules. Generally,
These are organic compounds made of
disaccharides have the following properties
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The
proportion of hydrogen to oxygen atoms is They are sweeter than
always two to one as in water as shown in monosaccharides
the general formula for carbohydrates which They are soluble in water
is (CH2O)n where n is a number between 3 They are white crystalline solids
and several thousands. Carbohydrates are They have general 𝒄𝟏𝟐 𝑯𝟐𝟐 𝑶𝟏𝟏
further categorized into three classes. These
are monosaccharides, disaccharides and Examples of disaccharides include
polysaccharides (i) Maltose – this is a double sugar
I. MONOSACCHARIDES made up of two glucose
molecules. it is produced from
These are simple sugars which consist of the breakdown of starch in
single molecule. Generally, animals
monosaccharides have the following (ii) Sucrose – this is a double sugar
properties made up of glucose and fruictose.
It is found in plants especially
They are faintly sweet
sugar cane and sugar beets
They are soluble in water
(iii) Lactose – this is a double sugar
They are crystalline solids
made of glucose and galactose. It
They are found in many edible fruits
is also called milk sugar as it is
and honey
common found in milk of
They have a general formula of
mammals
𝒄𝟔 𝑯𝟏𝟐 𝑶𝟔
III. POLYSACCHARIDES
Examples of monosaccharides include
These are sugars made up of thousands
(i) Glucose - Common sugar of monosaccharides. The following are
common sugar used by animals their general properties
and plants for respiration
They are insoluble in water
(ii) Fructose fruit sugar which is fairly
They are tasteless
sweet
They are not crystalline solids
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Examples of polysaccharides include down by adding water molecule to them. For

instance
(i) Starch –this is the form by which all
glucose is stored in plants
(ii) Glycogen – this is the storage form of
glucose in animals
(iii) Cellulose – the carbohydrate which
form the cell wall in plant cells
(iv) Chitin – this is the material that makes
B. PROTEINS
up the exoskeleton of insects.
These are complex organic molecules and
REACTIONS IN CARBOHYDRATES there are millions of different sorts each
adapted to carry a specific function, for
Carbohydrates undergo two main reactions
example
namely condensation and hydrolysis.
(i) Catalysts for example enzymes
(a) CONDENSATION
(ii) Transport proteins like
This refers to a condition whereby two or haemoglobin
more molecules combine to produce a large (iii) Antibodies which fight diseases
molecule plus water. For example, (iv) Contractile proteins found in
monosaccharides can build up to form muscles
disaccharides and polysaccharides by (v) Hormones
condensation reaction.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF PROTEINS
Proteins are made up four elements namely

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
However, Sulphur and phosphorus are also
commonly found in some protein molecules.
Virtually, proteins are built from smaller
molecules called amino acids. Naturally,
there about twenty types of amino acids of
which any type can combine together to
form different protein molecules. Other
amino acids can be made by our bodies while
others cannot be made by our bodies. Those
(b) HYDROLYSIS
that cannot be made by our bodies are called
This is one of the most important reactions essential amino acids. These essential amino
in digestion. Large molecules are broken acids are supplied to the body by protein
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foods that are consumed. Some protein ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is much greater
giving foods contains all ten essential amino than that of carbohydrates which is 2:1. For
acids for example animal proteins while example a beef fat molecule is 𝐶57 𝐻110 𝑂7.
others do not contain all the essential amino Fats and oils are important sources of
acids for example most plant proteins. energy; in fact, they contain relatively more
energy than carbohydrates. Fats are solid at
In view of this, the former are called first
room temperature while oils are liquid at
class proteins or proteins of high biological
room temperature. Generally, lipids
value (HBV) while the latter are called
molecules are made up of two basic
second class proteins or proteins of low
elements which are, glycerol and fat acids.
biological value (LBV). The main functions of
Lipids are broken down into glycerol and
proteins include
fatty acids during digestion in a process
 Growth of new cells called hydrolysis.
 Replacement of dead cells and lost
PROPERTIES OF LIPIDS
cells
 Repair of dead cells due to accidents All lipids are insoluble in water but
or illness soluble in organic solvents for
 Provision of energy when there are example ethanol.
not enough fats or carbohydrates in Fats are solid at room temperature
the diet but melt easily with high
temperatures while oils are liquid at
When the proteins are digested, the end
room temperature
products are amino acids. However, excess
amino acids are not stored in the body; FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
rather, they are broken down by the liver
(a) They provide energy to the body
into amine group and carboxyl group in a
(b) Some lipids are used in formation of
process called deamination. The carboxyl
cell membrane
group which is made up of carbon, hydrogen
(c) Fats stored under the skin are used
and oxygen is converted into glycogen which
for insulation
is stored in the liver for future use, while the
(d) They are used for oxidation
amine group which is made up of
nitrogeneous compounds is excreted after it
D. VITAMINS
is converted into ammonia then urea. Vitamins are organic substances
C. LIPIDS needed in small amounts in the diet.
Vitamin C is found in fresh fruit and
The most common lipids are fats and oils. vegetables. It is needed to make the
Like carbohydrates, they are made up of protein collagen, which is essential
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. However, the for the formation of skin. A shortage
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of vitamin C causes scurvy. Vitamin D faeces. This can be prevented by the

is found in many plant foods and is inclusion of roughages in the diet.
made in the skin when sunlight falls DIARRHOEA
onto it. It is needed to help calcium This is a condition in which large
be absorbed and used in the body. A intestines fail to absorb water
shortage of vitamin D causes rickets. thereby producing large quantities of
E. MINERALS watery fluids. This is caused mainly
Minerals are inorganic ions needed by infection and indigestion
by the body. Iron is needed for the ULCERS
formation of haemoglobin, and a
This occur either in the stomach or
shortage causes anaemia. Calcium is
needed for the formation of teeth small intestine due to either little
and bones, as well as for blood production of mucus or too much
clotting. hydrochloric acid.
HEARTBURN
F. WATER This is caused by acidic foods from
Water is needed as a solvent for the stomach when it goes into the
metabolic reactions, as a transport
oesophagus.
medium in blood, for cooling when it
evaporates from the body and as a INDIGESTION
reactant in several metabolic This applies in general to all
reactions sensations of discomfort in the
stomach or duodenum. It is caused
by eating too much food or
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE
accumulation of gases in the
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
stomach.
CONSTIPATION NAUSEA
This refers to the retention of the Is either a sign of infection or allergy
contents of the lower alimentary substances where one feels like
canal (large intestine with vomiting.
undigested foods) for long periods.
The urge to defecate is depressed
and it becomes difficult to expel
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TOPIC 5: THE HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYTEM

