Physics

Physics and Physical
Measurement
Topic 1.2 Measurement and

Uncertainties
The S.I. System
Standards of Measurement
SI units are those of the Système
International d’Unités adopted in 1960
Used for general measurement in most

countries worldwide
Fundamental Quantities
Some quantities cannot be measured in a
simpler form and for convenience they
have been selected as the basic quanitities
They are termed Fundamental Quantities,

Units and Symbols
The 7 Fundamentals
Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic temp Kelvin K
Luminous Intensity candela cd
Amount of a substance mole mol
Derived Quantities
When a quantity involves the measurement
of 2 or more fundamental quantities it is
called a Derived Quantity
The units of these are called Derived Units

Derived Units
Examples…
Acceleration ms-2
Momentum kgms-1 or Ns
Some derived units have been given their

own specific names and symbols…
Force N = kg ms-2
Joule J = kgm2s-2
Standards of Measurement
Scientists and engineers need to make
accurate measurements so that they can
exchange information
To be useful a standard of measurement

must be Invariant, Accessible and
Reproducible
3 Standards (FYI – not tested)
The Meter :- the distance traveled by a beam of
light in a vacuum over a defined time interval (
1/299 792 458 seconds)
The Kilogram :- a particular platinum-iridium

cylinder kept in Sevres, France
The Second :- the time interval between the

vibrations in the caesium atom (1 sec = time for 9
192 631 770 vibrations)
Conversions
You will need to be able to convert from one
unit to another for the same quanitity
• J to kWh (energy)
• J to eV (energy)
• Years to seconds (time)
• And between other systems and SI
****Note: you should be able to do basic conversions now and

others will be developed throughout the year
SI Format
The accepted SI format is
• ms-1 not m/s
• ms-2 not m/s/s
The IB will recognize work reported with “/”, but

will only use the SI format when providing info.
Uncertainity and error in
measurement
Errors
Errors can be divided into 2 main classes
Random errors
Systematic errors
Mistakes
Mistakes on the part of an individual such as
• misreading scales
• poor arithmetic and computational skills
• wrongly transferring raw data to the final report
• using the wrong theory and equations
These are a source of error but are not
considered as an experimental error
Systematic Errors
Cause a random set of measurements to be
affected in the same way
It is a system or instrument issue

Systematic Errors result from
Badly made instruments
Poorly calibrated instruments
An instrument having a zero error, a form of
calibration
Poorly timed actions
Instrument parallax error
Note that systematic errors are not
reduced by multiple readings
Random Errors
Are due to unpredictable variations in
performance of the instrument and the
operator
Random Errors result from
Vibrations and air convection
Misreading
Variation in thickness of surface being
measured
Using less sensitive instrument when a
more sensitive instrument is available
Human parallax error
Reducing Random Errors
Random errors can be reduced by taking
multiple readings, and eliminating
obviously erroneous result or by averaging
the range of results.
Accuracy
Accuracy is an indication of how close a
measurement is to the accepted value
indicated by the relative or percentage
error in the measurement
An accurate experiment has a low
systematic error
Precision
Precision is an indication of the agreement
among a number of measurements made in
the same way indicated by the absolute
error
A precise experiment has a low random
error
Reducing the Effects of Random
Uncertainties
Take multiple readings
When a series of readings are taken for a
measurement, then the arithmetic mean of
the reading is taken as the most probable
answer
The greatest deviation from the mean is
taken as the absolute error
Absolute/fractional errors and
percentage errors
We use ± to show an error in a
measurement
(208 ± 1) mm is a fairly accurate

measurement
(2 ± 1) mm is highly inaccurate
Absolute, fractional, and relative
uncertainty
Assume we measure something to be 208 ± 1

mm in length...
1 mm is the absolute uncertainty

1/208 is the fractional uncertainty (0.0048)
0.48 % is the relative (percent) uncertainty
Combining uncertainties
To determine the uncertainty of a calculated
value...
For addition and subtraction, add absolute

