ATP - Guidelines and Experimental Techniques

General Guidelines
 In practical work, units and significant figures are tested. Many candidates could improve
their performance by ensuring that all numerical answers have appropriate units and are
given to an appropriate number of significant figures. Numerical values with missing or
incorrect unit results in loss of marks.
 Credit is often lost due to lack of care and attention to detail when drawing or annotating
diagrams. The accuracy of straight lines on diagrams could be greatly improved by using a
sharp pencil and ruler. Drawing circuit diagrams, ray diagrams, etc without using ruler (with
free hand) results in loss of mark.
 Candidates should be advised to use rulers and to attempt to mark the distance as precisely
as they can.

 It is important to record measurements to the correct precision. In particular, measurements

made with a rule should be given to the nearest millimeter.
Examples:
o If a measured length is exactly 5 cm, the value should be quoted as 5.0 cm.
o If thermometer thread is at 22°C then write 22.0°C and not just 22°C

 Candidates should be advised to avoid using rote phrases, such as, ‘to make it more
accurate’ or ‘to avoid parallax error’. These comments need to be linked to the practical
situation being considered and candidates should state why the accuracy has improved or
how parallax error was avoided.
 When plotting a graph using data obtained from practical work, there will almost always be
some scatter about the line of best fit. Forcing the line through all points or always joining
the first and last points will often produce a curve/line that is not smooth.
 If you are asked to “use your results” to explain something, then quote the values, do not
just mention the theory you know!

 Use correct name of an apparatus otherwise your answer will not be given credit:
For Example:
o “Meter Rule” and NOT just Rule
o “Measuring Tape” or “Tape Measure” and NOT just Tape

 Repeat readings to spot anomalous errors or to calculate an average

 A ratio should be calculated as a decimal number, of two or three significant figures.
 Candidates should be able to take readings from the graph by extrapolation or interpolation.

Control of Variables:
Control Variables should be kept constant or same to ensure a FAIR test or comparison.
For Example: When investigating effect of type of surface colour (dull and shiny) on rate of
cooling of hot water, the amount of water and initial temperature of water must be same
otherwise the comparison will not be fair.

Prepared By: Ms Urooj Fatima

Describing an Experimental Procedure
When asked to write down how to perform an experiment, your explanation should contain
following points:
 List of apparatus that you will use (if not already given in the question)
 How you will use this apparatus? Visualize the steps of procedure and include every
Practical Detail.
 State the readings you will take and calculations involved.
 In the end always mention a method to improve accuracy of the experiment. For
Example: Repeat and take average.

Recording Values in a Table:

 Write both the quantity and unit in the heading. Don’t write the unit after every reading in
the table which makes it difficult to see the values clearly; a heading should say current /
ampere or just I / A
 In cases where a calculated value is to be recorded in a table, the other values already
given in the table give a clue as to how many significant figures are required.
 All values in a column should be given to the same number of decimal places.
 Values in a column should be given to the same number of decimal places.

Variation in Raw data

 When there is LARGE variation in raw data then values up to 2 decimal places are
appropriate/enough

Example:
1.19 1.00 0.93 1.03 1.08

 When there is SMALL variation in raw data then the values should be given to more than 2
decimal places.

Example:
1.192 1.188 1.195 1.189 1.190

Limits of Experimental Accuracy/Error

When asked to compare two values and decide if they are constant or not; always consider the
limits of experimental accuracy/error. In Experimental data, two values even (slightly) different
are considered constant if the difference is within the Limits of Experimental Accuracy.
Usually a difference of (±10%) is considered to be within limit of experimental accuracy
If difference between values (being compared) is within (±10%) then the values are considered
to be equal/same

If difference between values is greater than (±10%) then the values are considered to be too far
apart and hence NOT equal

Writing About Human Reaction Error:

Wrong Statement: “Reduces/Minimizes human reaction error”
Right Statement: “Reduces/minimizes the EFFECT of human reaction error.”

Prepared By: Ms Urooj Fatima

Why it is better to repeat the Readings or Why it is better to take several
readings?
Wrong Statement: “Because it is more accurate or it gives more accurate reading.”
Right Statement: “Because repeating experiments gives Average and average is more
accurate.”

How to obtain a more ACCURATE reading or measurement

In ATP it is very frequently asked how you can measure a certain length or take a reading or
perform an experiment more accurately. Accuracy can be achieved by following good practices
relevant to an experimental procedure.
A few good techniques for common experimental procedures are discussed in detail in the end.

How to IMPROVE an Experiment

When asked how to improve an experiment, suggest adding/changing a procedure or method
that will improve the overall experiment in terms of reliability or ease. Do not just write about
how to make (existing) measurements more accurate.
For Example: If asked how to improve an experiment to determine time period of a pendulum,
suggest using different lengths of thread or types of bob.