Living organisms need constant supply of pulmonary circulation, blood is pumped
different useful substances for example food from the heart to the lungs for purification
nutrients, oxygen. These substances are and back to the heart. On the hand, in
supposed to be transported throughout the systematic circulation, blood is pumped
body of an organism. In addition, the waste from the heart to all parts of the body and
products that are produced during from all parts of the body back to the heart.
metabolic processes for example urea, This implies that in double circulation, blood
carbon dioxide and sweat are also supposed passes through the heart twice in each
to be removed from the body before they circuit around the body and the heart is a
accumulate to harmful levels. As such, there double pump. Other animals, for example
is a need for transport system in all fish have a single circulatory system in which
organism. blood is pumped from the heart to the gills
then to all parts of the body and thereafter
In human beings, there are two main
back to the heart. Human circulatory system
transport systems namely the circulatory
comprises the heart, blood vessels and blood
system which is also known as blood system
and the lymphatic system. FUNCTIONS OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
THE HUMAN CIRCULATORY SYTEM The function of circulatory system can be

divided into three main categories.
The circulatory system is an organ system
responsible for transportation of different a) Transportation of different
substances for instances food nutrients, substances for instance
gases, and waste substances within the cells -food nutrients from ileum to all
of mammalian animals. In human beings and parts of the body
other vertebrates, the circulatory system is - oxygen from the lungs to
closed. This means that the blood circulates respiratory tissues
in specialized tubes known as blood vessels - waste products from tissues to
hence there is no direct contact between excretory organs
blood and cells. However, some animals for - hormones from endocrine glands to
example insects, have open circulatory target organs
system whereby the blood and the cells have - antibodies and white blood cells to
direct contact. Furthermore, human sites of infection.
circulatory system is an example of a double - Distribution of heat in the body.
circulatory system as it involves two distinct b) Defense of the body against
circulations namely the pulmonary infections by
circulation and the systematic circulation. In - Blood clotting
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- Action of phagocytes
- Action of antibodies
c) Regulation of
-body temperature
-water levels
-nutrient levels in the body
PARTS OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
(A) THE HEART
The heart is surrounded by a double layered

membrane which forms a pericardial cavity
which is filled with a fluid called pericardial
fluid. This fluid prevents friction between
the heart and the chest cavity. The function
of the heart is to pump blood around the
THE FLOW OF BLOOD IN THE HEART
body. It is made up of special type of muscles
called cardiac muscles. These muscles are Deoxygenated blood from different parts of
very strong and never tires. They contract the body enters the heart through the
and relax throughout life. They are supplied venacava to the right auricles then
by necessary substances like glucose and thereafter to the right ventricles before they
oxygen by coronary artery. flow to the lungs through pulmonary artery.
Between the right atrium and the right
The human heart is made up of four
ventricles there found a structure called
chambers. The two upper chambers are
triscupid valve which prevents the back flow
called the atria or auricles. The remaining
of blood. Further the semi lunar valves
two down chambers are called ventricles.
found in the pulmonary arteries and veins
Ventricles and auricles are separated by a
also prevents backflow of blood. In the lungs
structure called septum.
blood is oxygenated. The oxygenated blood
coming from the lungs enter the heart
through the pulmonary vein into the left
THE STRUCTURE OF THE HEART auricle then to the left ventricles which
pump the blood to the different parts of the
body through aorta. Generally, the function
of auricles is to receive blood, hence their
walls are thin since they don’t need to exert
force on the blood as it enters the ventricles.
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The ventricles on other hand are responsible  The bicuspid and tricuspid valves open to
for the pumping of blood. Hence they have fill the ventricles
thick walls so that they can exert enough  At the same time, the semi lunar valves
pressure on the blood when they contract. close to prevent blood from flowing back
However, the left ventricles are thicker than into the ventricles
the right ventricles as the left ventricles
pump blood over a long distance. In fact the The pressure exerted during systole is called
right ventricles, pump blood from the heart systolic pressure while that exerted during
to the lungs while the left ventricles pump diastole is called diastolic pressure. The rate
blood from the heart to all parts of the body. of heart beat or pulse rate varies with age,
size, health and physical activity. A typical
HOW DOES THE HEART WORKS? resting pulse for an adult is 84 beats per
minute for females and 70 beats per minute
This is quite complex because several things
for males. This increase to 200 beats per
happen at the same time. Each heart beat
minute during physical exercise.
involves a series of events occurring in
different parts of the heart and occurs in two
major phases known as systole and diastole.
BLOOD VESSELS
SYSTOLE
There are three types of blood vessels
During systole the following things occur at a namely
time
 Arteries
 Ventricles muscle contract at a time,  Veins
thereby reducing volume of the  Capillaries
heart.
ARTERIES
 The increase of blood pressure in the
ventricles closes tricuspid and These are blood vessels that carry
bicuspid valves, preventing blood oxygenated blood away from the heart to
from flowing back into the auricles. the body tissue where they are used for
 The semi lunar valves open and blood respiration. They have thick walls and
enter aorta and pulmonary artery. narrow lumen (cavities) which enable them
to withstand pressure exerted by the
DIASTOLE
pumping force of blood. Arteries have no
During diastole, the following things occur at valves along their length. The largest artery
a time is called aorta and it divides into many
arteries which further divide into several
 The ventricle muscles relax, thereby
increasing the volume of the ventricles
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arterioles and the capillaries are joined to

these arterioles.
CAPILLARIES
VEINS
These are the smallest blood vessels which
These are blood vessels that carry have the following properties.
(i) They have narrow lumen which allow

red blood cells to flow in a single file.
This narrowness makes the volume
of blood in them to be the smallest
although there are millions of them.
The advantage of this narrowness is
that it increases the rate of
absorption of oxygen in the lungs,
release of oxygen and glucose in the
respiring cells and rate of blood flow
is reduced giving more time for
material exchange.
deoxygenated blood to the heart from body
(ii) They have very thin walls consisting
tissues. They have thin walls and wide lumen
of single layer of flattened cells . This
and blood flows in them without pressure.
allows useful substances like oxygen
However, veins have valves at intervals
and glucose and metabolic wastes
which prevent back flow of blood.
such as carbon dioxide to diffuse
Furthermore, blood in veins flow due to
through easily, hence capillaries are
movement of skeletal muscle around them.
centre for exchange.
(iii) Capillaries form a dense network so
much that every cell is very close to
the capillary. Capillaries form a
bridge between arteries and veins.
Infact, the capillaries join up to form
smaller veins called venules which
join to form veins and finally join to
the largest vein called venacava.
The largest vein is called VENACAVA (B) BLOOD
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Blood is made up of liquid and solid haemoglobin . They are made in the bone
substances. The solid part of blood marrows of flat bones and at the end of long
comprises blood cells and platelets while the
bones. RBCs are elastic , which means that
liquid part of blood is made up of plasma.
they can squeeze through capillaries which
PLASMA
have a diameter smaller than of red blood
It is a straw coloured liquid which transports cells. The cytoplasm of RBC is full of
dissolved substances and blood cells. Almost
haemoglobin , which is a protein which
90% of blood plasma is water which serves
as the solvent for the other 10% of dissolved contains iron and has high affirnity for
substances which include. oxygen. haemoglobin readily combines with
 Mineral ions oxygen in oxygen in high oxygen
 End products of digestion like glucose , concentration region like lungs forming a
amino acids, fatty acids and glycerols bright red compound called
 Water products like uric acid and carbon OXYHAEMOGLOBIN. Oxygen is carried by
dioxide red blood cells to areas where the cells are
 Blood proteins for example fibrinogen, respiring, releasing oxygen for use by
prothrombin, antigens and antibodies respiring cells. Red blood cells live for about
120 days in the circulation there after it is
BLOOD CELLS
broken down by the liver into iron and other
There are two main types of blood cells. toxic substances. The iron is stored in the
These include; Red blood cells and white liver for future use while the toxic
blood cells substances are converted into bile pigment
before and they are then excreted.
(a) THE RED BLOOD CELLS
(erythrocytes)
These cells do not have nuclei. They are STRUCTURE OF THE RED BLOOD CELLS
about 0.008mm in diameter and have a
biconcave disc shape which increases the
volume of each cell in order to
accommodate more red pigments called
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THE WHITE BLOOD CELLS
(LEUKOCYTES)
The white blood cells are large and fewer

