Topic I: Introducing Advanced Urban Geography

Definitions
Urban Geography: refers to the study of urban areas and their functions. It is the study of
spatial distributions of and linkages between cities, and the circulation and flows of people,
things, and ideas within networks of cities that bind them together in space-time.
Study of spatial patterns, internal structure, and interactions within cities
Urbanization: increasing share of urban population (urbanized societies/rural societies) vs. large
cities
City: concentrated non-agricultural settlement
Hinterland: Provide services/draws resources
Incorporation: Defining territory/establishing government
Primate cities: Largest city in a country twice as large as the second largest
Bangkok (7.5m); Nanthaburi (481k)
Defining Cities
U.S. Census Bureau definition of urban 2,500 or more inhabitants
City and town
Multifunctional nucleated settlements
Central business district, both residential and nonresidential land uses
Towns are smaller, less functional complexity
Defining Cities
Central city: Within the boundaries of the main city
Suburb: Functionally specialized segment of a large urban area outside the central city
Urbanized area: Continuously built-up landscape defined by building and population densities
Metropolitan area: Cluster of distinct cities linked to one or more urban city centers by economic
activity, which functions as an economic whole.

The urban hierarchy: Places can be organized into hierarchy. Urban hierarchy is a ranking of
places on the basis of what services are available. Certain services require a large customer base,
so they can only be found in larger cities at higher levels of the urban hierarchy. Consider, for
example, someone living in a rural area of Bungoma County to get gas, eat at a restaurant, or use
the post office, they may travel to the Bungoma Town. To take a flight to another part of the
country, or to eat at a more uncommon type of restaurant (say, a Thai restaurant), such a person
would then have to travel to a large city like Eldoret or Kisumu.

Each level of the urban hierarchy typically has fewer places in it. Thus, Eldoret Town provides
services not only for its own residents and those of Bungoma, but also for other surrounding
communities like Kapsabet, Baringo, Kitale etc.

A Global City: At the top of the urban hierarchy lie global cities, sometimes also called world
cities. A global city is a city that acts as a "control point" for global economic networks. This

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control may be directly economic, as when the city serves as a headquarters for major
international corporations and corporate services like advertising agencies, banks, and law firms.

The control may also be political, as in the case of the economic policies that emerge from both
national (e.g. the US Congress) and international (e.g. the International Monetary Fund)
institutions headquartered in Washington, DC. Or it may be cultural, as innovations in the world
of fashion and design emanating from Milan shape the world economy.

While most global cities are quite large, size alone is not the primary way global cities are
defined. Many of the world's largest and most rapidly growing cities are located in the
developing world. These cities may have extensive economic and cultural networks, such as the
"Nollywood" film industry centered in Lagos, Nigeria.

Nevertheless, they may lack the economic clout to attain global city power commensurate with
their population size.

The Megacites: The largest cities in the world are commonly referred to as megacities.
Megacities can present particular challenges. The huge numbers of people in cities like Karachi
or São Paulo can strain infrastructure such as water supply and transportation, leaving many of
their people living in poor conditions.

Stark inequalities of wealth and power can generate conflict, such as repeated attempts by city
governments to bulldoze shantytowns built by the poor. Environmental conditions may also
deteriorate, and many megacities have notoriously poor air quality.

NB

Cities are not homogeneous entities. The processes that create cities and the functions that go on
in cities arrange their internal makeup in particular ways.

The structure and experience of urban landscapes is thus crucial to human geography today. We
need to understand why people congregate in cities, and what happens when they do.

It is surprisingly difficult to define what exactly makes a city or where a given city's boundaries
lie. City growth means municipal boundaries rarely correspond to the functional boundaries of a
city -- for example, the city of Sydney proper is home to only 117,000 of the over 4 million
people who live in the Sydney urban area.

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The density of settlement typically shades off gradually from the high rises of the central
business district to the open spaces of the rural fringe, making it difficult to draw a clear
boundary.

Generally speaking, we can define cities by two key characteristics: they have a high density and
intensity of human interaction, and they serve as major nodes in wider economic, cultural, or
other networks. Cities are, then, places where people come together.

Cities are defined and made possible by their location within networks that extend beyond the
city. A city is sustained by its economic, political, cultural, and environmental connections to
other places.

CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN SETTLEMENT

Some of the most important characteristics of urban community are as follows: 1. Large size and
high density of population 2. Heterogeneity 3. Anonymity 4. Mobility and transiency 5.
Formality of relations 6. Social distance 7. Regimentation 8. Segmentation of personality.

Urban life and personality are affected by the physical and social conditions of urban living—
anonymity, social distance, speed and tension, regimentation, impersonal social interaction,
mobility and transiency etc. These conditions produce impersonality, insecurity and
segmentation of personality, which appear to be universal characteristics of urbanisation (or
urban community) all over the world.

Urban mode of life is quite contrary to traditional rural life, though it has affected rural life
which is also in the process of change. Its characteristics are represented by the terms ‘urbanism’
and the process of its expansion is called ‘urbanisation’.

1. Large size and high density of population:

The size of the urban community is much larger than the rural community. Not only this, in
urban areas, there is high density of population. Density increases the number of short-term,
impersonal and utilitarian social relationships a person is likely to have.

2. Heterogeneity:
Urban population is heterogeneous. It consists of various shades of people—different castes,
classes, ethnic groups, religions, etc. They are not all alike. Urban community is noteworthy for
its diversity.

3. Anonymity:

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The sheer pressure of number marks for anonymity. Anonymity is a loss of identity and sense of
belongingness. The heterogeneity of city life with its mixture of people of all races, castes,
classes, creeds, occupations and ethnic origins heightens the sense of anonymity.

4. Mobility and transiency:

Urban life is dynamic. Social relations are temporary. Therefore, permanency does not develop
in urban relations. There is a high rate of geographical as well as social mobility in urban areas.
In America, on an average, a person changes his job (occupational mobility) within six years.

Consequently, his dwelling (changes of residence), also changes. Different types of mobility
usually mean transiency of contact. As such, urban social relations continue for a very short time.
Urban dweller continually makes new social contacts.

5. Formality of relations:
In urban social life, relations are not intimate and kinship based. Most routine social contacts in
the city are impersonal and segmented. Formal politeness takes the place of genuine friendliness.
The impersonality of urban life is a necessary and convenient way of urban living.

6. Social distance:
City people are physically crowded but socially distant. Social distance is a product of
anonymity, impersonality and heterogeneity. Occupational differences may be even more
important sources of social distance. Urbanites become nigh-dwellers, not neighbours.
Apartment dwellers may live for years without any acquaintance with many of the other
occupants.

7. Regimentation:
The city is always in hurry. The life (work and entertainment) in the urban community becomes
‘clock regulated’. Order, regularity and the punctuality are the characteristics of urban life. On
the streets, his movement is controlled by traffic lights, on railway stations and other places by
elevators and escalators.

8. Segmentation of personality:
Most routine urban contacts are of secondary group rather than primary group nature. Most
contacts are instrumental, that is, we use another person as a necessary functionary to fulfill our
purposes. We do not necessarily interact with entire persons but with people in terms of their
formal roles as postman, bus driver, office assistant, policeman and other functionaries. We thus
interact with only a segment of the person, not with the whole person.