Parallax Error: Error in taking measurement/reading due to position of observer

How to avoid Parallax Error:
“Line of sight should be perpendicular to the reading on apparatus” OR “view at eye-level of the
apparatus” (DON’T forget to mention the name of apparatus)
You can also draw eye position on the diagram. Candidates can be awarded credit for this even
if the explanation in words is not clear.

What is a Fiducial Aid?

A fiducial marker or fiducial is a fixed basis of reference or comparison
It is an object placed in the field of view for use as a point of reference or a measure. It may be
either something placed into or on the subject, or a mark or set of marks.
For Example: An object (such as a pencil) placed at the mean (middle) position of an oscillating
pendulum is a fiducial aid to ensure that we start and stop the stopwatch at the right time.

Break-up of Marking Criteria for Graph Plotting

Criteria Marks
Axes: correct way round, labelled quantity and unit in correct format
1
(Qty/Unit)
Scales: more than 1/2 grid, linear, not awkward/Sensible scale (no scales of
1
3, 7 etc). (No discontinuity /zig-zag line in the scale)
Plotting: points plotted accurately within ½ small square; neat crosses or
1
small dots with circle around the dot. Large dots are penalized
Drawing: best fit straight line/Curve drawn. (Neat, thin line using sharp
1
pencil).

Prepared By: Ms Urooj Fatima

Calculating Gradient of Graph
 When calculating the gradient, always use new points on the line, not your plotted points.
 Draw a large triangle when measuring the gradient of a line. The hypotenuse of triangle
must be at least half the length of the line/curve. It is best to draw a triangle the full size of
the graph and to show the coordinates on the sides of the triangle when finding the gradient.
If needed, extend beyond your line beyond plotted points (only for straight line graph)
 Draw a tangent to find the gradient of a curve. Make sure it is at the right place on the curve.
Again, use a large triangle

Analyzing Graphs/Relationships:

 Directly Proportional Relationship:

o Graph is Linear/Straight line (constant and positive gradient) AND passes through
origin.
o When x increases, y also increases with same ratio (and vice versa). Ratio between
x and y is a constant (y = kx)
 Direct - Linear Relationship:
o Graph is linear/straight line (constant and positive gradient) but DO NOT pass
through origin
o When x increases, y also increases (y = kx + c)
 Direct – Non Linear Relationship:
o Graph is NOT a straight line but curve. When x increases, y also increases but non-
linearly (y ≠ kx)
o Curve with Increasing gradient  As x increases, y increases with an increasing rate
o Curve with Decreasing gradient  As x increases, y increases with a decreasing
rate.
 Inversely Proportional Relationship:
o Graph is a curve (known as Hyperbola), it never passes through origin.
o When x increases, y decreases with same ratio and vice verse. Product of x and y is
a constant (xy = k )
 Inverse - Linear Relationship:
o Graph is Linear/Straight line with NEGATIVE and constant gradient.
o When x increases, y decreases and vice versa. Product of x and y is NOT a
constant (xy ≠ k)
 Inverse – Non Linear Relationship:
When x increases, y decreases non linearly. Product of x and y is NOT a constant
(xy ≠ k)

Prepared By: Ms Urooj Fatima

 Good Experimental Techniques/Procedure

Experiments involving Measuring Techniques

Measuring Lengths:
 avoid parallax in reading (ruler) / view perpendicularly
 place ruler close to apparatus
 check for zero error in ruler. Zero of ruler must be at the edge of ruler. If not, then the
space between edge and zero mark is called ‘Dead Space’. In case of a dead space:
o coincide the zero mark of the ruler with the object whose length is to be
measured
o measure the dead space using another ruler and add the dead space to get
corrected length/depth
 clamp ruler (if applicable)
 use a set square either side of a cylinder/sphere to measure diameter
 use a fiducial aid when measuring a length
 when measuring vertical heights ensure that the rule is held perpendicular to the base
 when measuring horizontal lengths ensure that rule is held at perfect horizontal level

How to measure Vertical heights/Make sure height is Vertical

o use of set-square described
o use of plumb line
o line up with vertical object in room
o use of spirit level with explanation

How to make sure Horizontal alignment of a ruler:

o measures two ends (of ruler) from the bench (same height)
o use of spirit level
o align with horizontal object e.g. windowsill
o Use meter rule with a set square

How to measure long distances (several meters):

o use Pedometer
o use Trundle Wheel
o measure one pace and count paces
o tape measure with repeated use

How to measure length of a Pendulum accurately

o measure from support to the centre of bob (place rule closer to pendulum and
avoid parallax error in reading the rule)
o measure diameter of bob using micrometer and add ½ of diameter to length of
thread
o measure from support to top and bottom of bob then average
o vertical rule + set-square described

Measuring Time Period (of a Pendulum)

 for oscillations (of a pendulum or a vibrating object), you should be able to define a
complete oscillation
 time N oscillations, usually N>10
 Time period T is given by: T = t/N
 explain how to use a fiducial aid (a mark) at the centre of the oscillation
 Start counting oscillations from centre rather than from extreme ends because the
amplitude at extreme ends will vary in each oscillation

