COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

CENTRAL PHILIPPINE UNIVERSITY

ILOILO CITY, PHILIPPINES
Tel. Nos. (033) 3291971 (to 79) Local 1085
Fax No. (033) 3203004
Email: chem._engg@cpu.edu.ph

MODULE 2 – Part 1
PRINCIPLES of TRANSPORT PROCESSES
 1.1 Definition
Heat is thermal energy in transit due to a temperature difference. Thermal energy, which
is related to the temperature of matter, is expected to be high when the temperature of a
given mass is high.
In the presence of driving force (temperature difference), thermal energy will always
transfer from the region of higher temperature to the region of lower temperature.as dictated
by the Second Law of Thermodynamics.
1.2 Three Modes of Heat Transfer
Conduction refers to the heat transfer that occurs across a medium when temperature
gradient exists in the stationary medium, which may be a solid or a fluid (gas or liquid).
The term Convection refers to heat transfer that will occur between a surface and a moving
fluid when they are at different temperatures.
The third mode of heat transfer, which is Radiation occurs between 2 separate surfaces, as
long as they are at different temperature, in the absence of intervening medium. (Note: For
radiation, all surfaces at finite temperature above absolute zero emit energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves)
The 3 modes of heat transfer are governed by 3 different laws:
A. Conduction
The basic equation used to describe conduction was first stated in 1822 by Fourier and
is referred to as Fourier’s Law of Heat Conduction.

q x  kdT

A dx
Where: qx = the heat transfer rate in the x – direction, in watts or Btu/hr
A = the area normal to the heat flow, in m2 or ft2
dT/dx = the temperature gradient in the x –direction in K/m or oF/ft
k = thermal conductivity in W / m - K or Btu / hr – ft - oF
When Cp and  are constants, the law is stated in the form

qx d CpT  k
  ;  ; k  Cp
A dx Cp
Where: α = thermal diffusivity

Note: the (-) sign indicates that the heat flow is in the direction of (-) temperature
gradient.
B. Convection
The rate equation for convective heat transfer was first expressed by Newton in 1701
and is referred to as Newton’s Law of Cooling. The equation is
 q
 h T
A
Where: q = rate of convective heat transfer in W (Btu/hr)
A = area normal to the heat flow in m2 or ft2

T = the temperature difference between surface and the fluid, in K or °F

W Btu
h = convective heat transfer coefficient, or
2
m K hrft2  F
The convection or convective coefficient (h) is a measure of how effectively a fluid
transfers heat by convection. It is evaluated as a function of the following factors:
(a) Fluid properties ( density, viscosity, thermal conductivity, heat capacity
(b) Fluid flow properties ( velocity, Reynold’s number)
(c) System geometry
(d) Magnitude of driving force

C. Radiation
Radiant heat transfer between surfaces differs from conduction and convection in that
no medium is required for its propagation; thus, it is the only form of heat transfer present in
vacuum. It uses electromagnetic radiation (photons), which travels at the speed of light and
is emitted by any matter with temperature above 0 degree Kelvin ( 273oC). Radiative heat
transfer occurs when the emitted radiation strikes another body and is absorbed.
The electromagnetic spectrum classifies radiation according to wavelengths of radiation.
Main types of radiation are (from short to long wavelengths): gamma rays, X – rays,
ultraviolet (UV), visible light, infrared (IR), microwaves, and radio waves. Radiation with
shorter wavelengths is more energetic and contains more heat.
The rate of energy of emission from a perfect radiator or black body is given by the
Stefan-Boltzmann Law of thermal radiation which was named after from the family names of
the two Austrian Scientists
 J. Stefan (1879) who discovered the equation exponentially
 K. Boltzmann (1884) derived it theoretically

q
 T 4
rate of radiant
energy emission, Temperature of the body, K or °R
in W or Btu/hr A
in W or Btu/hr

Stefan-Boltzmann constant

5.67x10-8 or
Area of the emitting
surface, in m2 or ft2
0.1714x10-8
Sample Problem 1
Calculate the heat loss per m2 of surface area for an insulating wall composed of 25.4
mm thick fiber insulating board, where Ti is 352.7 K and TO = 297.1 K.
(Data: k = 0.048 W/ m- K)

q dT
 k
A dx
In the case of steady state heat transfer:

Heat transfer rate is constant and as a

consequence, the T at all points in the
conducting medium is invariant with time.

q x2 T2

A x1
dx  k  dT
T1

q

k
T1  T2 
A x2  x1
Solution:

q 0.048
 352.7  297.1  105.1 W2  CF
A 0.0254 m

q Btu
 33.3
A hrft2
Sample Problem 2:
The 30 – ft portion of an exposed and unlagged standard steel pipe (4 – in Schedule 40)
carrying saturated steam passes through a room whose temperature is 20oC. The steam is
at 101.3 kPa. What is the temperature of the pipe’s outer surface? Estimate the total hourly
loss of the pipe.
Given:

T=20°C

30 ft

4’’ Sched. 40 [Do = 4.5 inches]

[Di = 4.026 inches]

 q T q
 k ;  h T
A x A

T
k  hT
x
Tconduction  Troom  Tw (pipe’s outer surface)

