 Munice and Mclaughlin (2001, p.

10) define crime as ‘an act or omission punishable

by law.
 criminal law is far from static, and thus crime is a ‘moving target’: what constitutes a
criminal act depends on when and where it is committed (Newburn, 2013) criminal
law is far from static, and thus crime is a ‘moving target’: what constitutes a criminal
act depends on when and where it is committed (Newburn, 2013).
 Two main approaches to measuring crime: official crime statistics and victim
surveys.
 Official crime statistics are those that are gathered by law enforcement agencies and
are based on offences that are reported to, or otherwise come to the attention of, the
relevant law enforcement authorities. Official crime statistics provide important
information about the prevalence of different types of offences in society.
 ‘Dark figure of crime’ to refer to those unreported and undetected offences.
 Victim surveys involve obtaining information about the experience of victimisation
from a representative sample of the population over a particular time period (usually
a year). Attempts to capture the experience of victimisation for certain types of
offence or in certain regions
 self-report study involves obtaining information from individuals about their
experience as offenders. often employed as part of longitudinal research designs that
track individuals over time and may be particularly useful in mapping changes in
offence rates over time for the same individuals.
 criminology is defined as the study of crime, criminal behaviour, and responses to
crime.
 Criminal psychology, critically involves the use of psychology as a science to advance
our understanding of the causes of crime. The analysis of the perceptions, motives,
and emotions of criminals, both illustrated by criminal behaviour, is criminal
psychology.
 Criminal psychology is the study of Criminal behaviour, where term behaviour
includes Personality, Attitude, Physiology, Learning, Motivation, Thinking and other
cognitive Factors which contribute to the act of crime or criminal intentions.
 According to the legal dictionary, criminal psychology is considered as the study of
will, intention, thoughts, feelings, and reactions of criminals and those who engage in
criminal behaviour.
 Purpose of criminal Psychology
 Purpose of Criminal Psychology is to understand criminal Behaviour and to
be able to control and modify such behaviour.
 A criminal Psychologist is required to assist police and legal authorities during
investigation of a case by developing Psychological profile of frequent
offenders and investigating reasons as to what led and resulted such
behaviour.
  It is not just to understand the offenders but also the police personnel
dealing with the case. As many times, human errors and limitations restrict
or delay the personnel from accessing information pertaining to the case.
 A criminal Psychologist should also create instructions and increase the
knowledge of investigators to help them deal with cases of mental illness
who are involved in crime.
 Purpose of criminal Psychology is also to research on ways to deal with
investigator, offender and victim issues which arise during the process of case
investigation.
 It is to draw and develop effective interventions to maintain and improve
mental health of professionals and also to provide counselling to offenders
and victims.
 Criminal Psychology also intends to understand developmental issues which
may lead to criminal behaviour. Many research conducted in the past are
examples of how criminal psychologists have tried to understand, test and
develop theories to understand developmental issues which may lead to
criminal intent and behaviour.
 CRIME is an act which indicates maladjustment to a particular culture and a social
concern, which is legally considered as an act of violation of law. Meaning of crime
can be only understood with respect to the social culture, Legal system, and context
of act.

 Cause of Crime
 Family environment Criminal behaviour is the result of an unstable family
environment, abusive parenting and lack of parental supervision.
 Biological factors Criminal behaviour is the result of biological factors such as
the genes that people inherit and the way that their brain works.
 Psychological factors Criminal behaviour is the result of psychological factors
like impulsiveness, lack of empathy, and low IQ.
 Social-structural factors Criminal behaviour is the result of a lack of
educational opportunities, an unfair economic system, poor job opportunities,
and other social-structural factors.
 Situational factors Criminal behaviour is the result of opportunities to commit
crimes, involvement with antisocial peers, and the use of alcohol and other
drugs.

 HISTORY
 In 1916, Calcutta University established the first experimental psychology
group in India. In 1972, Delhi's Lok Nayak Jayaprakash National Criminological
 and Forensic Science Institute was founded. In 2001, A.P.A. was recognized as
a specialty field.
 Hugo Munsterberg, a German psychologist, is credited with pioneering
criminal psychology.