uncertainities
For multiplication and division add percentage
uncertainities
When using exponents, multiply the percentage
uncertainty by the exponent
Combining uncertainties
If one uncertainty is much larger than
others, the approximate uncertainty in the
calculated result may be taken as due to
that quantity alone
Significant Figures
The number of significant figures should
reflect the precision of the values used as
input data in a calculation
Simple rule:
For multiplication and division, the number
of significant figures in a result should not
exceed that of the least precise value upon
which it depends
Uncertainties in graphs
Graphical Techniques
Graphing is one of the most valuable tools
in data analysis because
• it gives a visual display of the relationship between
two or more variables
• shows which data points do not obey the relationship
• gives an indication at which point a relationship
ceases to be true
• used to determine the constants in an equation
relating two variables
You need to be able to give a qualitative
physical interpretation of a particular
graph
Plotting Graphs
Independent variables are plotted on the x-
axis
Dependent variables are plotted on the y-
axis
Most graphs occur in the 1st quadrant
however some may appear in all 4
Plotting Graphs - Choice of Axis
Experimentally speaking, the dependent
variable is plotted on the y axis and the
independent variable is plotted on the x
axis.
When you are asked to plot a graph of a

against b, the first variable mentioned is
plotted on the y axis.
Plotting Graphs - Scales
Size of graph should be large, to fill as
much space as possible…3/4 rule
choose a convenient scale that is easily

subdivided
Plotting Graphs - Labels
Each axis is labeled with the name of the
quantity, as well as the relevant unit used…
Temperature/K
speed/ms-1
The graph should also be given a

descriptive title
Plotting Uncertainties on Graphs
Error bars showing uncertainty are

required - short lines drawn from the
plotted points parallel to the axes
indicating the absolute error of
measurement
Plotting Graphs - Line of Best Fit
When choosing the best fit line or curve it is
easiest to use a transparent ruler
Position the ruler until it lies along an ideal line
The line or curve does not have to pass through
every point
Do not assume that all lines should pass through
the origin
Do not do play connect the dots!
Uncertainties on a Graph
y Notice that the best

fitting line or curve is
one that passes
through the error
bars of the plotted
points. A straight line
could not accomplish
that with this data set
x
Analysing the Graph
Often a relationship between variables will
first produce a parabola, hyperbole or an
exponential growth or decay. These can be
transformed to a straight line relationship
General equation for a straight line is

y = mx + c
– y is the dependent variable, x is the independent
variable, m is the gradient and c is the y-intercept
Gradients
Gradient = vertical run / horizontal run
gradient = y / x
Don´t forget to give the units of the gradient
In lab work, always report the maximum

and minimum gradient
Areas under Graphs
The area under a graph is a useful tool.
For example…
• on a force vs. displacement graph the area is
work (N x m = J)
• on a speed time graph the area is distance
(ms-1 x s = m)
Again, don´t forget the units of the area

Standard Graphs - linear graphs
A straight line passing through the origin
shows proportionality
y yx
k = rise/run y=kx
Where k is the constant

of proportionality
x
Standard Graphs - parabola
A parabola shows that y is directly
proportional to x2
y y
x x2
i.e. y  x2 or y = kx2
where k is the constant of proportionality
Standard Graphs - hyperbola
A hyperbola shows that y is inversely
proportional to x
y y
x 1/x
i.e. y  1/x or y = k/x
Standard Graphs - hyperbola
again
An inverse square law graph is also a
hyperbola
y y
x 1/x2
i.e. y  1/x2 or y = k/x2

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Physics and Physical

Topic 1.2 Measurement and

Used for general measurement in most

They are termed Fundamental Quantities,

The units of these are called Derived Units

Some derived units have been given their

To be useful a standard of measurement

The Kilogram :- a particular platinum-iridium

The Second :- the time interval between the

****Note: you should be able to do basic conversions now and

The IB will recognize work reported with “/”, but

It is a system or instrument issue

(208 ± 1) mm is a fairly accurate

Assume we measure something to be 208 ± 1

1 mm is the absolute uncertainty

For addition and subtraction, add absolute

When you are asked to plot a graph of a

choose a convenient scale that is easily

The graph should also be given a

Error bars showing uncertainty are

y Notice that the best

General equation for a straight line is

Don´t forget to give the units of the gradient

In lab work, always report the maximum

Again, don´t forget the units of the area

Where k is the constant

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