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Classification of urban settlement

Urban Settlements
Fast urban growth is a modern phenomenon. Until modern times, few settlements entered the
population size of more than a few thousand residents. The first urban settlement to arrive at a
population of one million was the London city by about. A.D. 1810 By 1982 nearly 175 cities in
the world had crossed the one million population mark. In the present time, 54 per cent of the
world’s population resides in urban settlements in comparison to only 3 per cent in the year
1800.

Classification of Urban Settlements

The interpretation of urban areas differs from one country to another. Some of the general basis
of classification is the size of the population, and administrative setup and occupational
composition.

Population Size
It is an important criterion adopted by most countries to describe urban areas. The lower limit of
the population size assigned as urban is 1,500 (Colombia), 2,000 (Argentina and Portugal) 2,500
(the U.S.A. and Thailand), 5,000 (India) and 30,000 ( Japan). Besides the size of the population,
the density and part of non-agricultural workers are taken into consideration in India. Countries
with a low density of population may prefer a lower number as the cut-off value compared to
densely populated countries. In Denmark, Finland, and Sweden all areas with a population size
of 250 persons are called urban. The minimum population for a town is 300 in Iceland, whereas,
in Venezuela and Canada, it is 1,000 persons.

Occupational Structure
In some countries, such as India, the important commercial activities in addition to the size of the
population in assigning a settlement as urban are also taken as a criterion. Likewise, in Italy, a
settlement of more than 50% of its economically productive population involved in non-
agricultural pursuits is called urban. India has set this criterion at 75%.

Administration
The administrative structure is a criterion for assigning a settlement as urban in some countries.
For example, in India, a settlement of any size is categorised as urban, if it has a municipality,
Notified Area Council or Cantonment Board. Similarly, in Latin American nations, such as
Brazil and Bolivia, any administrative capital is recognised as urban irrespective of its population
size.

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Location
Location of urban centres is analysed with reference to their function. For example, the sitting
demands of a holiday resort are quite distinct from that of an industrial town, a seaport or a
military centre. Strategic towns require places extending natural defence; mining towns demand
the proximity of economically valuable minerals; industrial towns usually require local energy
supplies or raw materials; tourist centres need attractive landscape, or a marine seashore, a spring
with medicinal water or old monuments, ports need a harbour etc. Sections of the initial urban
settlements were based on the availability of water, fertile land and material for buildings.
Today, while these factors remain valid, modern technology performs a vital role in discovering
urban settlements distant from the source of these materials. Piped water can be provided to a
faraway settlement, the building material can be carried from long distances. Apart from the site,
the circumstances play an important role in the development of towns. The urban centres which
are positioned close to an important trade route have undergone rapid development.

Functions of Urban Centres

The initial towns were centres of administration, industry, trade religious importance and
defence. The importance of defence and religion as distinguishing functions has diminished in
general, but other functions have entered the list. Today, several new functions, such as
residential, recreational, transport, mining, manufacturing and most recent activities associated
with information technology are conducted in specialised towns. Some of these functions do not
necessarily need the urban centre to have any significant relationship with their neighbouring
rural areas. In spite of towns playing multiple functions, we refer to their principal function. For
example, Sheffield as an industrial city, Chandigarh as an administrative city, London as a port
city and so on. Large cities have a rather greater variety of functions.

Furthermore, all cities are dynamic and over a period may evolve new functions. Most of the
early 19th-century fishing ports in England have now also grown as tourism. Many of the old
market cities are now known for production activities. Towns and cities are categorised into the
following classes. Administrative Towns National capitals, in which the administrative offices
of central governments, such as New Delhi, Canberra, Washington D.C., and London, Beijing,
Addis Ababa etc. are called administrative cities. Provincial (sub-national) cities can also have
administrative functions, for example, Albany (New York), Chennai (Tamil Nadu), Victoria
(British Columbia).

Commercial Towns and Trading

Agricultural market towns, such as Kansas City and Winnipeg; financial and banking centres like
Amsterdam and Frankfurt; large inland centres like St Louis and Manchester; and transportation
links such as Baghdad, Agra and Lahore have been significant trading centres.

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 Cultural Towns
Places of pilgrimage, such as Mecca, Jagannath Puri, Varanasi and Jerusalem etc. are considered
cultural cities. These urban hubs are of great religious importance.

Additional functions which the cities offer are health and sport (Miami and Panaji),
manufacturing (Pittsburgh and Jamshedpur), mining and quarrying (Broken Hill and Dhanbad)
and transportation (Singapore and Mughal Sarai).

CLASSIFICATION OF TOWNS BASED ON FORMS

An urban settlement may be linear, star or crescent-shaped and square. In fact, the form of the
settlement, style of buildings and architecture and other constructions are a result of its historical
and cultural traditions. The roads expand from the govt headquarters such as Piazza, Arat and
Amist Kilo roundabouts. Mercato has markets which grew with time and is supposed to be the
largest market between Johannesburg and Cairo. A multi-faculty university, several good schools
and medical colleges make Addis Ababa a good educational centre. It is a terminal station for
rail route of the Djibouti-Addis Ababa. Bole airport is a comparatively new airport. The city has
seen rapid growth because of its multifunctional character and being a large nodal centre
established in the centre of Ethiopia.

The function of settlements

A settlement is a place where people live. Settlements can be as small as a single house in a
remote area or as a large as a mega city (a city with over 10 million residents).

A settlement may be permanent or temporary. An example of a temporary settlement is a refugee

camp. However, a temporary settlement may become permanent over time. This has happened to
many refugee camps that have been built in conflict zones.

The function of a settlement helps to identify the economic and social development of a place
and can show its main activity. Most large settlements have more than one function though in the
past one function was maybe the most important in defining the success and growth in
importance of the settlement.

Belfast Harbour

The main functions of a settlement are:

 Market town – where farmers will buy and sell their goods and materials
 Mining town – where minerals and fuel might be extracted

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 Industrial town – where raw materials will be processed into manufactured products
 Port – a place where goods can be imported and exported
 Route centre – a place where several important roads/ transport links will meet
 Service centre – a place that will provide for the main needs and services for people living in
a particular area
 Cultural/ Religious centre – a place that will welcome people from different places for
learning or religious observance
 Administrative centre – where government offices and departments will be located
 Residential town – a place where people will live but will travel to work somewhere else
 Tourist resort – where people visit to relax and enjoy themselves
Urban hierarchy
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The urban hierarchy ranks each city based on the size of population residing within the
nationally defined statistical urban area. Because urban population depends on how governments
define their metropolitan areas, urban hierarchies are conventionally ranked at the national level;
however, the ranking can be extended globally to include all cities. Urban hierarchies tell us
about the general organization of cities and yield some important insights. First, it tells us that
within a system of cities, some cities will grow to be very large, but that number will be small
relative to the universe of cities. Second, it refutes the expectation of an optimally sized city.
Lastly, it establishes cities as belonging to an inter-related network where one city's growth
affects others'.
Topic III: Location and Structure of Urban Centers

Introduction

Analysis of why cities are located where they are is a classic question in geography. As a general
rule, the locations of cities are driven by a combination of the networks in which they are
embedded, and the particular local conditions of their site. Cities grow up where local conditions
are conducive to building the type of infrastructure that the larger network needs from its hub.

