PRGRN603: Module 5: Stationary Collectors

PRGRN603
Module 5: Stationary Collectors

Module 5: Lecture 1
INTRODUCTION
MAIN Topics of Module 5:
Lecture 1: Review of convection & conduction HT
Lecture 2: Flat Plate Collectors , part 1
Lecture 3: Flat Plate Collectors , part 2
Lecture 4: Compound Parabolic Concentrators
Lecture 5: Evacuated Tube Collectors
REFERENCES for Module 5:

i) Heat Transfer, J.P.Holman, McGrawHill, 7th edition
ii) Solar Energy Engineering: Processes and systems, Soteris A. Kalogirou,
Academic Press, 2nd edition
iii) Solar Energy: Principles of Thermal Collection and Storage,McGrawHill,
2nd edition.
iv) Lecture notes
Review of Convection & Conduction HT
Modes of HT:
– Radiation HT (reviewed earlier)
– Conduction HT
– Convection HT
Conduction Heat Transfer

When a temperature gradient exists in a body, heat is transferred
through the body from the high temperature end to the low
temperature one by conduction.
Fourier’s Law of heat conduction:

dT A
q x   kA
dx
For steady state heat transfer across a wall with uniform k:
(T2  T1 )
q x   kA
x
Which can be cast in the form:
(T1  T2 ) (T  T2 )
qx   1
x Rth
( )
kA
where Rth = Δx/(kA) is called “thermal resistance”.
Latter equation is mathematically of same form as the equation relating
the electrical current I flowing through a resistance R, when subject to
a voltage difference (V1 –V2) across its ends:
(V1  V2 )
I 
R
Analogy between conduction HT and DC electric circuits

can be exploited to solve HT problems by solving
corresponding electrical network:
(T1  T4 )
q
x xB xC
( A   )
k A . A k B . A kC A
Series and Parallel 1-D
Heat Transfer through
Composite Walls
For radial heat flow in hollow cylinder,

thermal resistance is given by:
ln(ro / ri )
Rth 
2lk
For concentric cylinders
ln(r2 / r1 ) ln(r3 / r2 ) ln(r4 / r3 )
Rth   
2lk A 2lk B 2lkC
(T1  T4 )
and q
Rth
Convection Heat Transfer ,
• Convective heat transfer occurs due to the macroscopic motion of fluid

particles, which carry their heat content(enthalpy) from one location to
another. Therefore it occurs only in fluids.
• When fluid is flowing over a hot surface, heat is convected (carried by the
fluid) away from the surface; e.g. cooling your soup by blowing your breath.
• Newton’s Law of cooling expresses the rate of heat transferred from a wall
at temperature Tw to mainstream fluid at temperature T∞ in terms of a
convective heat transfer coefficient , h :
q  hA(Tw  T )
where h has units of (W/m2. K). q is positive if Tw > Tꚙ , i.e. cooling of wall.
q can also be expressed in terms of a thermal resistance:
T T
q  where Rth ≡1/(hA)
1 hA Rth
• Convective and conductive thermal
resistances may be combined to
form an analogous electrical circuit,
e.g.
(TA  TB )
q
1 x 1
( )( )( )
h1 A kA h2 A
• Both convection and conduction HT display a linear relation between the

heat flow and the temperature potential difference, hence a true analogy
exists with the resistor of a DC circuit. In radiation heat transfer this
relation is nonlinear; however, by artificially linearizing the equations it
may be forced in a linear form and simulated in an electric circuit,
provided the coefficients are updated iteratively, e.g.:
qr =A εσ (T14 - T2 4 )=A εσ[(T12 + T22 )(T1 + T2 )] (T1 – T2 ) = (T1 –T2 )/Rth
with Rth = 1/ {Aεσ[(T12 + T22 )(T1 + T2 )] }
Nusselt Number, Nu
In order to extend the application of convective heat transfer equations, the
heat transfer coefficient “h” is normally expressed in the form of the
dimensionless group, Nu defined by :
Nu≡ h L / k
where L is a characteristic length, and k is coefficient of conduction.
Two modes of convective Heat Transfer exist:
i) Forced convection:
The fluid flow is created by an external force such as inertia or pressure
gradient.
HT equations are of the form : Nu= F( Re, Pr)
where Reynold’s number, Re ≡ ρU L/ μ and Prandtl number, Pr ≡ cμ/k
Here U and L are characteristic velocity and length, respectively, ρ is fluid
density and μ is dynamic viscosity. c stands for fluid specific heat.
ii) Natural convection (also called Free convection)
The fluid motion is created naturally by buoyancy forces resulting from
temperature gradients within the fluid.
Equations are typically of the form of:
Nu= F( Gr, Pr) or Nu = F(Ra, Pr)
Where Grashoff’s number, Gr is defined by Gr≡ g β ΔT L3 /ν2 and Ra≡Gr.Pr
g is the component of gravity acceleration and β is the volumetric expansion
coefficient. β = 1/T for an ideal gas, such as air.
When the boundary condition is one of constant heat flux, the modified
Groshoff’s number, Gr* ≡ Nu.Gr replaces Gr in the Nu equations.
Note : some HT equations present the local value of the heat transfer
coefficient hx, whereas others present the overall heat transfer coefficient h̅ ,
defined as the integral of hx over entire length divided by length.
Fins
Fins are used in heat exchangers to increase
convective heat transfer, e.g. car radiators and
condensers of air-conditioning and refrigeration
systems. Also on motorcycle and compressor
cylinders to increase cooling.
Here the interest arises from their use to conduct
solar radiation heat to the thermal fluid tubes; the
absorber plate of FPC being treated as a fin.
Fins feature a conduction-convection sequence.
Considering 1-D steady state conduction in x-
direction in a rectangular fin:
Heat entering left(qx) = heat leaving right(qx+dx)+ heat lost from perimeter(dqc)
dT dT d dT
 kA  kA  (kA ).dx  hP.dx(T  T ) ,P = perimeter
dx dx dx dx
Simplifying terms yields: d 2T hP
2
 (T  T )  0
dx kA
Subject to the boundary conditions T=Tbase at base of fin, and dT/dx=0 at
symmetry plane .
Solution yields: q  hPkA (To  T ) tanh(mL)
and
T  T cosh[m( L  x)]

