CHAPTER 3

CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER

 Instructional Objectives
Differentiate between the film heat transfer coefficients and the
overall coefficient, and write their relationship.
Obtain convection coefficients and compute heat transfer rates
to or from fluids flowing inside pipes of various geometries.
Obtain convection coefficients and compute heat transfer rates
to or from surfaces of various geometries in external flow.
Distinguish the free (natural) convection from the forced
convection heat transfer.
Obtain convection coefficients and compute heat transfer rates
in free convection heat transfer from various geometries.
Forced Convection Heat Transfer
Inside Pipes
 For heat transfer in fluids, convective heat transfer
usually occurs as well as conduction.
 In most industrial processes, heat is transferred
from one fluid through a solid wall to a second fluid.

[Ref 3]
 The convective heat transfer through a fluid is given by:
q  hA T  Tw  (1) (for const. T & Tw)

At steady state,
kAlm
q  h1 A1 (Th  Twh ) 
xw
(Twh  Twc )  h2 A2 (Twc  Tc ) (2)

Th  Tc T  Tc
q  h  UAlm Tm (3)
T2 1 / h1 A1  xw / kAlm  1 / h2 A2 R
1 1 1 1 ln( D2 / D1 ) 1
where Tm  Th  Tc , and   
UA U 1 A1 U 2 A2 h1 A1

2 k L

h2 A2 (4)
where, h1, h2 = individual (film) heat transfer coefficients
U = overall heat transfer coefficient
Example 1 (Example 11.1 of McCabe)
Methanol (methyl alcohol) flowing in the inner pipe of a
double-pipe exchanger is cooled with water flowing in the
jacket. The inner pipe is made from 1-in. schedule 40 steel
pipe. The thermal conductivity of steel is 45 W/m°C. the
individual coefficients are given below. What is the overall
coefficient, based on the outside area of the inner pipe?

Data: alcohol coefficient, hi = 1,020 W/m2 °C

water coefficient, ho = 1,700 W/m2 °C
Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD)
If the bulk temperatures of the two fluids, Th and Tc, are
not constants and changing along the tube from inlet to
outlet, T can also vary with position, and some overall
mean Tm must be used.

[Ref 3]
T = Th – Tc is the overall local temperature difference.
Since the heat flux is proportional to T, flux also varies
with tube length. The differential heat flow dq across the
differential area dA under the driving force of a local
value of T is given by:
dq
dA
 UT  U (Th  Tc ) (5)

For the entire area of heat exchanger, Eq. (5) must be

integrated, incorporating the change of T along the
tube length. Simplifying assumptions:
1) Constant overall coefficient U.
2) Constant specific heats of hot and cold fluids.
3) Negligible heat exchange with ambient air,
4) Steady flow, either parallel or countercurrent.
Assumptions 2) and 4) imply that if Tc and Th are plotted
against q, straight lines are obtained. So T varies
linearly with q: dq  (mC )c dTc  (mC ) h dTh  q  T (6)

[Ref 2]
 d ( T ) T2  T1
So,
dq

q
(7)

where T1, T2 = temperature approaches

q = heat transfer rate in entire exchanger
Eliminating dq from Eqs. (5) and (7) (chain rule) gives,
T2 A
d ( T ) T2  T1 d ( T ) U ( T2  T1 )
UTdA

q
 
T1
T

q 
0
dA

T2 U ( T2  T1 ) T2  T1

ln
T1

q
A  q  UA
ln T2 T1 
 UATlm (8)
T2  T1
where Tlm 
ln T2 T1  (9)
Tlm is logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD).
Example 2 (Example 4.5-4 of Geankoplis)
A heavy hydrocarbon oil having a Cpm = 2.30 kJ/kg is
being cooled in a HE from 371.9 K to 349.7 K and flows
inside the tube at a rate of 3630 kg/h. A flow of 1450 kg
water/h enters at 288.6 K for cooling and flows outside
the tube.
(a) Calculate the water outlet temp and heat transfer
area if the overall Ui = 340 W/m2 K and the streams are
countercurrent.
(b) Repeat for parallel flow.
Predicting the film heat transfer coefficients
 The film heat transfer coefficient h depends on the
type of fluid flow, whether laminar or turbulent. The
more turbulent the flow (NRe ↑)  xfilm ↓ & h ↑.
 Most correlations for h are semiempirical and are
affected by physical properties of fluid, type and
velocity of flow, temperature difference, and
geometry of the physical system.
 These equations are based on empirical correlations
of test data guided by dimensional analysis. The
equations are much used in design.
Magnitudes of heat transfer coefficients [Ref 1]