Tconvection  Tstream  Tw

 43
W

293.15  Tw  800W
 2 (373.15  Tw )
m  K 4.5  4.026in  1m m K
12in / ft 3.28 ft

Tw  307.79K

 1 ft 
  30 ft  2 373.15  307.79
800
q  2  2.25inches 
 12inches  m K

J sec 1MJ
q  171,773.7268  3600 
sec hr 1x106 J
MJ
q  618.4
hr

CONDUCTION THROUGH A HOLLOW CYLINDER

q dT
 k where: A  2rL
A dr
T2

 dT 2Lk T1  T2 
q  k 2L  r21 
T

dr r
r r ln 2
r1
1

T1  T2
q , where R = resistance
R
r2
ln
r1 r2 r 1 ALM 
A2  A1 r  r 
 2L 2 1
R  and
2kL kALM A
ln 2
r
ln 2
A1 r1
 T1  T2
q
r2  r1
kALM
Sample Problem 3
A thick-walled cylindrical tubing of hard rubber having an inside radius of 5mm and an
outside radius of 20mm is being used as a temporary cooling coil in a bath. Ice water is
flowing rapidly inside, and the inside wall temperature is 274.9K. The outside surface
temperature is 297.1K. A total of 14.65 W must be removed from the bath by the cooling coil.
How many meters of tubing are needed?
Data: k = 0.051 W/m-K for the range of T from 274.9K to 297.1K
Solution: r1 = 0.005 m and r2 = 0.02 m
Note: This calculation will be done first for a length of 1m of tubing.

A1  2Lr1  0.0314m 2
Solve for
A2  2Lr2  0.1257m 2

A2  A1 0.1257  0.0314
ALM  
A2  0.1257 
ln ln  
A1  0.0314 

T1  T2  274.9  297.1
q  kALM  0.1510.0682
 0.02  0.005 
= - 15.2 W
r2  r1
Note: (-) sign indicates heat is from r2 on the outside to r1 on the inside. Since 15.2 watts is
removed for 1meter length, the needed length for 14.65 watts is

14.65W
 0.964m
15.2W
m

CONDUCTION THROUGH A HOLLOW SPHERE

This is another case of one-dimensional conduction. Using Fourier’s Law for constant K
with distance dr, where r is the radius of the sphere.

q dT
 k Equation 1
A  4r 2 Equation 2
A dr
Substitute eq.2 in eq.1. rearranging and integrating

q
4r 2 
dr  k  dT
 q 1 1 
r2 T2

    k T2  T1 
q dr
4 r r 2   k T dT ;
4  r1 r2 
1 1

4k T1  T2  r2  r1
q  ; where AGM = geometric mean area
1 1 kAGM

r1 r2

AGM  4r1r2  4r1 4r2  A1 A2

2 2

Sample Problem 4:
An iron sphere has an outer diameter of 2 m, a wall thickness of 15 cm, and an outer
temperature of 40oC. The heat transfer is 250 kW outward. Obtain from Perry’s Handbook
the value for k,estimate the inner surface temperature.

4k T1  T2 T T
Solution: q (T1  T2 )   1 2
1 1
 1 1 1 R
  
r1 r2 4k  r1 r2 
4𝜋𝐾𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛
250 𝑘𝑊 = [ 1 1 ](𝑇1 − 40) ; T1  ______
−
1.85 2

COMPOSITE SYSTEMS
A. Conduction Through Solids in Series
In this case where there is a multilayer wall of more than one material present
as shown. We proceed as follows.

A B C
q
T2 T3 T4
T1
△XA △XB △XC
Since the heat flow, q must be the same in each layer, we can write Fourier’s equation as

q
kA A
T1  T2   k B A T2  T3   kC A T3  T4 
X A X B X C

X A X B X c
T1  T2  q ; T2  TB  q ; T3  T4  q
kA A kB A kc A

 X A X B X C 
Add the 3 equations: T1  T2  T2  T3  T4  q    
 k A A k B A kC A 

T1  T4
q
RA  RB  RC
Sample Problem 5
 A cold storage room is constructed of an inner layer of 12.7 mm of pine, a middle layer
of 101.6mm of cork board, and an outer layer of 76.2mm of concrete. The wall surface
temperature is 255.4K inside the cold room and 297.1K at the outside surface of the
concrete. The wall surface temperature is 255.4K inside the cold room and 297.1K at the
outside surface of the concrete.
Data:

k pine( A)  0.151W kcorkboard ( B )  0.0433W

mK ; mK ;

kconcrete (C )  0.762W
m K
Calculate the heat loss in watts for 1m2 and the temperature at the interface between
the wood and cork board.
Solution:

T1  255.4 K T4  297.1K
; ; X C  0.0762m
X A  0.0127m X B  0.1016m

The resistances for each material are

RA  0.0841 K ; RB  2.346 K ; RC  0.1 K

W W W
T1  T4 255.4  297.1  41.7
q  
RA  RB  RC 2.53 2.53

q  16.48W
Since the result is (-), heat flows in from the outside
To calculate the T2 at the interface between the pine wood and cork board.

T1  T2 255.4  T2
q ;  16.48 
RA 0.0841

T2  256.79K
B. Conduction Through Solids in Parallel
Suppose that 2 plane solids A and B are placed side by side in parallel and the
direction of heat flow is perpendicular to the plane of the exposed surface of each
solid.

B
 Then the total heat flow is the sum of the heat flow through solid A plus that
through B.

qT  q A  qB 
k A AA
T1  T2   k B AB T3  T4 
X A X B
where qT = total heat flow, T1 and T2 are the front and rear surface temperature for
solid A and T3 and T4 are those for solid B.

If we assume that T1 = T3 (front temperature the same for A and B) and T2 = T4

(equal
rear temperature)

T1  T2 T1  T2
qT  
X A X B
k A AA k B AB

1 1 
qT     T1  T2 
 RA RB 
Seatwork:
Consider a composite structure shown below. Conductivities of the layer are:
k1  k3  10W
m  K k 2  16 m  K k 4  46 m  K
, W , W . The convection coefficient on the right

side of the composite is 30W 2 . Calculate the total resistance and the heat flow through
m K
composite.

L1 L2 L3
T1=100°C

1 2 3

T  20C

4
L1 = 20cm, L2 = L3 =15cm
L4