than the red blood cells. Furthermore, white (c) The lymphocytes
blood cells have nuclei unlike the RBC . The
These cells are identified by their large nuclei
WBC, especially the phagocytes are irregular
which are either oval or spherical. These
in shape.
cells are mostly produced in the lymph
TYPES OF WHITE BLOOD CELLS nodes and spleen .
(a)THE PHAGOCYTES
They are made in the bone marrows of short

bones and at centre of lower bones. They
can be identified by their distinct nuclei
which are lobbed. Their function is to engulf
and digest foreign particles like bacteria.
They are capable of moving like amoeba and
can pass out of capillaries into the spaces
between the spaces of cells where they
engulf bacteria and other pathogens
Lymphocytes are classified into two groups

namely the B- lymphocytes and the T-
lymphocytes
(i) The B- Lymphocytes
These lymphocytes produce and secretes

special proteins called antibodies into
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blood. These antibodies attack invading fibers which traps blood cells there by
foreign organisms forming a blood clot. The blood clot is
important because it prevents further loss
(ii) The T-Lymphocytes
of blood and also prevents the entry of
These lymphocytes are further categorized foreign particles into the body.
into two groups namely the helper T cells
If blood clot forms inside the blood vessel it
and the killer T cells. The helper T cells
can cause a heart attack or stroke. During
produce chemical substances which provide
blood transfusion, the blood is prevented
communication among the cells of the
from clotting by adding an anticoagulant
immune system. The killer T cells produce
called sodium citrate. Sucking insects of
chemical substances which kill directly the
blood like mosquitoes also produce
foreign organisms. White blood cells have a
anticoagulants which prevent the blood
very short life span. HIV Attacks the helper T
from clotting.
cells hence AIDS patients have damaged
immune system which make them prone to THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
different infections.
As blood enters capillaries from the
PLATELETS arterioles, it enters with high pressure which
is created by the pumping action of the heart
These are fragments formed by the
and reduction in the lumen from arteries to
disintegration of large cells in the bone
capillaries. This pressure forces a fluid out of
marrow. Like WBC, platelets are irregular in
the capillary between the cells that make up
shape and have no nuclei. Their main
the cell wall of the capillaries. This fluid is
function is to help in blood clotting. Blood
called tissue fluid and it contains plasma
clotting simply means hardening of the
without fibrinogen and red blood cells and
wound at the site of cut. For this process to
white blood cells can squeeze through the
occur, the following substances are
small gaps in the capillary wall and integrates
required; platelets, prothrombin,
with the fluid. This means that the blood
fibrinogen, calcium ions and vitamin K.
remaining behind in the capillary lumen
When blood vessel is cut, blood comes out.
becomes concentrated. As a result, the fluid
When platelets come in contact with
starts to move back into the capillary
atmospheric air, they disintegrate producing
towards the venous ends of the capillary
an enzyme called prothrombokinase or
where the blood pressure is lower. Water
prombroplastin. This enzyme converts
moves back into capillaries by osmosis. This
passive enzymes prothrombin into an active
tissue fluid bathes the cells in the tissue
enzyme called thrombin. In the presence of
surrounding the capillaries. However, not all
calcium ions and vitamins, thrombin
the tissue fluid is reabsorbed back into the
converts the soluble fibrinogen into an
capillaries because the pressure of fluid in
insoluble fibrin. Fibrin form a meshwork of
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the capillary is too high. This fluid turns to PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE
the blood by another route called the CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
lymphatic system. Some tissue fluid drains
A number of diseases can affect blood
into another set of vessels called lymph
vessels. Blocking of blood vessels by blood
capillaries to form lymph. Lymph capillaries
clots can cause major problems with the
gradually join up to form large lymph. There
circulation of the blood. Some of these
is no pumping action in the lymphatic problems are
system. Lymph moves along the lymph
vessels because of the following factors Heart failure
This a condition whereby the cardiac
i. The presence of valves in the lymph muscles are unable to pump enough
vessels which prevents the backflow blood for the requirements of the body.
As such, blood vessels narrow to keep
of lymph
blood pressure up and divert blood away
ii. Movement of the skeletal muscles from less important tissues and organs
iii. The lymph in the other part of the to maintain flow to the most vital
body like arms and the head is moved organs, the heart and the brain. During
along the vessel by gravity. this time the patient does not know that
he has a heart failure problem. When
Along the lymph vessels, there are lymph the heart can no longer adapt to the
nodes which have tiny spaces in which lymph problem the symptoms like fatigue and
is filtered before it goes to the blood stream. shortness of breath may occur. This is
due to the fact that the body depends on
Lymph nodes produce lymphocytes and
the pumping action to deliver oxygen
traps phagocytes which engulf and digest and nutrient to body cells. When the
foreign particles in the lymph. The largest cells are nourished properly, the body
lymph node is the spleen and other lymph can function normally. With heart
nodes are located in many areas like the failure, the weakened heart cannot
groin, neck and armpits. Lymphatic vessels supply the cells with enough blood. This
has an impact on the routine activities
from all parts of the body join together to
like walking, running and doing other
form two large lymphatic vessels which drain physical exercises.
their contents into subclavian veins. Lymph Cardiac arrest
is also found in the pleural cavity and This is the sudden loss of heart
pericardial cavity where it functionality in a person. it occurs when
the heart stops pumping blood around
(a) Supplies oxygen to the organs it the body. It is a sudden or abrupt loss of
surrounds heart function in a person. The person
(b) Supplies food to organs it surrounds may have or may have no history of
or encloses heart diseases.
(c) Acts as a lubricant preventing friction Cardiac arrest occurs when the heart’s
between surfaces electrical system malfunctions. Death
results when the heart suddenly stops
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working completely. It occurs when the artery is affected, the heart lacks enough
heart’s lower chambers suddenly start oxygen that can lead to a heart attack. A
beating chaotically without pumping condition known as coronary
blood. Death occurs within minutes after thrombosis.
the heart stops.
PREVENTING PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED

a) Varicose veins WITH THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
These are enlarged veins and their
Most of the problems associated with circulatory
branches found near the surface of the
system are attributed to the lifestyles one
skin in the lower parts of the leg. The
chooses. To maintain a healthy life, you have to:
valves in these veins do not work
properly. Their walls become stretched, 1) Doing physical exercises regularly to
lose their elasticity and are unable to strengthen the heart and improve the
regain their normal size. They become circulation of the blood
blocked due to retention of tissue fluid 2) Avoid smoking because cigarettes
which causes swelling. contain nicotine which makes arteries to
constrict. Constriction of the arteries
b) Fainting raises blood pressure causing the heart
This is the temporary loss of to beat faster.
consciousness and posture due to 3) Reducing the amount of high cholesterol
temporary insufficient blood flow to the foods by eating less fatty or red meat,
brain. It most often occurs when the instead one should eat white meat such
blood pressure is too low and the heart as fish that has no cholesterol and eat
doesn’t pump a normal supply of oxygen more fresh fruits and vegetables.
to the brain. 4) Reduce salt intake to prevent high blood
Arteriosclerosis pressure.
Arteries can thicken, harden and lose 5) Exercise your body to burn out excess
their elasticity of their walls. This may calories or eat only recommended diet.
Obesity causes the heart to overwork
occur due to accumulation of fat or
leading high blood pressure.
cholesterol and other substances along
6) Learn to be organized to avoid stress.
the arterial walls. This forms a substance
7) Avoid alcohol consumption.
called plaque, which can block the
8) Avoid drugs that have no medicinal
arteries making it harder for blood to value.
flow through them. If the coronary
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CHAPTER 6: THE HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

REPRODUCTION THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
This is a process by which new organisms are The organs of the male reproductive system
formed from the already existing ones. The are specialized for the following functions:
newly formed organism are called off
 To produce sperms.
springs while the old ones are called
 To discharge and transport sperm.
parents. This process is very important as it
 To produce and secrete male sex
ensures maintenance of species in an
ecosystem and also give rise to new hormones.
organisms. The male reproductive system includes
TYPES OF REPRODUCTION internal and external structures.
There are two types of reproduction. These Structure of the Male Reproductive
are; System
A) ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION THE EXTERNAL REPRODUCTIVE
STRUCTURES
This refers to the process by which offsprings
are formed by a single parent. An organism
can produce asexually by
 Budding – for example in hydra.

 Binary fission- for example in amoeba.
 Regeneration – for example in worms.
B) SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
This refers to a process by which offsprings

are formed by two parents. These parents
produce reproductive cells called gametes.
The male gamete is called a sperm while the
female gamete is called an ovum(ova for
many) or eggs. The organs that are
responsible for production of these gametes
are called gonads or genitals. The male
gonads are called testis while the female Most of the male reproductive system is
gonads are called ovaries. located outside of the man’s body. The
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external structure of the male reproductive The scrotum is the loose pouch-like sac of
parts are the penis and scrotum. skin which hangs behind the penis. It
contains the testicles also called testes) as
The Penis
well as many nerves and blood vessels. The
The penis is the male organ for sexual scrotum has a protective function and act as
intercourse. It has three parts namely the a climate control system for the testes. For
root which attaches to the walls of normal sperm development, the testis must
abdomen, the body or shaft and the glans, be at a temperature slightly cooler than the
which is the cone-shaped end of a penis. The body temperature. Special muscles in the
glans which is also called the head of the wall of scrotum allow it to contract and relax,
penis, is covered with loose layer of a skin moving the testicles closer to the body for
called foreskin. The skin is sometimes warmth and protection or farther away from
removed in a procedure called circumcision. the body to cool the temperature.
Inside the penis, there is a tube that
THE INTERNAL PARTS OF THE MALE
transport urine and semen. This tube is
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM.
called urethra. The penis also contains a
number of sensitive nerve endings. Testes - The testes are oval organs about the
size of the large olives that lie in the scrotum
The body of penis is cylindrical in shape and
secured at either end by a structure called
consists of three internal chambers. These
the spermatic cord. Normally, a man is
chambers are made up of special sponge-like
supposed to have two testes. The testes are
erectile tissue. This tissue contains
responsible for formation of testosterone,
thousands of large spaces that fill with blood
the primary male sex hormone and for
when the man is sexually aroused. As the
generating sperm. Within the testes are the
penis is filled with blood, it becomes rigid
coiled masses of tubes called seminiferous
and erect which allow penetration during
tubes. These tubes are responsible for
sexual intercourse. The skin of the penis is
producing the sperm cells through the
loose and elastic to accommodate changes
process called spermatogenesis.
in penis during erection.
Epididymis - This is a long, coiled tube that
Semen, a fluid containing sperms, is expelled
rest on the back side of each testicle. it
(ejaculated) through the end of the penis
functions in the transport and storage of
when man reaches sexual climax(orgasm).
sperm cells that are produced in the testes.
When the penis is erect, the flow of urine is
The job of epididymis is also to bring the
blocked from the urethra, allowing only
sperm to maturity, since the sperm that
semen to be ejaculated at orgasm.
emerge from the testes are immature and
The Scrotum incapable of fertilization. During sexual
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arousal, contraction force the sperms into Prostate gland- this is the walnut –sized
vas deferens structure that is located below the urinary
bladder in front of the rectum. The prostate
Vas deferens- This is the long, muscular tube
gland contributes additional fluid to the
that travels from the epididymis into the
ejaculate. Prostate fluid also helps to nourish
pelvic cavity, to just behind the bladder. It
the sperm. The urethra which carries the
transports mature sperms to urethra in
ejaculate to be expelled during orgasm, runs
preparation for ejaculation.
through the center of the prostate gland.
Ejaculatory ducts - these are formed by the
Cowper’s gland -also known as
fusion of the vas deferens and the seminal
bulbourethral glands are pea sized structure
vesicles, the ejaculatory ducts empty into
located on the sides of the urethra just
the urethra
below the prostate gland. This gland
Urethra- this is a tube that caries urine from produces a clear slippery fluid that empty
the bladder to the outside of the body. In directly into the urethra. This fluid serves to
males it has an additional function of lubricate the urethra and neutralize any
ejaculating semen when man reaches acidity that may be present due to residual
orgasm. When the penis is erect during sex, drops of urine in the urethra.
the flow of urine is blocked from the urethra,
The sperm
allowing only semen to be ejaculated during
orgasm. Sperms are the male gametes; thus they are
reproductive cells of men. Basically, each
THE EJACULATORY GLANDS.
sperm is made up of the head, neck and tail.
There are three main glands that secrete
The structure of a sperm
useful substances during the process of
ejaculation. These three glands are; the
seminal vesicles, the prostate gland and the
cowpers gland.
Seminal vesicles - These are sac-like pouches