To  T cosh(mL)
hP
where To is fin base temperature, A is fin C.S.A., and m 
kA
Defining fin efficiency, ηf , as ratio of actual heat transferred to what
would be transferred if entire fin surface area were at base temperature,
yields for a rectangular fin:
tanh(mL)
f 
mL
Similar results are available for circumferential fins, and fins of triangular
cross-section.
Note that for a FPC the absorber plate acts as a fin which collects solar
radiation from its perimeter, rather than dissipate it
Heat Exchangers
• Heat exchangers are heat transfer devices whose purpose is to exchange
heat between two separated fluids of different temperature
• Types of heat exchangers:
1. Double pipe:
Shell and Tube heat exchangers
Cross flow Heat Exchanger
Effectiveness-NTU
HX effectiveness definition:
Effectiveness, ε, is defined as the ratio of actual heat transferred to the
theoretical maximum, i.e.
ϵ = qactual /qmax
where qactual = ṁh cp,h (Th,i –Th,o) = ṁc cp,c (Tc,o –Tc,i )
and qmax = (ṁ c)min (Th,i –Tc,i )
where the subscript “min” refers to the fluid with the minimum value of (ṁc).
The effectiveness can also be expressed by:
ϵ= ΔT (of minimum fluid)/(Th,i –Tc,i )
Number of Transfer Units , NTU:
UA
NTU is defined as : NTU 
Cmin , where C ≡ (ṁ c) is the thermal capacity rate
Relations exist between NTU and ϵ which allow prediction of HX performance.
They are tabulated for both ϵ =F(NTU) and NTU=F(ϵ) for different types of HX
Effectiveness
as a function
of NTU
NTU as a function of Effectiveness
Example. Hot oil at 100oC is used to heat air in a shell-and-tube heat
exchanger. The oil makes 6 tube passes and the air makes one shell pass; 2.0
kg/s of air are to be heated from 20 to 80oC. The specific heat of the oil is
2100 J/kg K, and its flow rate is 3 kg/s. Calculate the area of the H.E. for
U=200 W/m2 K.
Solution
ṁh ch = 3.0×2100 = 6300 W/ K, ṁc cc = 2.0×1009=2108 W/ K =(ṁc)min
C= Cmin/Cmax = 2018/6300 = 0.3203, ε=ΔTc/ΔTmax = (80-20)/(100-20)=0.75
From previous table:  2 /   1  C  (1  C 2 )1 / 2 

2 1 / 2
N  (1  C ) . ln  2 1/ 2 
 2 /   1  C  (1  C ) 
2 1 / 2  2 / 0.75  1  0.3203  (1  0.32032 )1 / 2 

 N  (1  0.3203 ) . ln  2 1/ 2 
 1.99
 2 / 0.75  1  0.3203  (1  0.3203 ) 
A= (NTU).Cmin /U = 1.99×2018/200 = 20.09 m2

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PRGRN603

Module 5: Stationary Collectors

REFERENCES for Module 5:

Conduction Heat Transfer

Fourier’s Law of heat conduction:

Analogy between conduction HT and DC electric circuits

For radial heat flow in hollow cylinder,

• Convective heat transfer occurs due to the macroscopic motion of fluid

• Both convection and conduction HT display a linear relation between the

From previous table:  2 /   1  C  (1  C 2 )1 / 2 

2 1 / 2  2 / 0.75  1  0.3203  (1  0.32032 )1 / 2 

A= (NTU).Cmin /U = 1.99×2018/200 = 20.09 m2

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