Personality and its Theories

 The term personality derived from the Latin word “Persona” which means “mask”.
 Our personality is the collection of thoughts, feelings and behaviours that makes each
of us the individuals we are.
 Watson, J. B (1930). “Personality as the sum total of activities that can be discovered
by actual observation over a long enough period of time to give reliable information”.
 Psychologists define personality in different ways, but they agree upon the two basic
features of personality; uniqueness and characteristic pattern of behaviour.
 Personality is the combination of unique psychological traits that influence an
individual’s specific pattern of behaviour across various situations and over a period
of time.
 Personality is a dynamic state, not fixed. it is regular and progressive change that
happen in the individuals due to social interaction.
 Element of personality
 Physical appearance of the individual
 Intelligent behaviour of the individual
 Emotional temperaments s/he exhibits
 Sociability characteristics of the individual
 Character of the person
 TYPE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
 Hippocrates four Humours theory: According to Hippocrates the human body
contains four basic fluids or humours. Each of the humours is also associated
with a particular temperament. The humours are blood, yellow bile, phlegm
(mucus) and black bile. The Personality of an individual depends on the
humour which is predominant in his/her body.
 Sheldon’s Classification (Somatotype/Body Build): Sheldon (1942) described
personality types in terms of their body build or somatotype. He believed that
physical structure of the body is the determinant factor of the personality
characteristics of the individual.

 Jung’s Typology: Carl G Jung, a Swiss psychiatrist, attempted to classify human

beings on two behavioural dimensions such as Extrovert and Introvert. This
classification is made in accordance with their behavioural characteristics
exhibited by the individuals in their social as well as personal situations.

a. Extrovert people are more outward oriented. They try to establish good
relationships with other people. They feel bored sitting inside the room
and being alone. They deal with people intelligently in social situations.
They are conventional, outgoing, social and friendly. They are free from
unnecessary worries. Social workers, politicians, business executives
may be typed as extroverted people.
b. Introvert In contrast to the extrovert people, Introvert people always try
to withdraw themselves in social situations, especially when they faced
 emotional conflicts and stress in their environments. They are shy, avoid
situations to interact with other people, and enjoy the loneliness.
Scientists and philosophers are more likely to exhibit these behavioural
characteristics.

 TRAIT THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

Personality traits are habitual patterns of human behaviour, thought and emotions
that manifest in wide range of emotions.
Traits are relatively stable and have different degrees of expression in different
individuals influencing behaviour.
 Gordon Allport the pioneer of study of personality traits called them dispositions.
According to Allport “Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of
those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his
environment”.
 CARDINAL, CENTRAL, SECONDARY.
o Cardinal traits dominate an individual’s personality to the point that the
individual becomes known for them. While cardinal traits are the most
dominant personality traits, they are also the rarest. Such traits are so
intrinsically tied to an individual's personality that the person becomes
almost synonymous with those qualities. Cardinal traits often develop
later in life. They shape almost all aspects of an individual's purpose,
behaviour, and attitudes.
o Central Traits These are general characteristics that form basic
personality foundations. While central traits are not as dominating as
cardinal traits, they describe the major characteristics you might use to
describe another person. Descriptions such as "intelligent," "honest,"
"shy," and "anxious" refer to central traits.
o Secondary traits are sometimes related to attitudes or preferences.
They often appear only in certain situations or under specific
circumstances. Some examples include public speaking anxiety or
impatience while waiting in line.
 Cattell’s Theory of Personality: Cattell - Cattell - Profounder of the trait theory of
personality. Basic structural element is the trait. He defined trait “as a structure of
personality inferred from the behaviour in different situations.”
o Cattell (1950) has defined “Personality is that which permits a prediction of
what a person will do in a given situation. The goal of psychological research
in personality is thus to establish laws about what different people will do in
all kinds of social and general environmental situations …. Personality is…
concerned with all the behaviour of the individual, both overt and under the
skin.”
o For Cattell, trait is a “mental structure”, an inference that is made from
observed behaviour to account for regularity or consistency in this
behaviour.
o Surface traits vs Source traits - Surface traits represent cluster of manifest
variables, which are together while source traits are underlying variables
that enter into the determination of multiple surface manifestations. -
Source traits are identified with the help of factor analysis only and permits
the investigator to estimate the factors that are basis of the surface
behaviour.
o According to Cattell “Source traits are more important than surface traits”. -
Surface traits are identified by the interaction of source traits and are less