that attach to the vas deferens near the base
of the bladder. The seminal vesicles produce
a sugar rich fluid (fructose) that provide Generally sperm production starts when a
sperm with energy and helps with sperm boy reaches puberty(attainment of sexual
motility(ability to move). The fluid of the maturity)during the adolescent stage of life.
seminal vesicles makes up most of the
Structurally, the sperm consist of a head,
volume of man’s ejaculation fluid or
neck and tail.
ejaculate.
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 The head: The sperm has a head which called ejaculation. During this process, the
contains nucleus and acrosome. The sperms are propelled from the epididymis
nucleus is the structure that fuses with through the vas deferens which is muscular.
the female gamete during fertilization. In The seminal vesicles secrete a thick yellow
fact, carries hereditary information. On alkaline substance which nourishes the
the other hand, the acrosome is the sac sperms and activate them by secreting
containing enzymes which dissolves the enzymes. They also provide a medium in
egg membrane for easy penetration of which sperms swim. The prostate gland
sperm. helps to push semen out powerfully during
 The neck (middle piece) contains a lot of ejaculation. Further, the cowpers gland
mitochondria which provide energy for neautrises any activity left by urine and
activity of the sperm. provide a more suitable environment for the
 The tail (flagellum) helps the sperm to passage of sperms.
swim.
The penis is normally soft because it contains
ADAPTATION OF A SPERM FOR MOBILITY little blood. During periods of sexual activity
the blood vessels in the penis are filled with
 They have tail that propel them blood hence the penis expand and becomes
 They have a lot of mitochondria in the firm and erect, thereby being capable of
middle piece hence a lot of energy is ejaculating sperms. The secretion from the
produced for movement. accessory glands and sperms together form
 They have streamlined bodies that a substance called semen.
minimizes drag during motion.
THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM AND
FORMATION AND TRANSPORTATION OF ITS STRUCTURE
SPERMS
The female reproductive system has much
The male gonads consist of highly coiled more complex structure and so are its
tubes called seminiferous tubules. Sperms functions. Sperms are delivered into the
are formed in these tubules. The testes are vagina that get transported through the
held outside the abdominal cavity in fold skin uterus, and finally they penetrate the egg for
called scrotum. Actually the temperature in fertilization .fallopian tube is the site of
the scrotum is 20 𝐶 lower than the normal fertilization and is the one of the most
body temperature. This forms the best important of all internal reproductive
temperature for the sperm production. components. The external components of
From the seminiferous tubules of testis, the female reproductive system help in
sperms pass into coiled tube of the achieving orgasm and secretion of fluid that
epididymis. This stores sperms and enable lubricates the vagina. The external organs
them to gain motility and ability to fertilize. that arouses stimulation are often compared
The sperms are released in the process
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with male reproductive structures. Here is INTERNAL REPRODUCTIVE PARTS

the division of the external and internal
organs.
Internal organs include; vagina uterus,

ovaries, fallopian tube and external organs
include labia majora, labia minora and
clitoris.
Labia majora- This encloses and protects the

internal organs as well as other external
reproductive organs. Literally, it is translated
as ‘large lips. The labia majora are relatively
large and fleshy and are comparable to the
scrotum in males. They contain sweat and
oil-secreting glands. After puberty the labia
majora are covered with hair.
Labia minora- also translated as small lips.

The labia minora can be very small up to 2 The ovaries- these structures are found in a
inches wide. They lie just inside j the labia pair in a female body especially at the back
majora, and surround the opening to the of the pelvis. Its function is to produce, store,
vagina(the part that join the lower part of and release female garments. They secrete
the uterus to the outside of the body)and female sexual hormone namely
urethra (the tube that caries urine from the progesterone and oestrogen.
bladder to the outside body) The oviducts - also known as fallopian tube
Clitoris-the two labia minora meet at the leading from the ovaries to uterus. They are
clitoris, a small sensitive protrusion that is the site for fertilization(union of male and
comparable to the penis in males. It is female gametes). They are ciliated and their
covered by the fold of skin ,called prepuce, muscles contract rhythmically hence they
which is similarly to a fore skin at the end of are able to push the fertilized egg to the
penis. Like the penis, the clitoris is very uterus.
sensitive to stimulation and can become The uterus - also known as womb. Its main
erect. function is to facilitate the process of
implantation (settlement of the foetus). It
has thick walls and dense network of blood
capillaries as an adaptation implantation.
The foetus(embryo) stays in the womb for
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almost nine months i.e. from conception to with the follicle phase. During this follicle
birth. phase, the gonadotrophin hormone is
released by the hypothalamus. This
hormone stimulate pituitary gland to secret
The cervix- also known as neck of the uterus. follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)that
It separates the uterus from the vagina. causes a graafian follicle to develop in the
Furthermore, it is always closed except ovary. They also stimulate the follicle cells
during birth and menstrual periods. surrounding developing egg to stimulate
another hormone called oestrogen. As
graafian follicle grows, more oestrogen is
produced. High concentration of oestrogen
The vagina - this is a tubular tract leading
stimulate the pituitary gland to stimulate
from the uterus to the exterior of the body.
another hormone called Lieutinizing
It receives male copulatory organ and male
Hormone. This hormone bring about
gametes contained in garments during
ovulation(releasing of the ovum into the
sexual intercourse. it also acts as a birth
oviduct)and causes graafian follicle to
canal during delivery. It is lubricated by
change into corpus luteum. The corpus
vaginal fluid which prevents friction during
luteum produces a hormone called
sexual intercourse and birth.
progesterone which causes the thickening
of uterus wall in prepation for implantation.
It further inhibits production of FSH and
CHARACTERISTICS OF OVA
reduces oestrogen levels. if fertilization fails
 They are non motile. ,corpus luteum degenerate leading to low
 They are relatively large as compared to concentration of progesterone and this
sperms. inhibits production of LH from the pituitary
 They store food in their yolk which is gland. This in turn causes the corpus to stop
used to nourish the embryo after secreting progesterone and hence start
fertilization. stimulating follicle stimulating hormone
(FSH) again. The immediate effect oestrogen
is to bring about healing and repair of the
THE ROLE OF HORMONES ON MENSTRUAL uterine wall, following menstruation and the
CYCLE AND HORMONES cycle is repeated. if fertilization has
occurred, the corpus continues producing
The first sign in puberty in girls is
progesterone and little amount of oestrogen
menstruation, which refers to a discharge of
continue developing the uterine wall and
blood from the reproductive system via
also preventing menstruation. The
vagina. This process repeat itself every 28
progesterone prevents further follicles from
days during the fertility age of a woman and
developing by inhibiting the production of
it is called menstrual cycle. The cycle begin
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FSH. The progesterone and oestrogen are

also responsible for the growth of mammary
glands during pregnancy hence their sudden
drop brings about lactation.
A SUMMARY OF FUNCTIONS OF FEMALE