Perhaps the most common driver of city location is transport networks. Cities play crucial roles
in the receipt, exchange, and shipment of goods. Chicago is a classic example of a transportation-
focused city. Its location at the intersection of the Mississippi River transportation network with
the Great Lakes transportation network made it an ideal entrepot for trade between the US's

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interior and east coast. Railways were subsequently built to run to Chicago, further cementing
the city's centrality.

Other cities may generate networks around themselves, if their local conditions are compelling
enough. Take the city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia. Mecca was origninally a minor trade hub. It
grew to prominence after it was the scene of important events in the life of the Prophet
Muhammad, making it the holiest city in Islam. As Islam spread and grew, networks of cultural
significance and religious pilgrimmage remained anchored to Mecca, expanding its importance
and size.

Finally, some cities may be built in a particular location as a deliberate attempt to construct a
network of influence. This is most notable in the case of newly-built capital cities like
Washington, DC, Canberra, Australia, and Brasilia, Brazil. The Brazilian government moved key
administrative functions away from the existing large coastal cities to a remote location in the
Amazon in order to more effectively project power over the country's large, sparsely-populated
interior. It was hoped that moving the capital would encourage economic development of the
Amazon by forcing networks of political power and influence to flow through the region.

Site (Absolute Location) Factors

- Latitude and longitude or physical characteristics
- Head-of-navigation (river origin)
- Bay head (where land/river meets bay)

Situation (Relative location) Factors

- In relation to the physical and cultural characteristics of surrounding areas
- Raw materials, market areas, agricultural regions, mountains, oceans, etc.
- Break-of-bulk locations (ports)
- Railheads
- Relationship to other cities
- Poor Site
- Good Situation eg. New Orleans, LA
- Flooding
- Mouth of river

Urban Structure and Pattern

From rather humble beginnings, the development of cities has produced a complex settlement
pattern that is changing the face of the Earth and the way humans use and occupy it. A city’s

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spatial organization reflects the culture that built it whether that culture is traditional or
advanced. The common denominators of all cities are growth and change.

While it is doubtful that the urbanization experiences of the industrialized Western countries can,
or even should be duplicated, in much of the world there is no doubt that urbanization is the next
step in human cultural evolution.

Geographers have recognized that the relationships between cities and the surrounding
countryside can be measured and mapped, Every city and town has an adjacent region within
which its influence is dominant. Farmers in that region sell many of their products on the city’s
markets, and customers from smaller towns and villages come to the city to shop and to conduct
other business.

The city’s dominance can be seen in many other areas of life as well, such as the surrounding
trade zone or hinterland, the surrounding region from which people travel into the city for work,
business, or pleasure.

In general, large cities tend to lie farther apart than smaller ones; towns lie still closer together,
and villages are separated by even shorter distances. Investigating the above patterns ultimately
leads to the study of the anatomy of the city itself; its internal structure and functions.

Interurban Spatial Organization

The Industrial Revolution occurred almost a century later in the United States than in Europe.
When it finally did cross the Atlantic in the 1870s, it progressed so robustly that only 50 years
later America surpassed Europe as the world's mightiest industrial power.

The impact of industrial urbanization was felt at two levels. At the national level, there quickly
emerged a network of cities specialized in the collection, processing, and distribution of raw
materials and manufactured goods, and linked together by an even more efficient web of
transport routes. The whole process unfolded so quickly that planning was impossible. Almost
literally, near the turn of the twentieth century America awoke to discover that it had built a
number of large cities.

In the United States, the urban system evolved through five stages of development determined by
prevailing modes of transport and industry. Today’s period of high technology, still in the
process of transforming the modern city, dates from the 1970s.

Cities are not simply random collections of buildings and people. They exhibit functional
structure: they are spatially organized to perform their functions as places of commerce,
production, education, and much more. Throughout the past century urban geographers have

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attempted to construct models that would account for the geographic layout of cities: three
Classic Models of Urban Structure.

Models of urban structure reveal how the forces that shape the internal layout of cities have
changed, transforming the single-center city with one dominant downtown into the polycentric
metropolis with several commercial nodes.

Internal morphology of a City

A variety of models have been developed to explain the internal structure of cities.

a. Grid model/Hippodamian plan

Proposed by Hippodamus of Miletus who is considered the father of rational city planning.

The center of the city contains the agora (Marketplace), theaters, and temples. Private rooms
surround the city’s public arenas.

The plan can be laid out uniformly over any kind of terrain since it’s based on angles and
measurements.

Examples: The city of Priene has used the grid model

b. Concentric Zone model

Also known as The Burgess Model or The Bulls Eye Model

Developed by the urban sociologist called Ernest Burgess in the 1920s.

The model portrays how cities’ social groups are spatially arranged in a series of rings.

The size of the rings may vary, but the order always remains the same.

The Rings

Central Business District (CBD) - This area of the city is a non-residential area and it’s where
businesses are.

This area s called downtown, a lot of sky scrapers houses government institutions, businesses,
stadiums, and restaurants.

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Zone of Transition- the zone of transition contains industry and has poorer-quality housing
available. Created by subdividing larger houses into apartments.

Zone of the working class- This area contains modest older houses occupied by stable, working
class families. A large percentage of the people in this area are tenants.

Zone of better residence- This zone contains newer and more spacious houses. Mostly families
in the middle-class live in this zone.

Commuter’s Zone/Suburbs- This area is located beyond the build-up area of the city. Mostly
upper-class residents live in this area.

Example: Chicago

Concentric Zone model Shortcomings

It assumes an isotropic plain land, may restrict growth of certain sectors

The model does not fit polycentric cities

It describes the peculiar American geography, where the inner city is poor while suburbs are
wealthy; the converse is the norm elsewhere.

Cities in the developing world are often characterized by a concentric ring model that is partially
the inverse of the Burgess model. While these cities also center on a CBD, it is the rich who live
closest to it, seeking access to the power and wealth concentrated there.

The outskirts of the city are home to extensive residential areas built up by poor people coming
to the city from rural areas in search of jobs. These areas, often called favelas or pueblos jóvenes
after their names in Latin America, are usually poorly integrated into the rest of the city.
Nevertheless, they can develop their own vibrant street life and extensive informal (black
market) economies.

Not every city has a single CBD. In some cases, such as the Dallas-Fort Worth metro area, two
cities have simply expanded until they grew together. In developing countries that were once
European colonies, it is common to have distinct "national" and "international" CBDs.

The national CBD, often built on the old city center from the pre-colonial era, is the center of
networks that focus on the nation, housing prominent national companies and national
government institutions. The international CBD, built on the location where colonial rulers set up
their operations, is home to headquarters and branch offices of multinational companies,
connecting the city into global networks.

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c. Sector Model.

Developed in 1939 by land economist Homer Hoyt in his work called modeling cities

It is a model of the internal structure of cities arguing that social groups are arranged around a
series of sectors, or wedges radiating out from the central business district (CBD) and centers on
major transportation lines.

In the sector model, there is still a CBD, but industrial zones radiate out from it along
transportation routes, forming zones that resemble wedges or pie slices.

The remaining pie slices are various forms of residential settlement, with working-class people
again living in the slices closest to the industrial areas.

Here, low-income households to be near railroad lines, and commercial establishments to be

along business thoroughfares.

It stresses the importance of transportation corridors. The theory sees growth of various urban
activities as expanding along roads, rivers, or train routes.