Range of values of h
Type of processes
W/m2 °C Btu/ft2 h °F
Condensing steam 5,700 – 28,000 1,000 – 5,000
Condensing organics 1,100 – 2,800 200 – 500
Boiling liquids 1,700 – 28,000 300 – 5,000
Moving water 280 – 17,000 50 – 3,000
Moving organics 55 – 1,700 10 – 300
Still air 2.8 – 23 0.5 – 4
Moving air 11.3 – 55 2 – 10
Dimensional Analysis Method for Heat
Transfer Correlations [Ref 2]
 If a theoretical equation does exist among the
variables affecting a physical process, that equation
must be dimensionally homogeneous.
 Thus it is possible to group many variables into a
smaller number of dimensionless groups, so that
only these groups appear in the final equation.
 The method is easy to fit experimental data to
design equations, useful in checking consistency of
units in equation, in converting units, and in the
scaleup of equipments.
 Example (Example 1.2/McCabe):
Dimensional analysis of heat flow to a fluid in turbulent
flow in a long, straight pipe:
 h T    D , v ,  ,  , C p , k ,  T 
q
A

If the above relation is valid, both sides of the equation

must have the same dimensions:
q
 A    hT    D  a
,  v  b
,    c
,    d
,  C p  e
,  k  f
,  T  g

Let an overbar above a symbol refer to a dimension.

Substituting the dimensions from the Table below,
H L 2 t   L   L t 1   M L3   M L 1t 1   H M 1T 1   H M 1t 1T 1   T 
a b c d e f g
Quantities and dimensional formulas for the example
Quantity Symbol Dimensions
Heat flux q / A  hT H L 2 t 1

Pipe inside diameter D L

Average velocity of fluid v L t 1

 M L 3
In the
Fluid correlations
density for h, dimensionless numbers, such
Fluid viscosity  1 1

as Reynolds, Prandtl, and Nusselt numbersMare

L t
used.
Specific heat of fluid Cp H M 1T 1
hD convection
N Nu  of fluid
Thermal conductivity  k H L 1t 1T 1
k thermal diffusion
Temp difference btw wall and fluid T T

Because of dimensional homogeneity, the exponents of

each primary unit on both sides of the eq. must equal.
 Exponents of H : 1 e f
Exponents of L :  2  a  b  3c  d  f
Exponents of t :  1  b  d  f
Exponents of M : 0cd e
Exponents of T : 0  e  f  g

7 variables – 5 equations = any 2 variables that must be

retained. If b and e are retained and the remaining
variables are shown as functions of b and e, and
substituting back in dimensional equation,
q
 A    h  T    D  b 1
, V  b
,    b
,    e b
,  c p  e
,  k  1 e
,  T 

Collecting all factors having integral exponents in one

group, those having exponents b into another group, and
those having exponents e into a third:
 b e
 hD   Dv   C p  
 k       k 
   

The dimensions of each of the three bracketed groups

are zero, i.e. they are dimensionless. Any function of
these three groups will be dimensionally homogeneous
and the equation is dimensionless:
hD  Dv C p  
   , 
k   k 

Thus the correlations for h in forced convection inside

pipes contain three dimensionless groups, viz Nusselt,
Reynolds, and Prandtl numbers, respectively.
 0.14
hD   
Nu   0.023 Re 0.8 Pr 1 / 3  
k  w 

hD convection
N Nu  
k thermal diffusion

Dv inertia forces C p  momentum diffusion

N Re   , N Pr  
 viscous forces k thermal diffusion

Heat Transfer Coefficient for Turbulent

Flow Inside a Pipe
For fully turbulent flow (NRe > 6,000); 0.7 < NPr < 16,000; and
L/D > 60,
0.14
hD 1/ 3   
N Nu   0.023N Re N Pr 
0.8
 (10)
k  w 