SEX HORMONES.
Follicle stimulating hormones-stimulate the

formation graafian follicle in the ovary at the
beginning of menstrual cycle.
Oestrogen-causes the repair and growth of

the uterine wall lining after menstruation
- inhibits FSH production if it is in high
amount
-
- Stimulate the pituitary gland to secrete
Lieutinising Hormone
Progesterone- makes the uterine wall to HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

thicken further and prevent it from
Human development begins with
breakdown
conception. This is the union of the male
- Inhibits production of FSH garments and female gametes which takes
- Inhibits ovulation place in the oviduct in order to form a
zygote. Conception is also known as
Lieutinising hormone fertilization. when sperms are deposited in
the vagina during sexual intercourse, they
- Stimulates ovulation
swim upwards to the uterus up to oviduct.
- Stimulates the follicle cells which
Their movement is also helped by rhythmic
remain after ovulation to multiply
contraction of cervical muscles during
further ,forming a yellowish structure
orgasm i.e. the most exciting moments of
called corpus luteum.
sexual intercourse. When one sperm meet
an ovum in the oviducts it unite to form one
cell called zygote.
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Act as a centre for exchange of

different substances for example food
nutrients and waste products.
Produces progesterone which
stimulates further growth of the
uterus and stimulate milk producing
glands in the breast.
Prevent direct contact between the
foetus and the wall of the mother. This
prevents damages of delicate organs of
the foetus by blood pressure of the
The zygote undergoes rapid cell division and mother .and also prevent agglutination
it is pushed towards the uterus where it and easy contamination of diseases
settles. When it reaches the uterus it is called
FUNCTIONS OF THE UMBILICAL CORD
the embryo and after two months it is now
called foetus. After three months of It carries blood vessels thus arteries
conception, corpus luteum degenerates. By and veins thereby ensuring
this time another structure called placenta transportation of different substances
develop and continue secreting eg food nutrients from mother to the
progesterone. When the female conceives, foetus and waste products from the
the embryo is implanted in the early two to foetus to the mother
three weeks of pregnancy. At this time the
embryo has been produced. The blood
THE PROCES OF BIRTH
vessels and the heart are the first features to
rise, including the umbilical cord, amniotic When the foetus is about 250 days old
fluid and amnion (about 9 months)the process of birth starts.
This process is called labour. in fact it occurs
in three stages. These include :breaking of
FUNCTIONS OF AMNIOTIC FLUID waters, contraction of muscles and a show
Insulate the body TWINS

Allow freedom of movement of the
Sometimes the ovary may release more than
baby during growth
one ovum or both ovaries ovulate
Protect the baby from any physical
silmutaneously. If both ova are fertilized
harm as it acts as a shock absorber
ovum divides into two, they develop into
The amnion fluid lubricates vagina
separate embryo, thus the identical twins.
during birth
siamese twins are produced when the
FUNCTION OF PLACENTA fertilized ovum divides but fails to separate
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completely. the Siamese twins will be joined the uterus where it prevents implantation of
together and share other vital organ. the embryo
CONTRACEPTION NORPLANT IMPLANT
This refers to the deliberate prevention of These are tiny capsules which contain
conception [pregnancy] while sexual chemicals which inhibits ovulation. They are
intercourse is still taking place. it is also inserted under the skin and they can be
called birth control. effective for almost five years. When the
couple want to conceive, this can be
METHODS OF CONTRANCEPTION
removed and fertilization can be possible.
These are divided into natural and artificial
THE CONDOM OR SHEATH METHOD
methods
A thin rubber sheath which is placed on the
I. NATURAL METHOD
erect penis or in the vagina before sexual
[a] RHYTHM OR CALENDAR METHOD intercourse. It traps sperms thereby
preventing them from fertilizing the ova.
This involves having sexual intercourse Further it prevents contraction of STIs.
during safe periods. It is based on the fact
that during the menstrual cycle, there is a THE DIAPHRAGM
fertile period of which ovulation is likely to
This is a thin rubber laced in the vagina
take place. Sexual intercourse is avoided
before intercourse, covering the cervix there
during this time to prevent pregnancy.
by preventing entry of the sperms into the
(b) Withdraw Method uterus. It is removed 8 hours after
intercourse.
This is a contraceptive method where a by a
man removes his penis just before he STERILIZATION
releases sperms during sexual intercourse.
This encompasses all the methods that
II. ARTIFICIAL METHODS prevent pregnancy permanently. Examples
include vasecetomy which involves a
SPERMICIDES surgical operation in which man’s sperm
duct are cut or tied. This implies that the
These are chemicals smeared on the male
man will be releasing semen without
reproductive organ to kill sperms
sperms. The testes are not affected, hence
INTRA UTERINE DEVICE sexual desires, feelings and ejaculations will
continue as before. Another example is
It is a small metal or plastic strip bent into a
tubaligation. This method involves the
loop or coil and it inserted and retained in
cutting and tying of the woman’s oviduct.
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The ovaries are not affected, hence sexual thereby ensuring increase of the number of
desires and menstruation continues as cells in an organism. This increase of the
before but the sperms can not fertilize the number of cells and the increase in size of
egg. the cells result s into growth. In an organism,
cell division occurs rapidly during the early
CHROMOSOMES
stages of growth and development in order
Chromosomes are thread like structures to produce new cells and tissues. Later,
found in the nucleus and containing a linear when the cells become specialized, the
sequence of genes. They are made up of power of cell division is lost and only a
protein called HISTONES which support the limited number of unspecialized retain this
complex DEOXY RIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA) power of division for example in meristems
strands where the genes are located. Genes like root tips, shoot tips, young leaves, bases
are structures that carry actual information of internodes, cambium and all malphighian
for a character in an organism. This implies layer in the skin which produce new
that genes are responsible for inheritance; epidermis.
or in short, they are units of inheritance.
TYPES OF CELL DIVISION
DNA contains all the information necessary
Basically, there are two types of cell division.
to produce all the enzymes which direct all
These includes,
the metabolic reactions in the body of any
organism such as protein synthesis, i. Mitosis
respiration, photosynthesis in plants and ii. Meosis
production of all chemicals in the cells.
Each chromosome is made up of two

MITOSIS
parallel strands called chromatids which are
joined to a point called centromere. The two This is a process by which a cell divides into
strands of a sister chromatids are identical in two daughter cells which are identical to the
size, shape, sequence of genes and types of parent cell. It is also known as somatic cell
genes. division because it takes place in somatic
(body) cells. In sexual reproduction, a new
CELL DIVISION
organism starts life as a single cell called
This is a process by which a cell splits to form zygote. A zygote results from the process of
new cells. The cell which splits during this fertilization. In the first place, the zygote gets
process is called the parent cell while the its nourishment from the egg embryo and
newly formed cells are called daughter cells. later after implantation in the uterus. The
Cell division result into multiplication of cells nourishment is provided by the uterus of the
65

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mother through the placenta. The zygote NUMBER OF CHROMOSOMES