Examples: Chicago and Newcastle

Shortcomings of the Theory

It applies well to some towns only. In a number of cities, low cost housing is near industry and
transportation disapproving the model.

Hoyt’s model is based on 20th century and does not take into account cars which make
commerce easier. With cars, people can live anywhere and further from the city.

d. Multiple Nuclei Model

The Multiple Nuclei Model is an ecological model created by Chauncy Harris and Edward
Ullman in the 1945.

Here, the City grows from several independent points rather than from one central business
district.

As these expand, they merge to form a single urban area. Ports, universities, airports and parks
also act as nodes.

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It is based on the idea that people have greater movement due to increased car ownership.

The model has four geographic principles:

i. Certain activities require highly specialized facilities ie. accessible transportation for a
factory or large areas of open land for a housing tract.
ii. Certain activities cluster because they profit from mutual association
iii. Certain activities repel each other and will not be found in the same area
iv. Certain activities could not make a profit if they paid the high rent of the most desirable
locations

This theory stresses the importance of multiple nodes of activity, not a single CBD. Ports,
airports, universities attract certain uses while repelling others.

Assumptions

Land is flat

Even distribution of resources

Even distribution of people in residential areas

Even transportation costs

Criticisms of Theory

Each zone displays a significant degree of internal heterogeneity and not homogeneity

No consideration of influence of physical relief and government policy.

Not applicable to oriental (very old) cities with different cultural, economic and political
backgrounds

e. Urban Realms Model

Developed by James E. Vance Jr. in the 1960’s

Each realm is a separate economic, social and political entity that is linked together to form a
larger metro framework. Suburbs are within the sphere of influence of the central city and its
metropolitan CBD.

Now, however, urban realms have become so large that they even have exurbs, not just suburbs

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Urban realm depends on overall size of the metropolitan region, amount of economic activity in
each urban realm, topography and major land features, and the internal accessibility of each
realm.

Example: Francisco Bay area

f. Core Frame Model

The Core frame model is a model showing the urban structure of the Central Business District of
a town or city.

The model includes an inner core where land is expensive and used intensively.

The outer core and frame have lower land values and are less intensively developed. The various
land uses in this model are linked to the bid rent theory

g. Bid Rent Theory

This is a geographical economic theory that refers to how the price and demand for real estate
change as the distance from the central business district (CBD) change.

This is based upon the idea that retail establishments wish to maximize their profitability, so they
are much more willing to pay more for land close to the CBD and less for land further away from
this area. The amount they are willing to pay is called "bid rent".

h. Irregular Pattern Model

It refers to the arrangement of public space that characterizes the stage of "transition from village
to city" especially in Third World.

This urban model is due to lack of planning or construction of illegalities without a specific
order. It includes blocks with no fixed order, or permanent and temporary structures.

Structures are not related to an urban centre near the place.

Developed by Sir Ebenezer Howard (1898) who was inspired by the idea of ideal/Utopian cities.
His work further inspired works on Model villages by Robert Owen and Model industrial towns
by Buckingham.
Comprised of Town, Country and Town-country interactions
Functions of Cities

Introduction

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Every urban center has an economic base, with some workers employed in basic (that is, goods-
producing) sectors that satisfy demand in the hinterland or markets even farther away. These
activities produce goods for export and generate an inflow of money. On the other hand, workers
who maintain city streets, clerks who work in offices, and teachers who teach in city schools are
responsible for the functions of the city itself. This is the nonbasic (also called the service)
sector. Some people who work in a city, of course, do some of each. A mechanic may serve
customers from a village in the city’s hinterland, where there are no repair facilities, while also
serving city residents.

This employment structure—the number of people employed in various basic and nonbasic jobs
— reveals the primary functions a city performs. You should note that all cities have multiple
functions, and the larger the city, the larger the number of functions. Some cities, however, are
dominated by one particular activity.

This functional specialization was a characteristic of European cities even before the Industrial
Revolution, but the Industrial Revolution gave it new meaning. This was once true in America as
well. As urban centers grow, they tend to lose their specialization.

Early Urban Functions

- Defense: forts, bases
- Religious: temples, churches
- Political: capitals, administration
- Agglomeration (related industries), divisions of labor
- Economic activities: primary, secondary, tertiary

Contemporary Urban Functions

- Primarily economic
- Warehousing, trade, crafts, industry
- Economic activity shift toward secondary/tertiary through quinary
- Academia (e.g., Madison, WI)
- Economic Base
Basic Sectors (exports)
- New York: finance
- Seattle: software
- Los Angeles: aerospace, entertainment
Nonbasic Sectors (local consumption)
Multiplier Effect: basic/nonbasic ratio>. Non-basic population grows faster than basic population
(~2:1)
Topic VI: Urbanization Challenges

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Urbanization Challenges

Problems of Sub-urbanization
Loss of tax bases = inadequate social services
Environmental (no mass transit, urban sprawl, utilities, pollution)
White flight (racial segregation)
Environmental racism
Working class isolation, isolation of women (housewives), youth problems, consumption-
oriented Social Areas of Cities

City residents tend to segregate themselves

Groupings according to:
Family status
Social status
Ethnicity
Gated communities and co-ops
Many groupings fostered by size and value of available housing
Zoning, redlining, mortgage discrimination, restrictive covenants
Non-Whites restricted (legally or financially) to “undesirable” neighborhoods
Urban Renewal and Gentrification
Significant economic and population growth in large urban areas since 1990s

Gentrification
Rehabilitation of housing in deteriorated inner-city areas by middle- and high-income groups
Displacement of low-income populations
Young professionals and “empty nesters” returning to urban centers
Fiscal problems due to unrestricted expansion
Growth boundaries and “smart growth”

Globally
Urbanization
Rapid urbanization without economic or infrastructure development
Disrupted agriculture, mechanization and commercialization: force people from their lands
Perceived: economic opportunity, lower mortality, better services, greater investment
Reality: no jobs, technology replaces many jobs, transnational corporatism: informal economy
Lack water, power, sewage
Traffic, congestion, pollution
Shantytowns, slums, makeshift housing

17
18
Challenges and Opportunities of Urban Development in Africa
Introduction
Urban cities in Africa includes Lagos(Which is the largest city in Africa as stated by the
Economics magazine for 2013 Predictions), Cairo, the second largest city in Africa, Nairobi,
Johannesburg, Kinshasa, Khartoum, Libreville, Accra, Cotonou etc.
Virtually all cities in Africa are of a cosmopolitan nature, havingpeople from different parts of
the country, Africa, and the world at large. Two Mega-cities (cities having a population of
15million people and above) are identified in Africa thus: Lagos(Nigeria) and Cairo(Egypt).
These join in the league of mega-cities from around the world such as New York, New Delhi,
Rio de janero, Beijing, Jarkata and the likes. The rate of Urban sprawl in Africa is unprecedented
in the history of the continent. This comes majorly as a result of its youthful population- some
70% of Africans are below 40years. Also, the current scramble for Africa by the developed
world and China by massive influx of direct foreign investments in the continent is also a
contributory factor to its growth rate. This sets the tone for our discussions on the Challenges and
opportunities of Urban development in Africa.