(Sieder-Tate equation)
 Heat Transfer Coefficient for Turbulent Flow
Inside a Short Pipe (Entrance Effect)
For NRe > 6,000; 0.7 < NPr < 16,000; and L/D < 60,
0.14
hD 1/ 3   
  D  0.7 
N Nu   0.023N Re N Pr 
0.8
 1     (11)
k  w    L  

Heat Transfer Coeff for Laminar Flow Inside Pipes

For laminar flow (NRe < 2,100) and (NRe NPr D/L) > 10,
1/ 3 0.14
hD  D   
N Nu   1.86 N Re N Pr    (12)
k  L  w 
hD
For (NRe NPr D/L) < 10, N Nu 
k
 3.66
Heat Transfer Coefficient for Transition Flow
Inside a Pipe
For 2,100 < NRe < 6,000, Gnielinski equation may be used.
hD  f / 2   N Re  1000 N Pr
N Nu   K (13) [Ref 4]
1  12.7 f / 2   N Pr  1
1/ 2 2/3
k

where 0.5 < NPr < 105,

K = (NPr/NPr,w)0.11 for liquids (0.05 < NPr/NPr,w < 20)
K = (T/Tw)0.45 for gases (0.5 < T/Tw < 1.5)
For smooth tubes, Fanning friction factor f is given by:
f  0.25  0.790 ln N Re  1.64  2 (2,100 < NRe < 6,000)
Notes on using the correlations
 h should be evaluated at LMTD for fluid film, if the
temperature(s) change along the tube : [Ref 2]
q  hi Ai Tlm,i where Tlm,i 
 Twi , 2  T2    Twi ,1  T1 
ln  Twi , 2  T2   Twi ,1  T1  

Or, the LMTD can be evaluated using the mean

wall temperature, Twi = (Twi,1+Twi,2)/2.
 Cp, , , k are specific heat, viscosity, density
and thermal conductivity of fluid, respectively,
evaluated at mean bulk temperature of fluid,
Ti = (Ti1+Ti2)/2.
 w is the fluid viscosity evaluated at mean wall
 For flows through noncircular ducts, use the
equivalent diameter Deq,
Deq  4rH where rH is the hydraulic radius defined as,
cross - sectional area of flow
rH 
wetted perimeter in the cross - section

 The effect of roughness on heat transfer is much

less than on fluid friction. Thus the effect of
roughness on hi can be neglected in practical
calculations. [Ref 2]
Example 3 (Example 4.5-1/Geankoplis):
Air at 206.8 kPa and an average temp of 477.6 K is
being heated as it flows through a tube of 25.4 mm
inside diameter at a velocity of 7.62 m/s. The heating
medium is 488.7 K steam condensing on the outside
of the tube. Since the heat transfer coeff. of
condensing steam is several thousand W/m2 K and the
resistance of the metal wall is very small, it is assumed
that the surface wall temp of the metal in contact with
the air is 488.7 K. Calculate the heat transfer
coefficient for an L/D > 60 and also the heat transfer
flux q/A.
Example 4 (Example 4.5-2/Geankoplis):
Water is flowing in a horizontal 1-in. schedule 40 steel
pipe at an average temp of 65.6°C and a velocity of
2.44 m/s. It is being heated by condensing steam at
107.8°C on the outside of the pipe wall. The steam-
side coeff. has been estimated as ho = 10500 W/m2 K.
Calculate the following:
(a) The convective coeff. hi for water inside the pipe.
(b) The overall coeffi. Ui based on the inside surface.
(c) The heat transfer rate q for 0.305 m of pipe with the

water at an average temp of 65.6°C.

Solution: From Appendices,
For steel pipe, Di = 0.0266 m, Do = 0.0334 m
For water at 65.6°C, NPr = 2.72,  = 980 kg/m3,
k = 0.633 W/m K,  = 4.32x10-4 Pa s = 4.32x10-4 kg/m s
Assume Tw = 90°C, so w = 3.16x10-4 kg/m s
Di v (0.0266)( 2.44)( 980)
N Re    1 .473x10 5