stable than factors. - After the factor analysis, Cattell found out 16 source traits
that contribute to the underlying nature of personality. This is identified as 16
PF (Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire) and is used in research work of
identification of personality of the person.
  EYSENCK PERSONALITY THEORY: Eysenck (1952, 1967, 1982) proposed a theory of personality
based on biological factors, arguing that individuals inherit a type of nervous system that affects
their ability to learn and adapt to the environment.
o During the 1940s, Eysenck was working at the Maudsley psychiatric hospital in London. His
job was to make an initial assessment of each patient before their mental disorder was
diagnosed by a psychiatrist.
o Through this position, he compiled a battery of questions about behaviour, which he later
applied to 700 soldiers who were being treated for neurotic disorders at the hospital
(Eysenck (1947).
o He found that the soldiers” answers seemed to link naturally with one another, suggesting
that there were a number of different personality traits which were being revealed by the
soldier’s answers. He called these first-order personality traits.
o He used a technique called factor analysis. This technique reduces behaviour to a number of
factors which can be grouped together under separate headings, called dimensions.
o Eysenck (1947) found that their behaviour could be represented by two dimensions:
Introversion / Extroversion (E); Neuroticism / Stability (N). Eysenck called these second-
order personality traits
o Each aspect of personality (extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism) can be traced back
to a different biological cause. Personality is dependent on the balance between the
excitation and inhibition process of the autonomic nervous system (ANS)

PERSONALITY DISORDERS
 Personality styles can be maladaptive if an individual is unable to modify the behaviour when the
environment changes. This inability to change is referred to as disorder.
 Personality disorder is a longstanding, maladaptive and inflexible ways of relating to the environment.
 People with psychological personality disorders have traits that cause them to feel and behave in socially
distressing ways. Depending on the specific disorder, these personalities are generally described in negative
terms such as hostile, detached, needy, antisocial or obsessive.
 Classification of Personality: Disorders Personality disorders are classified by DSM IV (TR) into three clusters
of disorders.:
DIVIDED INTO 3 CLUSTERS:
 Cluster A: paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal
 Cluster B: antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic
 Cluster C: avoidant, dependent, obsessive–compulsive

Group A personality disorders have a consistently dysfunctional pattern of thinking and behaviour that reflects
suspicion or lack of interest in others. They include:

Paranoid personality disorder

 Lacks trust and is suspicious of others and the reasons for their actions.

 Believes that others are trying to do harm with no reason to feel this way.

 Doubts the loyalty of others.

 Is not willing to trust others.

 Hesitates to confide in others for fear that others will use that information against them.
  Takes innocent remarks or situations that are not threatening as personal insults or attacks.

 Becomes angry or hostile to what are believed to be slights or insults.

 Has a habit of holding grudges.

 Often suspects that a spouse or sexual partner is unfaithful with no reason to feel this way.

Schizoid personality disorder

 Appears to be cold to or not interested in others.

 Almost always chooses to be alone.

 Is limited in how emotions are expressed.

 Cannot take pleasure in most activities.

 Cannot pick up typical social cues.

 Has little to no interest in having sex with another person.

Schizotypal personality disorder

 Has unusual thinking, beliefs, speech or behaviour.

 Feels or thinks strange things, such as hearing a voice whisper their name.

 Has flat emotions or emotional responses that are socially unusual.

 Has social anxiety, including not being comfortable making close connections with others or not having close
relationships.

 Responds to others in ways that are not proper or shows suspicion or lack of interest.

 Has "magical thinking"— the belief that their thoughts can affect other people and events.