Challenges of Development in Africa

Population
Africa is the only continent that has a replaceable birth rate higher than death rate. With the
current situation of things, she might triple the populations of the advanced Western nations
within the next two decades. The West are fast diminishing in population, if nothing is done by
their governments to stem the tide and save them from a possible extinction. The population
explosion in African cities is compounded by the massive Rural-Urban migration in search of
greener pastures. The drift towards the city centers is a huge challenge to the government and
policy stakeholders to accommodate and engage this army of migrant workers.

Overstretched infrastructural facilities

Housing
There is an acute shortage of housing in most Urban cities in Africa. A lot of people live in
squalors. These gives room for frequent epidemics such as cholera, typhoid, malaria, which are
as a result of unsanitary housing conditions. As much as 5-10people are crammed up in one
single room, which is most times very small and poorly constructed using wood, galvanized
roofing sheets , mud or a combination of any of the three. All these pathetic conditions are found
in the 21st century Africa-which are very pathetic.
Little or poorly built and maintained rest room and conveniences
There are few public toilets in many Urban centers in Africa. Even in private residences, as many
as 100people share a toilet. In fact the World Health Organization should declare a “State of
Emergency” on ‘rest-rooms’, ‘private/public toilets and conveniences’ in Urban cities in Africa.
Many funds for tackling diseases should be channeled to building and maintaining many more

19
public conveniences in Africa-as these are some of the major sources of diseases in Africa.
‘Prevention, as is said, is better than cure’.

Land and Urban Development

Many Urban cities are bedeviled with the twin problems of either an unplanned city development
scheme or heavily distorted master plan of the city. Houses are crammed everywhere. Oil/fuel
tank farms and industries are located in residential areas. The roads are not properly built. All
these pose a major headache to stake holders and policy implementers of city master plans in
Africa.

Security
It is an open secret that many Urban centers in Africa, due to long years of neglect and decay in
infrastructures coupled with mal-administration have become breeding grounds for terrorists or
future terrorists. The security challenge could be overwhelming. Crimes are committed
everyday- ranging from kidnapping, rape, theft, and violence. Youth violence is a major issue in
most African cities. A lot needs to be done to curtail this menace.

Real Estate Development

The acute shortage of housing in Urban centres, gives a lot of room for massive investments in
residential accommodation forthe teeming influx of people into African city centres. Both
thegovernment and the private sectors should participate to help curb this housing need. I make
bold to suggest these remedies in other to drastically solve the acute housing needs for city
dwellers in Africa-“A basic Tax exemption for the importation and exportation of the following
building items;
i- Cement
ii- Sand
iii- Furniture (and wood for furniture)
iv- Roofing sheets or materials.
With these in place, people could build their houses, the government itself could build more
housing estates and there would be a massive investment in industries and infrastructures
producing the listed items above. The multiplier effect on the economy would be a great increase
in employment opportunities for the people as a result of huge investments in the building
industry, due to its duty free status. This indeed is a one true proposal that will end the housing
crisis befalling city dwellers in Africa, and curtail the unconscious systematic decimation of the
population of Urban people in Africa as a result of living in squalor and disease.

Investments in Power
An NGO working mostly in villages in Pakistan, has successfully harnessed small scale hydro-
power and other sources of available energy to generate non-stop electricity supply in those rural
areas. It is still building more. As a result of constant power supply alone, many villages and city
dwellers alike in Pakistan has no employment problem. Almost everyone is engaged in one small
20
scale cottage industry or the other and more businesses are being established. This idea can be
replicated in Urban centres in Africa. It is observed that poor power supply, which is very
common in many African cities is as a result of short sighted government policies, vesting the
generation of electricity supply at the seat of power and governance. This problem could be
solved by licensing government owned and private firms/individuals, corporate bodies and
NGOs to generate electricity to whole estates, counties or local government entities within a
country. This in no time would end the nightmare of epileptic power supply in many cities in
Africa.

Industries
The availability of abundant cheap labour in Urban area should be an incentive to establish more
industries in these areas. Nevertheless, the government and policy makers should see to it that
the Right of workers is not trampled upon by these investors.

Education
In order to achieve the millennium development goals set for education by the United Nations, a
lot of funding has gone into developing educational institutions in African cities by both the
home governments, the European Union (EU), the World Bank, United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), individuals and private entities in order to
educate the teeming population of Urban areas in Africa. This is commendable. However, two
problems need to be addressed here in this regards:
i- The acute shortage of Teachers and poor quality of personnel (including administrators) in the
educational fields
ii- Poor infrastructures (buildings, roads, instructional materials including ill-equipped
libraries)etc. Once more for emphasis, a state of emergency has to be declared on education in
many urban cities in Africa, in other to rescue the comatose sector of the economy. Education is
by far the most important tool in tackling poverty and underdevelopment in Africa.

Conclusion
It can be seen here that the challenges of Urban Development in Africa, far from being just
problems, are actually the needed catalysts to ebb out the opportunities for her development as a
virile entity.

The role of urbanization in development

Economic effects[edit]

A crowded BTS Station during the rush hour in Bangkok, Thailand

21
As cities develop, effects can include a dramatic increase and change in costs, often pricing the
local working class out of the market, including such functionaries as employees of the local
municipalities. For example, Eric Hobsbawm's book The age of revolution: 1789–
1848 (published 1962 and 2005) chapter 11, stated "Urban development in our period was a
gigantic process of class segregation, which pushed the new labouring poor into great morasses
of misery outside the centres of government, business, and the newly specialized residential
areas of the bourgeoisie. The almost universal European division into a 'good' west end and a
'poor' east end of large cities developed in this period." This is likely due to the prevailing south-
west wind which carries coal smoke and other airborne pollutants downwind, making the
western edges of towns preferable to the eastern ones.[30]
Similar problems now affect the developing world, rising inequality resulting from rapid
urbanization trends. The drive for rapid urban growth and often efficiency can lead to less
equitable urban development. Think tanks such as the Overseas Development Institute have
proposed policies that encourage labour-intensive growth as a means of absorbing the influx of
low-skilled and unskilled labour.[31] One problem these migrant workers are involved with is the
growth of slums. In many cases, the rural-urban low skilled or unskilled migrant workers,
attracted by economic opportunities in urban areas, cannot find a job and afford housing in cities
and have to dwell in slums.[32]
Urban problems, along with infrastructure developments, are also fuelling suburbanization trends
in developing nations, though the trend for core cities in said nations tends to continue to become
ever denser. Urbanization is often viewed as a negative trend, but there are positives in the
reduction of expenses in commuting and transportation while improving opportunities for jobs,
education, housing, and transportation. Living in cities permits individuals and families to take
advantage of the opportunities of proximity and diversity. [33][34][35][36] While cities have a greater
variety of markets and goods than rural areas, infrastructure congestion, monopolization, high
overhead costs, and the inconvenience of cross-town trips frequently combine to make
marketplace competition harsher in cities than in rural areas.[citation needed]
In many developing countries where economies are growing, the growth is often erratic and
based on a small number of industries. For young people in these countries, barriers exist such as
lack of access to financial services and business advisory services, difficulty in obtaining credit
to start a business, and lack of entrepreneurial skills, in order for them to access opportunities in
these industries. Investment in human capital so that young people have access to quality
education and infrastructure to enable access to educational facilities is imperative to overcoming
economic barriers.[37]

Environmental effects[edit]
Urbanization may improve environmental quality as a result of numerous reasons. For instance,
urbanization upsurges income levels which instigates the eco-friendly services sector and
increases demand for green and environmentally compliant products. Furthermore, urbanization