(single cell) starts to divide and produce an
 There are fixed number of
embryo consisting of thousand cells. This
chromosomes in each species. Man’s
type of cell division is called mitosis.
body cell contains 46 chromosomes,
During mitosis, the nucleus divide into two; mouse cell contains 40
one chromatid from each chromosome goes chromosomes and garden peas
into each daughter nucleus. The chromatids contain 14 chromosomes.
now become chromosomes and later they  The number of chromosomes in each
make copies of themselves ready for the of your liver cells, in every nerve cells,
next cell division. The process of copying is skin cell, muscle cell and so on.
called replication because each chromatid  The chromosomes are always in
make a replica (an exact copy of itself) to pairs. This is because when the
form a complete chromosomes. Therefore, zygote is formed, one of each pair
in both plants and animals, the comes from the male one from the
chromosomes are found in pairs. The two female. Your 46 chromosomes
chromosomes belonging to a pair look consists of 23 from your father. the
exactly alike and are called homologous number of chromosomes in each
chromosomes body cell of a plant or animal is called
DIPLOID NUMBER (2n) because of
Homologous chromosomes are
chromosomes are in pairs; it is
chromosomes which have the same shape,
always an even number.
size and sequence of genes, but the genes
might have different effects. Remember the It the division of the nucleus into two
cell have different homologous daughter nuclei that are genetically identical
chromosomes. Each species have specific to one another and to their parent nucleus.
number of chromosomes. For example Since the DNA contains the genes which
humans have 46 chromosomes, maize cell control all the metabolic pathways in the
have 20 chromosomes, mice have 40 while cell, mitosis ensures that a new cell in a
garden peas has 14. The total number of chicken egg develops into a chicken cell and
chromosomes in each cell is called DIPLOID not into a potato cell. There for mitosis is
NUMBER (2n). Every cell in the body of an very process that ensures that every cell in
organism contains the same number of an organism has the same DNA, in short, the
chromosomes. When a cell divides, it is very DNA is in the chromosomes, and mitosis
important that genes should be shared ensures that every cell receives the same
equally between the two daughter cells, and chromosomes.
this means that chromosomes must behave
in an orderly way during the cell division. The function of mitosis include growth, and
replacement or repair of tissues. The
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importance and significance of mitosis is to disappearance of nuclear membrane and the

ensure that the number of chromosomes nucleolus.
within the species and within the individual
is maintained.
METAPHASE
Mitosis is roughly divided into four main
phases; namely: prophase, metaphase, Once the nuclear
anaphase, and telophase. The phase membrane breaks
between prophase and telophase called down, the
interphase is not considered part of cell sio; chromosomes are
however, it is very important phase much of scattered in the
cells life is spent in this period cytoplasm. A
spindle is formed
PHASE OF MITOSIS
which is attached to
INTERPHASE tiny bodies
called
Although this interphase
centrioles on opposite poles of each
is called a resting stage;
cell. The spindle pulls the
the cell does not rest
chromosomes towards the equator of
completely, the cell does
the cell. Note that homologous
prepare for the next cell
chromosomes do not associate. The
division, replication of
chromatids are seen clearly as they
chromosomes, division
become shorter and thicker and being
of organelles and
separate. This process ends as the
production of enough
chromosomes are fully aligned at the
energy before the cell division starts.
equator.
PROPHASE
This is the in which

ANAPHASE
chromosomes could be
seen, initially as a single The
stands, but as time chromosomes
progresses; the separate
chromosomes continue completely and
to coil thereby getting migrate (are
shorter and thicker. The pulled) to
chromatids could be opposite poles
seen. This phase comes to an end by the of the cell, the centromere leading. This
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phase vcomes to an end when the ova. During this cell division , the number of
chromatids reach the poles. chromosomes is reduced by half, hence is
called reductive division. The reduced
TELOPHASE
number is called haploid number (n)
Two new cells
STAGES OF MEOSIS
are formed with
the same The first four stages of meosis are similar to
number of those of mitosis. However, after telophase
chromosomes stage, the cell indulges in metaphase ii, then
as the original anaphase ii and finally telophase ii, during
cell. Nuclear anaphase ii, the chromatids separates and
membrane and go to opposite poles, the two cell star
nucleolus are splitting. During the telophase ii, four
formed in each daughter cells are produced each containing
daughter cell. half the number of chromosomes as of the
Spindle parent cell.
generates
COMPARISON BETWEEN MITOSIS AND
(disappear). The cytoplasm divides into two
MEOSIS
thereby producing two separate daughter
cells. MITOSIS MEOSIS
Then the cell returns to interphase (resting Two daughter cells Four daughter cells
condition) whereby the chromatids seem to are formed are formed
disappear as they uncoil and replicate to
produce full chromosomes again. Daughter cells have The number of
equal number of chromosomes of
MEOSIS (REDUCTIVE DIVISION) this is a type chromosomes to the daughter cell is
of cell division by which cells divide and to their parents half to that of the
form four daughter cells. In occurs mainly in parent
reproductive organs for example testes,
ovary, anther and stigma. This process is Occur in body cells Occur in
very significant as it result into formation of reproductive cells
reproductive cells for example sperms and
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CHAPTER 7: GENETICS AND EVOLUTION

Genetics is the scientific study of heredity letters are used to denote dominant genes
and variation among organisms. while small letters are used to denote
recessive genes.
Heredity refers to the process by which
off springs acquire characters or traits Alleles are genes that control the same
from their parents. Heredity can also be characteristic. These genes are located on
defined as transmission of traits from the same loci or positions
parents to offsprings. Examples of traits
Genotype: is the genetic composition of an
include skin color, height, ability to roll a organism in terms of the alleles present (e.g.
tongue etc. Tt or GG)
Variation refers to difference that can Phenotype: the physical or other features of
easily be observed in organisms. an organism due to both its genotype and its
environment (e.g. tall plant or green seed
This implies that genetics can also be defined blood type)
as the study of things or activities that cause Homozygous: having two identical alleles of
resemblance and difference among a particular gene (e.g. TT or gg). Two
identical homozygous individuals that breed
organisms.
together will be pure-breeding
GENES Heterozygous: having two different alleles of a
particular gene (e.g. Tt or Gg), not pure-
Genes are structures found on a DNA
breeding.
molecule of chromosomes and they are
responsible for inheritance. DNA contains all
the information necessary to produce all the Genotype Phenotype
enzymes which direct all the metabolic
reactions in the body of organisms such as TT (homozygous dominant) Tall
proteins synthesis, respiration,
photosynthesis in plants and production of
Tt (heterozygous) Tall
all the chemicals in the cell. Genes are
contained in chromosomes of cells. These
chromosomes are made up of two protein Tt (homozygous recessive) Short
strands called chromatids which are
attached together at a point called VARIATION
centromere.
This refers to observable differences among
Genes are always found in pairs and are organisms. The observable differences
named after alphabetical letters. Capital among organisms of the same species are
69