 Believes that some casual incidents or events have hidden messages

Group B personality disorders have a consistently dysfunctional pattern of dramatic, overly emotional thinking or
unpredictable behaviour. They include:

Borderline personality disorder

 Has a strong fear of being alone or abandoned.

 Has ongoing feelings of emptiness.

 Sees self as being unstable or weak.

 Has deep relationships that are not stable.

 Has up and down moods, often due to stress when interacting with others.

 Threatens self-harm or behaves in ways that could lead to suicide.

 Is often very angry.

 Shows impulsive and risky behaviour, such as having unsafe sex, gambling or binge eating.

 Has stress-related paranoia that comes and goes.

Histrionic personality disorder

 Always seeks attention.

  Is overly emotional or dramatic or stirs up sexual feelings to get attention.

 Speaks dramatically with strong opinions but has few facts or details to back them up.

 Is easily led by others.

 Has shallow emotions that change quickly.

 Is very concerned with physical appearance.

 Thinks relationships with others are closer than they are.

Narcissistic personality disorder

 Has beliefs about being special and more important than others.

 Has fantasies about power, success and being attractive to others.

 Does not understand the needs and feelings of others.

 Stretches the truth about achievements or talents.

 Expects constant praise and wants to be admired.

 Feels superior to others and brags about it.

 Expects favors and advantages without a good reason.

 Often takes advantage of others.

 Is jealous of others or believes that others are jealous of them.

Antisocial personality disorder

 Has little, if any, concern for the needs or feelings of others.

 Often lies, steals, uses false names and cons others.

 Has repeated run-ins with the law.

 Often violates the rights of others.

 Is aggressive and often violent.

 Has little, if any, concern for personal safety or the safety of others.

 Behaves impulsively.

 Is often reckless.

 Has little, if any, regret for how their behaviour negatively affects other

Group C personality disorders have a consistently dysfunctional pattern of anxious thinking or behaviour. They
include:

Avoidant personality disorder: Anxious (Avoidant) Personality Disorder is a condition characterised by

extreme shyness, feelings of inadequacy, and sensitivity to rejection. These individuals feel inferior to
others.
 Is very sensitive to criticism or rejection.

 Does not feel good enough, important or attractive.

 Does not take part in work activities that include contact with others.

 Is isolated.
  Does not try new activities and does not like meeting new people.

 Is extremely shy in social settings and in dealing with others.

 Fears disapproval, embarrassment or being made fun of.

Dependent Personality Disorder: Dependent personality disorder is one of a group of conditions called
anxious personality disorders, which are marked by feelings of nervousness and fear. DPD also is marked
by helplessness, submissiveness, a need to be taken care of and for constant reassurance, and an
inability to make decisions
 Chronic and pervasive pattern of dependent,
 submissive, and needy behaviour.
 Seek out excessive advice, approval, and encouragement
 Sensitivity to criticism or rejection
 Low self-confidence and self-esteem.
 An inability to make decisions without direction from others
 Feelings of helplessness when alone 46 Severe Mental Disorders
 An inability to disagree with others
 Extreme devastation when close relationships end and a need to immediately begin a new
relationship.
 Difficulty in making everyday decisions.
Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder: type of personality disorder marked by rigidity, control,
perfectionism, and an overconcern with work at the expense of close interpersonal relationships.
 Preoccupation with details, rules, lists, order, organisation, or schedules to the point at which the
major goal of the activity is lost.
 Excessive concern for perfection in small details that interferes with the completion of projects.
 Dedication to work and productivity that shuts out friendships and leisure time activities, when the
long hours of work cannot be explained by financial necessity.
 Excessive moral rigidity and inflexibility in matters of ethics and values that cannot be accounted for
by the standards of the person’s religion or culture

Eysenck’s Personality Theory

Eysenck (1952, 1967, 1982)
proposed a theory of personality
based on biological factors,
arguing that individuals inherit a
type of nervous system that
affects their ability to learn and
adapt to the environment.
Eysenck’s Personality Theory
Eysenck (1952, 1967, 1982)
proposed a theory of personality
based on biological factors,
arguing that individuals inherit a
type of nervous system that
affects their ability to learn and
adapt to the environment.