22
improves environmental eminence through superior facilities and better-quality living standards
in urban areas as compared to rural areas. Lastly, urbanization curbs pollution emissions by
increasing R&D and innovations.[38] In his book Whole Earth Discipline, Stewart Brand argues
that the effects of urbanization are primarily positive for the environment. First, the birth rate of
new urban dwellers falls immediately to replacement rate and keeps falling, reducing
environmental stresses caused by population growth. [39] Secondly, emigration from rural areas
reduces destructive subsistence farming techniques, such as improperly implemented slash and
burn agriculture. Alex Steffen also speaks of the environmental benefits of increasing the
urbanization level in "Carbon Zero: Imagining Cities that can save the planet", . [40]
However, existing infrastructure and city planning practices are not sustainable. In July 2013 a
report issued by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs [41] warned that
with 2.4 billion more people by 2050, the amount of food produced will have to increase by
70%, straining food resources, especially in countries already facing food insecurity due to
changing environmental conditions. The mix of changing environmental conditions and the
growing population of urban regions, according to UN experts, will strain basic sanitation
systems and health care, and potentially cause a humanitarian and environmental disaster. [42]
Urban heat island[edit]
The existence of urban heat islands has become a growing concern over the years. An urban heat
island is formed when industrial and urban areas produce and retain heat. Much of the solar
energy that reaches rural areas is consumed by evaporation of water from vegetation and soil. In
cities, where there are less vegetation and exposed soil, most of the sun's energy is instead
absorbed by buildings and asphalt; leading to higher surface temperatures. Vehicles, factories,
and industrial and domestic heating and cooling units release even more heat. [43] As a result,
cities are often 1 to 3 °C (1.8 to 5.4 °F) warmer than surrounding landscapes. [44] Impacts also
include reducing soil moisture and a reduction in reabsorption of carbon dioxide emissions.[45]
Water quality[edit]
The occurrence of eutrophication in bodies of water is another effect large urban populations
have on the environment. When rain occurs in these large cities, the rain filters down the
pollutants such as CO2 and other greenhouse gases in the air onto the ground below. Then, those
chemicals are washed directly into rivers, streams, and oceans, causing a decline in water quality
and damaging marine ecosystems.[46]
Eutrophication is a process which causes hypoxic water conditions and algal blooms that may be
detrimental to the survival of aquatic life. [47] Harmful algal blooms, which produce dangerous
toxins, thrive in eutrophic environments that are also rich in nitrogen and phosphorus. [48] In these
ideal conditions, they overtake surface water, making it difficult for other organisms to receive
sunlight and nutrients. Overgrowth of algal blooms causes a decrease in overall water quality and
disrupts the natural balance of aquatic ecosystems. Furthermore, as algal blooms die, CO 2 is
produced, causing a more acidic environment, a process known as acidification.[49]

23
The ocean's surface also has the ability to absorb CO 2 from the earth's atmosphere as emissions
increase with the rise in urbanization. In fact, it is reported that the ocean absorbs a quarter of the
CO2 produced by humans.[50] This has been useful to the environment by decreasing the harmful
effects of greenhouse gases, but also further perpetuates acidification. [51] Changes in pH inhibit
the proper formation of calcium carbonate, a crucial component for many marine organisms to
maintain shells or skeletons.[52][50] This is especially true for many species of molluscs and coral.
Regardless, some species have been able to instead adapt or thrive in a more acidic
environment [53]
Food waste[edit]
Rapid growth of communities create new challenges in the developed world and one such
challenge is an increase in food waste[54] also known as urban food waste.[55][56][57] Food waste is
the disposal of food products that can no longer be used due to unused products, expiration, or
spoilage. The increase of food waste can raise environmental concerns such as increase
production of methane gases and attraction of disease vectors.[56][58] Landfills are the third leading
cause of the release of methane,[59] causing a concern on its impact to our ozone and on the health
of individuals. Accumulation of food waste causes increased fermentation, which increases the
risk of rodent and bug migration. An increase in migration of disease vectors creates greater
potential of disease spreading to humans.[60]
Habitat fragmentation[edit]
Urbanization can have a large effect on biodiversity by causing a division of habitats and thereby
alienation of species, a process known as habitat fragmentation.[61] Habitat fragmentation does
not destroy the habitat, as seen in habitat loss, but rather breaks it apart with things like roads and
railways[62] This change may affect a species ability to sustain life by separating it from the
environment in which it is able to easily access food, and find areas that they may hide from
predation [63] With proper planning and management, fragmentation can be avoided by adding
corridors that aid in the connection of areas and allow for easier movement around urbanized
regions.[citation needed]
Depending on the various factors, such as level of urbanization, both increases or decreases in
"species richness" can be seen.[64] This means that urbanization may be detrimental to one species
but also help facilitate the growth of others. In instances of housing and building development,
many times vegetation is completely removed immediately in order to make it easier and less
expensive for construction to occur, thereby obliterating any native species in that area. Habitat
fragmentation can filter species with limited dispersal capacity. For example, aquatic insects are
found to have lower species richness in urban landscapes. [65] The more urbanized the surrounding
of habitat is, the fewer species can reach the habitat. [66] Other times, such as with birds,
urbanization may allow for an increase in richness when organisms are able to adapt to the new
environment. This can be seen in species that may find food while scavenging developed areas or
vegetation that has been added after urbanization has occurred i.e. planted trees in city areas [67]

24
Health and social effects[edit]
When cities don't plan for increases in population it drives up house and land prices, creating rich
(ghettos) and poor ghettos. "You get a very unequal society and that inequality is manifested
where people live, in our neighbourhoods, and it means there can be less capacity for empathy
and less development for all society." — Jack Finegan, Urban Programme Specialist at UN-
Habitat[68]
In the developing world, urbanization does not translate into a significant increase in life
expectancy.[69] Rapid urbanization has led to increased mortality from non-communicable
diseases associated with lifestyle, including cancer and heart disease.[70] Differences in mortality
from contagious diseases vary depending on the particular disease and location.[69]
Urban health levels are on average better in comparison to rural areas. However, residents in
poor urban areas such as slums and informal settlements suffer "disproportionately from disease,
injury, premature death, and the combination of ill-health and poverty entrenches disadvantage
over time."[26] Many of the urban poor have difficulty accessing health services due to their
inability to pay for them; so they resort to less qualified and unregulated providers.[citation needed]
While urbanization is associated with improvements in public hygiene, sanitation and access
to health care, it also entails changes in occupational, dietary, and exercise patterns.[70] It can
have mixed effects on health patterns, alleviating some problems, and accentuating others. [69]
Nutrition[edit]
One such effect is the formation of food deserts. Nearly 23.5 million people in the United States
lack access to supermarkets within one mile of their home. [71] Several studies suggest that long
distances to a grocery store are associated with higher rates of obesity and other health
disparities.[72]
Food deserts in developed countries often correspond to areas with a high-density of fast food
chains and convenience stores that offer little to no fresh food. [73] Urbanization has been shown
to be associated with the consumption of less fresh fruits, vegetables, and whole grains and a
higher consumption of processed foods and sugar-sweetened beverages. [72] Poor access to healthy
food and high intakes of fat, sugar and salt are associated with a greater risk for obesity, diabetes
and related chronic disease. Overall, body mass index and cholesterol levels increase sharply
with national income and the degree of urbanization.[40]
Food deserts in the United States are most commonly found in low-income and predominately
African American neighbourhoods.[72] One study on food deserts in Denver, Colorado found that,
in addition to minorities, the affected neighbourhoods also had a high proportion of children and
new births.[74] In children, urbanization is associated with a lower risk of under-nutrition but a
higher risk of being overweight.[69]