lOMoARcPSD|50275547
called intra specific variation while This can also be shown by a punnet square
observable differences among organisms of as shown in the figure below.
different species are called inter specific
variation. Intra specific variations can be
continuous (intermediate variables present)
or discontinuous (intermediate variables
absent). Generally, organisms of the same
species can vary due to
- Genetic factors
- Age PRINCIPLES OF MENDELIAN GENETICS
- Environment
The earliest recorded investigations on
THE GENETIC CROSS DIAGRAM heredity was conducted by Gregory Mendel,
an Australian monk. In his experiments,
The way off springs acquire genes from their
Mendel grew garden peas. The garden peas
parents can be shown using across diagram.
were selected for this purpose due to the
A cross diagram comprises the genotype of
presence of several traits such as purple or
the parents, gametes which are produced
white colored flowers, tall or dwarf plants,
after meiosis and off springs which are
green or yellow pods, brown or white seeds,
produced after fertilization. For example, if a
peas with wrinkled or smooth seed coats and
gene (B) for a black skin in human is
peas with green or yellow cotyledon.
dominant over the gene(b) for brown skin
Secondly, the peas were selected for this
the cross of two monohybrids of this trait
purpose due to their ability to self-pollinate.
can be shown using the cross diagram below
In his experiment, Mendel cultivated tall
peas and then allowed to self pollinate. In
so doing, Mendel obtained pure breeds of
this trait. These pure breeds were allowed to
self-pollinate again and another generation
called first filial generation (F1 generation)
was obtained. In simple terms, filial means
offsprings. He followed the same procedure
and obtained the pure breeds for the trait of
dwarf. He then manually crossed a pure
breed tall plant and a pure breed short
plants (dwarf). This procedure is called
hybridization or cross breeding. All off
springs from this cross were tall as shown in
70

lOMoARcPSD|50275547
the cross diagram below. He then selfed this

F1 generation and some of the f2 offsprings
were tall while some were short in the ratio
1: 3.
From this experiments, Mendel arrived at his

first law called law of segregation. As a
matter of fact, the law of segregation states
that an organism’s characteristics are
determined by internal factors that occur in
pairs. Only one of a pair of such factors can
be represented in a single gamete. In other
words, Mendel was referring to acquisition
of traits in diploid organisms by alleles
occurring in pairs.
sickle cell anemia in human beings. Genes
CODOMINANCE that are involved in incomplete dominance
are called ADDITIVES GENES
This is a condition where by a character is
produced by both genes in allele, thus a
THE SEX CHROMOSOMES
condition whereby no gene is recessive nor
dominant to the other. For example, genes The sex of an organism is determined by its
responsible for blood groups are: A, B, and O genes located in the special chromosome
and the first two are dominant genes while called sex chromosomes. In humans,
the last one is recessive. When allele is made females have a pair of identical
up of gene A and B thus forming genotype chromosomes, hence the genotype of
AB, the offspring will have the phenotype of human female XX. On the other hand, a
blood group AB. human males have a single X chromosome
and a Y chromosome, hence the genotype of
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE a human male has XY genotype. The X
chromosome is larger than the Y
This is a condition whereby characters of
recessive genes are not completely hidden chromosome. The cross diagram below
shows how the sex is determined in human
by the dominant gene; thus the dominant
beings.
gene is in full of control. For example, in
balsam plants a gene for red flower (R) is
dominant over the gene for white flower (r).
However, the heterozygous genotype Rr
produces pink flowers. The other example of
incomplete dominance is the acquisition of
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lOMoARcPSD|50275547
recessive allele, which causes weakness,

aching joints and poor circulation. The fact
that it is recessive means that a
heterozygous person can be a carrier: they
have the allele but it is not expressed. Being
a carrier of sickle cell anaemia makes you
resistant to malaria (WIN!). In equatorial
Africa, being sickle cell anaemic causes
death, malaria causes death, but the carriers
have immunity to have some symptoms of
anaemia, in severe cases they are very weak
(but do not die).
hemophilia (condition where by blood

cannot clot easily, Hemophiliacs are usually
male as the condition is inherited through a
gene carried on the X chromosome (chapter
MUTATION 30). Hemophiliacs may require blood
transfusions for fairly minor injuries to
This refers to sudden change in a replace lost blood and may need to inject
chromosome or a gene that alters the way themselves with the missing blood clotting
they function. Organisms that have acquired factor) and mongolism. Factors that increase
this wrong information are called mutants. the risk of mutation include radiation
Example of mutation include: Down’s (exposure to radiant light e.g. gamma rays ,
syndrome, where a parent’s chromosomes alpha rays, and x-rays) rise in temperature,
are unevenly distributed in meiosis (e.g. one as well as other chemicals.
chromosome has 22 and the other has 24).
In fertilization, a zygote with a number of These factors are called mutagens.
chromosomes that is not 46 is created (e.g.
Sex linked characteristics
23 + 24 gives 47 chromosomes). This causes
a variation in characteristics: broad These is a condition whereby the
forehead, short neck, fold in eyelid, spots in characteristics is controlled by a gene found
iris, downward-sloping eyes, short nose, on the x or y chromosomes. Examples of sex
protruding tongue, congenital heart defects linked characteristics include Red green
and mental retardation. colour blindness, haemophillia, hairy eyes,
etc.
Sickle cell anaemia: is a disease in which the
red blood cell has a sickle shape instead of a
round biconcave shape, controlled by a
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Biology (Form 3) - For secondary

Introduction to Governance (The Catholic University of Malawi)

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Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

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TOPIC 1 : LIVINGTHINGS AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT

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POPULATION a) Quadrat method – in ecology, quadrats

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lines or the strip cut across an area in which

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Living organism depend on each other on

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feed on autotrophs are called  Secondary consumer gets between

Food chains usually have fewer than five

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an oak tree). The problem is that there might

THE CARBON CYCLE

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Carbon dioxide is removed from the THE NITROGEN CYCLE

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TOPIC 2. PLANT STRUCTURE AND THEIR FUNCTION

There two types of mesophyll layers and these

a) Palisade Mesophyll Layer- This is a layer of

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This layer is below the

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such way that the guard cells are bean shaped

These contain vascular tissues

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7. Endoplasmic reticulum – it is divided into

8. Lysozome – these are also referred to as

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This shows that the raw materials for

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE PROCESS OF It combines with hydrogen molecules in a

a. Sunlight STAGES OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

It is absorbed by chlorophyll found in The process of photosynthesis occurs in

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THE FATE OF GLUCOSE PRODUCED DURING MINERAL REQUIREMENTS DURING

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LIMITING FACTORS OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS Materials

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FLOW OF MANUFACTURED FOOD IN A

Made up of dead Made up of living

No companion cells Companion cells

Lignified (hardened Not lignified

Cytoplasm absent Cytoplasm present

Nuclei absent Nuclei present

Transport water Transport

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in dicotyledonous plants for instance beans,

A cross section of a dicotyledonous plant

DIFFUSION, OSMOSIS AND ACTIVE

This refers to the net movement of