 4.32x10 -4

So, the flow is turbulent. From Eq. (10),

0.14
1 / 3  4.32x10 
-4
hi Di
 0.023(1.473x10 ) ( 2.72) 
5 0.8

-4 
 hi  11396 W/m2 K
k  3.16x10 
q  hi Ai (Tw  Tc )  ho Ao (Th  Tw )
(11396)[ (0.0266) L](Tw  65.6)  (10500)[ (0.0334) L](107.8  Tw )
Tw  88.23C
 Since the wall temp is close to initial estimate of 90°C, the
second trial is not necessary. Thus Tw = 88°C. 
1 1 ln( Do / Di ) 1
(b) From Eq. (8):   
U i Ai hi Ai 2 k w L ho Ao
1 1 Di ln( Do / Di ) Di
Thus,   
U i hi 2k w ho Do
1 0.0266 ln(0.0334 / 0.0266) 0.0266
  
11396 2( 45) (10500)(0.0334)
U i  4331 W/m2 K 

(c) q  U i Ai (Th  Tc )  U i (Di L)(Th  Tc )

 ( 4331)[ (0.0266)(0.305)](107.8  65.6)  4658 W 
Discrepancy due to neglect
Check for q: q  hi Ai (Tw  Tc )  6506 W
of wall resistance.
Systematic Method of Estimating Wall Temp
From the heat transfer equation,
kAlm
q  U i Ai T  U o Ao T  hi Ai Ti 
xw
Tw  ho Ao To (a)
q T T Ti To
    (b)
Ai 1 / U i Di / U o Do 1/ hi Di / ho Do

If the wall resistance is neglected, Twi = Two = Tw 

Ti = |Ti – Tw|, To = |Tw – To|.
From the second and the last members of Eq. (b),
To Di / ho Do  To Ro  1/ ho Do
  i.e.    To  T
T 1/ U i  T R 1/ U i Di
Substituting 1/UoDo with sum of resistances, neglecting
wall resistance,
1/ ho Do
To 
1/ hi Di  1/ ho Do
T (c)

Step 1: Neglecting /w, estimate the coeff hi:

hi =  (Re, Pr, L/D)

Step 2: Estimate To  Tw from Eq.(c) [1st approximation]

Step 3: Find w at current Tw. If /w is not quite different

from unity, the 2nd approximation is not necessary.
Correlations for Liquid Metals Heat Transfer
Coefficient
 Liquid metals are used as high-temperature heat transfer
fluids, especially in nuclear reactors.
 Molten metals have low viscosities and very high thermal
conductivity.
 Consequently, they have very low Prandtl numbers, <
0.5.

For fully developed turbulent flow, (NRe NPr) > 100, and L/D
hD
> 60, N Nu  
 5.0  0.025 N Re N Pr  0.8
(14)
k
Example 5: (Example 4.5-3/Geankoplis)
A liquid metal flows at a rate of 4.0 kg/s through a tube
having an i.d of 0.05 m. The liquid enters at 500 K and is
heated to 505 K in the tube. The tube wall is maintained at
a temperature of 30 K above the fluid bulk temperature.
Calculate the required tube length. The average physical
properties are:  = 7.1x10-4 Pa s,  = 7400 kg/m3,
Cp = 120 J/kg K, k = 13 W/m K.
m m 4.0
Solution: G  
A Di / 4  (0.05) / 4
2 2
 2.038x10 3
kg/m 2
s

Di G (0.05)(2.038x103 )
N Re    1 . 435x10 5

 (7.1x10-4 )
C p  (120)(7.1x10 -4 )
N Pr    0.00655
k 13
 N Re N Pr  (1.435x105 )(0.00655)  939.925
hi (0.05)
 5.0  0.025 939.925
0.8
Using Eq. (14), N Nu 
(13)
hi  2853 W/m2 K

Using heat balance, q  m C p (Tco  Tci )  hi Ai (Tw  Tc )

q  ( 4.0)(120)(505  500)  ( 2853) Ai (30)
q  2400 W, Ai  2.804 x10 -2 m 2  Di L
2.804x10 -2
L  0.178 m
 (0.05)
Example 6: (Example 4.5-5/Geankoplis)

Oil film, hi
Di/2 Wall
Tw = 350°F

0.5 Btu/lb°F (Re, Pr, /w) (Tci + Tco )/2

q  m C p (Tco  Tci )  hi Ai (Tw  Tc )