25
Asthma[edit]
Urbanization has also been associated with an increased risk of asthma as well. Throughout the
world, as communities transition from rural to more urban societies, the number of people
affected by asthma increases. The odds of reduced rates of hospitalization and death from
asthmas has decreased for children and young adults in urbanized municipalities in Brazil. This
finding indicates that urbanization may have a negative impact on population health particularly
affecting people's susceptibility to asthma.[75]
In low and middle income countries many factors contribute to the high numbers of people with
asthma. Similar to areas in the United States with increasing urbanization, people living in
growing cities in low income countries experience high exposure to air pollution, which
increases the prevalence and severity of asthma among these populations. [76] Links have been
found between exposure to traffic-related air pollution and allergic diseases. [77] Children living in
poor, urban areas in the United States now have an increased risk of morbidity due to asthma in
comparison to other low-income children in the United States. [78] In addition, children with croup
living in urban areas have higher hazard ratios for asthma than similar children living in rural
areas. Researchers suggest that this difference in hazard ratios is due to the higher levels of air
pollution and exposure to environmental allergens found in urban areas.[79]
Exposure to elevated levels of ambient air pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide (NO 2), carbon
monoxide (CO), and particulate matter with a diameter of less than 2.5 micrometers (PM 2.5), can
cause DNA methylation of CpG sites in immune cells, which increases children's risk of
developing asthma. Studies have shown a positive correlation between Foxp3 methylation and
children's exposure to NO2, CO, and PM2.5. Furthermore, any amount of exposure to high levels
of air pollution have shown long term effects on the Foxp3 region.[80]
Despite the increase in access to health services that usually accompanies urbanization, the rise
in population density negatively affects air quality ultimately mitigating the positive value of
health resources as more children and young adults develop asthma due to high pollution rates.
[75]
However, urban planning, as well as emission control, can lessen the effects of traffic-related
air pollution on allergic diseases such as asthma.[77]
Crime[edit]
Historically, crime and urbanization have gone hand in hand. The simplest explanation is that
areas with a higher population density are surrounded by greater availability of goods.
Committing crimes in urbanized areas is also more feasible. Modernization has led to more
crime as well, as the modern media has raised greater awareness of the income gap between the
rich and the poor. This leads to feelings of deprivation, which in turn can lead to crime. In some
regions where urbanization happens in wealthier areas, a rise in property crime and a decrease in
violent crime is seen.[81]
Data shows that there is an increase in crime in urbanized areas. Some factors include per capita
income, income inequality, and overall population size. There is also a smaller association

26
between unemployment rate, police expenditures and crime.[82] The presence of crime also has
the ability to produce more crime. These areas have less social cohesion and therefore less social
control. This is evident in the geographical regions that crime occurs in. As most crime tends to
cluster in city centers, the further the distance from the center of the city, the lower the
occurrence of crimes are.[83]
Migration is also a factor that can increase crime in urbanized areas. People from one area are
displaced and forced to move into an urbanized society. Here they are in a new environment with
new norms and social values. This can lead to less social cohesion and more crime.[84]
Physical activity[edit]
Although urbanization tends to produce more negative effects, one positive effect that
urbanization has impacted is an increase in physical activity in comparison to rural areas.
Residents of rural areas and communities in the United States have higher rates of obesity and
engage in less physical activity than urban residents. [85] Rural residents consume a higher percent
of fat calories and are less likely to meet the guidelines for physical activity and more likely to be
physically inactive.[86][87] In comparison to regions within the United States, the west has the
lowest prevalence of physical inactivity and the south has the highest prevalence of
physical inactivity.[87] Metropolitan and large urban areas across all regions have the highest
prevalence of physical activity among residents.[87]
Barriers such as geographic isolation, busy and unsafe roads, and social stigmas lead to
decreased physical activity in rural environments. [88] Faster speed limits on rural roads prohibits
the ability to have bike lanes, sidewalks, footpaths, and shoulders along the side of the roads.
[85]
Less developed open spaces in rural areas, like parks and trails, suggest that there is lower
walkability in these areas in comparison to urban areas. [85] Many residents in rural settings have
to travel long distances to utilize exercise facilities, taking up too much time in the day and
deterring residents from using recreational facilities to obtain physical activity. [88] Additionally,
residents of rural communities are traveling further for work, decreasing the amount of time that
can be spent on leisure physical activity and significantly decreases the opportunity to partake in
active transportation to work.[85]
Neighbourhoods and communities with nearby fitness venues, a common feature of urbanization,
have residents that partake in increased amounts of physical activity. [88] Communities with
sidewalks, street lights, and traffic signals have residents participating in more physical activity
than communities without those features.[85] Having a variety of destinations close to where
people live, increases the use of active transportation, such as walking and biking. [89] Active
transportation is also enhanced in urban communities where there is easy access to public
transportation due to residents walking or biking to transportation stops.[89]
In a study comparing different regions in the United States, opinions across all areas were shared
that environmental characteristics like access to sidewalks, safe roads, recreational facilities, and
enjoyable scenery are positively associated with participation in leisure physical activity.

27
[87]
Perceiving that resources are nearby for physical activity increases the likelihood that
residents of all communities will meet the guidelines and recommendations for appropriate
physical activity.[89] Specific to rural residents, the safety of outdoor developed spaces and
convenient availability to recreational facilities matters most when making decisions on
increasing physical activity.[86] In order to combat the levels of inactivity in rural residents, more
convenient recreational features, such as the ones discussed in this paragraph, need to be
implemented into rural communities and societies.[citation needed]
Mental health[edit]
Urbanization factors that contribute to mental health can be thought of as factors that affect the
individual and factors that affect the larger social group. At the macro, social group level,
changes related to urbanization are thought to contribute to social disintegration and
disorganization. These macro factors contribute to social disparities which affect individuals by
creating perceived insecurity.[90] Perceived insecurity can be due problems with the physical
environment, such as issues with personal safety, or problems with the social environment, such
as a loss of positive self-concepts from negative events. [91] Increased stress is a common
individual psychological stressor that accompanies urbanization and is thought to be due to
perceived insecurity. Changes in social organization, a consequence of urbanization, are thought
to lead to reduced social support, increased violence, and overcrowding. It is these factors that
are thought to contribute to increased stress. [92] It is important to note that urbanization or
population density alone does not cause mental health problems. It is the combination of
urbanization with physical and social risk factors that contribute to mental health problems. As
cities continue to expand it is important to consider and account for mental health along with
other public health measures that accompany urbanization.
The challenges facing urban settlement

As urbanization speeds up, particularly in Asian and African countries, here are five of the
biggest challenges confronting the future of cities:

1. Environmental threats

Rapid urbanization, which strains basic infrastructure, coupled with more frequent and extreme
weather events linked to global climate change is exacerbating the impact of environmental
threats. Common environmental threats include flooding, tropical cyclones (to which coastal
cities are particularly vulnerable), heat waves and epidemics.

Owing to the physical and population density of cities, such threats often result in both
devastating financial loss and deaths. Making cities more resilient against these environmental
threats is one of the biggest challenges faced by city authorities and requires urgent attention.

28
2. Resources

Cities need resources such as water, food and energy to be viable. Urban sprawl reduces
available water catchment areas, agricultural lands and increases demand for energy. While
better application of technology can boost agricultural productivity and ensure more efficient
transmission of electricity, many cities will continue to struggle to provide these resources to an
ever-growing urban population.

Beyond these basic requirements, haphazard growth will see the reduction of green spaces within
cities, negatively affecting liveability. As fresh water becomes scarce and fertile lands diminish,
food prices may escalate, hitting the poorest hardest.

3. Inequality

When it comes to both the provision of basic resources and resilience against environmental
threats, the forecast is uneven for different groups of urban inhabitants. As the number of urban
super-rich grows, many cities will also see increased numbers of urban poor.

The widening gap between the haves and have-nots will be accentuated in the megacities of the
future. Such inequalities, when left unchecked, will destabilize society and upend any benefits of
urban development. There is a critical need for policy-makers to ensure that the fruits of progress
are shared equitably.

4. Technology

Technology will be increasingly used in the development and running of cities of the future.
Smart planning used in Singapore can harness solar energy for use in housing estates and create
man-made wetlands for ecological balance. Smart mobility technology can alleviate traffic
gridlocks which plague many cities.

The use of environmental technologies which can cool buildings more efficiently or run vehicles
that are less polluting will also lead to better future cities. Installing sensors in the homes of
ageing seniors living alone can connect them to the community and summon help when they are
unwell or hurt.

However, technology can exclude urban inhabitants who cannot afford it or lack the capability
required for its adoption. As future cities become more digitized, care must be exercised to
prevent the emergence of a new form of social divide rooted in the technological.

29
5. Governance

Future cities offer immense possibilities to enrich the lives of their inhabitants even as the
challenges are stark. To make the best out of inevitable urbanization, good governance is
imperative. Cities will increase in size and their populations become more diverse. Governing
these cities will, therefore, be progressively complex and require the most dedicated of minds.

Increasingly, cities around the world are learning about the best governance and planning
practices from one another, even as they remain accountable to their respective national
governments. The broad goals of urban governance should address issues of equity, liveability
and sustainability in cities of the future.

Urban Slums and squatter settlement

What is slum and squatter settlement?

It means slums are areas where people with land ownership live in poor environmental and
socioeconomic conditions and are different from squatter settlements, which are
the settlements where people build houses without any legal title to land (UN-Habitat 2003).

What is the difference between squatter and slums?

Squatters include those who settles on public land under regulation by the government, in order
to get title to it. Simplifying • slums refer to the environmental aspects of the area where a
community resides, while squatters refer to the legality of the land ownership and other
infrastructure provision.

Causes of squatter settlement

Economics

Squatter settlements are most often formed by rises in the numbers of homeless people. The
homeless people then seek shelter off the street in abandoned buildings. Some of the buildings
may still have power and water, which causes the homeless to flock to the "free" resources.
Additionally, squatters congregate in settlements to protect each other from those who prey on
the homeless. Criminals will target homeless because they only carry cash and are reluctant to
contact the police. Additionally, many homeless are also weak from poor diets and disease, so
they are easier targets for criminals.

30
2Politics

Anarchists believe that no government is legitimate, nor is any associated national market.
Anarchists do not even believe in the concept of property. Anarchists will squat in abandoned
buildings as a form of protest. Arguably, most "anarchistic" squatter settlements are just normal
squatters who claim a political reason for their illegal acts. It is notable that anarchistic squatter
settlements only occur in Europe, where anarchism is taken semi-seriously as a political
ideology.

3Artist Colonies

Some artists will squat in abandoned factories for the working room the buildings provide. Some
real estate developers will actually encourage the formation of these artist squatters to gentrify an
area and attract young urban professionals. When the real estate then becomes more valuable, the
artists are forcibly evicted and trendy lofts are installed. Most artist colonies are in Europe where
they are semi-tolerated in some municipalities. East Berlin became noted for its artist colonies
after the fall of the Iron Curtain.

4Religion

In some countries there is a rigid religious caste system that brands people as "untouchable."
These individuals are then forced to live on the fringes of society, with little opportunities for
work. The untouchables will squat in abandoned buildings for shelter and to protect themselves
from attacks. Often the squatter settlements are located near trash dumps, where the
untouchables can make money by sifting through the trash for recyclables.

Urban sprawl

Urban sprawl refers to the expansion of poorly planned, low-density, auto-dependent

development, which spreads out over large amounts of land, putting long distances between
homes, stores, and work and creating a high segregation between residential and commercial
uses with harmful impacts on the people living in these ...

Rural urban fringe

The rural–urban fringe, also known as the outskirts, rurban, peri-urban or the urban
hinterland, can be described as the "landscape interface between town and country", [1] or also as
the transition zone where urban and rural uses mix and often clash. [2] Alternatively, it can be
viewed as a landscape type in its own right, one forged from an interaction of urban and rural
land uses.

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Its definition shifts depending on the global location, but typically in Europe, where urban areas
are intensively managed to prevent urban sprawl and protect agricultural land, the urban fringe
will be characterized by certain land uses which have either purposely moved away from the
urban area, or require much larger tracts of land. As examples:

 Roads, especially motorways and bypasses

 Waste transfer stations, recycling facilities and landfill sites
 Park and ride sites
 Airports
 Large hospitals
 Power, water and sewerage facilities
 Factories
 Large out-of-town shopping facilities, e.g. large supermarkets

HINTERLAND
Hinterland is a German word meaning "the land behind" (a city, a port, or similar).[1] The term's
use in English was first documented by geographer George Chisholm in his Handbook of
Commercial Geography (1888).[2] Originally the term was associated with the area of a port
where materials for export and import are stored and shipped. Subsequently, the use of the word
expanded to include any area under the influence of a particular human settlement.[3]

 An area behind a coast or the shoreline of a river. Specifically, by the doctrine of the
hinterland, the hinterland is the inland region lying behind a port and is claimed by the state
that owns the coast.[4]
 In shipping usage, a port's hinterland is the area that it serves, both for imports and for
exports.
 The term is also used to refer to the area around a city or town.
 More generally, hinterland can refer to the rural area economically tied to an
urban catchment area. The size of a hinterland can depend on geography, or on the ease,
speed, and cost of transportation between the port and the hinterland.[5]
 In colonial usage, the term was applied to the surrounding areas of former European colonies
in Africa, which, although not part of the colony itself, were influenced by the colony. By
analogous general economic usage, hinterland can refer to the area surrounding a service
from which customers are attracted, also called the market area.
 In German, Hinterland is sometimes used more generally to describe any sparsely populated
area where the infrastructure is underdeveloped, although Provinz (analogous to province) is
more common. In the United States, and particularly in the American Midwest (a region of
German cultural heritage located far from ocean ports), it is this meaning and not the one
relating to ports that predominates in common use. Analogous terms include "the

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 countryside", "the sticks", "the boonies", backcountry, boondocks, the Bush (in Alaskan
usage), and the outback (in Australian usage).
 In Italy, Hinterland is used to describe the metropolitan area of a city, especially Milan,
outside of the main municipality.

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