Or Tlm,i
80 lb/h 150°F DiL 350°F

0.0303 ft 15 ft
Assume Tco  calculate hi(Re, Pr, /w)  find Tco  Repeat
Forced Convection Heat Transfer
Outside Various Geometries
 When heat transfer occurs between a moving fluid
and completely immersed bodies, the flux is
dependent on the geometry (shape) of body (e.g.
sphere, cylinder, flat plate), position on the body
(front, side, back, etc.), proximity of other bodies,
flow rate, and the fluid properties.
 Heat transfer coefficient varies over the body. The
average h is generally given by the correlation:
N Nu  CN Re
m
N Pr1 / 3 (15)
 C and m are constants that depend on the various
configurations.
 Fluid properties are evaluated at film temperature
Tf = (Tw+Tb)/2, where Tw is the surface or wall temp
and Tb average bulk fluid temp.
 The velocity v in NRe is the undisturbed free stream
velocity of the fluid approaching the object.
Flow Parallel to Flat Plate
For NPr > 0.7,
N Nu 
hL
 0.664 N Re,
0.5
L N 1/ 3
Pr
(16)
k

where L = plate length, NRe,L = Lv/.

Cylinder with Axis Perpendicular to Flow
hDo
  CN Re (17)
m 1/ 3
For NPr > 0.6, N Nu
kf
N Pr

See Table 4.6-1 (Geankoplis) for values of C and m.

Flow Past Single Sphere

For 1 < NRe= Dv/ < 70,000 and 0.6 < NPr < 400,
hD
N Nu   2.0  0.60 N Re
0.5 1 / 3
N Pr (18)
kf

where D is the diameter of sphere. Fluid properties are

evaluated at film temp Tf.
Heat Transfer for Flow in Packed Beds
 Correlations for h for packed beds are useful in
designing fixed and fluidized bed systems such as
catalytic reactors, dryers for solids, and pebble-
bed HEs.
 For heat transfer of fluids in beds of spheres
roughly spherical solid particles, [Ref 2]
hDo
  1.17 N Re (19)
0.585 1 / 3
N Nu N Pr
kf
 Natural Convection Heat Transfer
from Various Geometries
 Natural or free convection heat transfer occurs when a
solid surface is in contact with a quiescent gas or liquid
which is at different temp from the surface.
 Density differences in the fluid arising from the heating
process provide the buoyancy force that moves the
fluid.
 An example of free convection system is where heat is
being transferred from a hot vertical plate to the air in
contact with the plate. Velocity and temp gradients exist
from the plate out into the bulk quiescent air.
 (a) [Ref 3] (b) [Ref 2]
(a) velocity and (b) velocity and temperature gradients
in natural convection from heated vertical plate
Heat transfer correlation for natural convection from
surfaces of vertical and horizontal plates and cylinders:
N Nu  a  N Gr N Pr 
m
(20)
L3  2 gT
where N Gr  Grashof number  (21)
 2

L  characteristic length (height for vertical plate and cylinder,

length of a side for horizontal square plate,
linear mean of two sides for horizontal rectangular plate,
outside diameter for horizontal cylinder)
g  acceleration of gravity
  thermal expansion coefficient of fluid
T  positive temp difference btw wall and bulk fluid
All physical properties are evaluated at film temp, T f  (Tw  Tb ) / 2.
a and m are constants given in Table 4.7-1 (Geankoplis).
Free Convection from Spheres
For NGr NPr < 1011 and NPr > 0.5,

0.589  N Gr N Pr 
1/4
hDo
N Nu   2
kf 9/16 4/9
1   0.469 / N Pr   (22) [Ref 5]
 

where Do = outside diameter of sphere

REFERENCES
1. Geankoplis, C. J. Transport Processes and Unit
Operations, 4th Edition. Prentice-Hall, 2003.
2. McCabe W. L., Smith, J. P., and Harriott, P. Unit
Operations of Chemical Engineering, 7th Edition.
McGraw-Hill, 2005.
3. Incropera, F. P., Dewitt, D. P., Bergman, T. L., and
Lavine, A. S. Fundamentals of Heat and Mass
Transfer, 6th Edition. John Wiley & Sons, 2007.
4. Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 8th Edition.
McGraw-Hill, 2007.
5. Holman, J. P. Heat Transfer, 10th Edition. McGraw-
Hill, 2010.