Prepared By: Ms Urooj Fatima

Recording time using a stopwatch
 Note the precision/least count of the stopwatch and record the reading with correct
precision. If the stopwatch reads to a hundredth of a second then write complete reading for
e.g: 9.24s not just 9.0 or 9.2 and not 09:24 s
 To minimize human reaction error, two persons should be used in experiments involving
recording time. (Use of some signal to start/stop stopwatch )

Recording level of liquid/water

 When Meniscus is Concave shaped (for water or any other colourless liquid)  LOWER
meniscus is read.
 When Meniscus is Convex shaped (for mercury)  UPPER meniscus is read.
 It is better to use test tube/cylinder/beakers made of Plastic than glass because:
o Plastic is less fragile and cheaper
o Plastic gives a flat meniscus which is easier to read/ parallax error is avoided

Investigating motion of an object using a Ticker Tape

A ticker tape is a paper strip which is attached to a moving object. As the object moves, ticks
(dots) are marked on the strip at equal time interval, say every 0.20 seconds
 If the distance between dots is same, object is moving with uniform or constant speed
 If the distance between dots is increasing then object is accelerating
 If the distance between dots is decreasing then object is decelerating

Thermal/Heat Experiments
General
 cover the container
 insulate the container/provide lagging (insulating layer around the container)
 stir to ensure uniform heating
 wait for highest or steady temperature after stopping heating
 choose volume/mass values of the quantities that give large changes in the temperature
 Where water bath is required, Use oil in the bath as oil has greater resistance and hence
can provide bigger range of temperature

Thermometer handling
 thermometer in clamp stand
 thermometer with scale facing you
 clamp not obscuring the reading
 thermometer not touching the sides / bottom of test tube /
 ⅓ or ½ of thermometer immersed
 parallax avoided (in reading thermometer)

Recording TIME during heating/cooling experiments

 Place timer close to apparatus / see both (Time & Temperature) together
 two people with explanation (e.g. count down)
 parallax avoided (in reading clock)

Prepared By: Ms Urooj Fatima

Light Experiments
Ray Tracing
 use fine/sharpened pencil or draw neat thin lines
 pins far apart/at least 5 cm apart
 Pins should be vertical
 bottom of pins should be viewed
 use large angles
 repeat with different angles/vary angle of incidence
 check protractor for zero error
When using Ray Box:
 use darkened room
 use narrow slit/narrow beam/ray of light
 ray/beam strikes the mirror in the centre

Measuring Focal Length/ Using Lenses

 Ensure that each item is aligned so that the centre of each item is at the same height
and on the same horizontal straight line (ideally use the term optic axis)
o object and lens at same height (above bench)
o object and lens and screen perpendicular to bench / ruler
 place lens / screen close to ruler
 check for zero error on ruler
 Use darkened room (if an illuminated object is being used)
 move screen/object/lens backwards and forwards (until sharp image found)
 lens should be placed in lens holder
 if center of image (on screen) is above center of lens then Raise the object or screen or
lower the lens
 If center of image on screen is below center of lens then Lower the object or screen or
raise the lens
 use a fiducial aid to mark the middle of the lens on the bench/ruler
 try to use a translucent screen

Electrical Experiments
General
 check for a zero error on meter
 tap the meter to avoid sticking
 always check that connections are clean and tight
 avoid parallax in reading meters
 always check polarities (terminals connected correct way round)
 switch off the current when not making a measurement.
 use more sensitive meters
 when measuring resistance use low currents/voltages to avoid heating and changing the
resistance you are measuring
 initially choose the highest range for the ammeter/voltmeter, then reduce the range for
the ammeter so that the deflection is almost full scale
 If current is too large
o Wire overheats/melts/burn
o Damages ammeter/ammeter needle gets burnt
o Fuses melt
o Power supply trips/battery runs out quickly
Advantages of Digital Ammeter/Voltmeter over Analogue
 no parallax error
 needle does not stick
 easier to read / measure [NOT easier to use]
 easier to change range
 lower resistance

Prepared By: Ms Urooj Fatima

 List of General Experiments in ATP

Measurement Techniques
 Investigating and analysing relationship between two physical quantities
 Measurement of Time period of pendulum/oscillating or vibrating mass or object
 Use of Measuring Instruments
o Variety of lengths using Meter rule, Tape measure, Screw Gauge, Simple callipers,
Trundle wheel etc
o Time interval using Clock/stopwatch/pendulum/laser equipment
o Use of Ticker Timer

Newtonian Mechanics
 volume and density of an irregular shaped object
 investigating relationship between d-t and v-t
 investigating effect of load on spring – elastic deformation
 how to verify principle of moments
 how to determine position of centre of mass of a piece of lamina/investigating centre of
mass of objects
 Pressure in fluids

Thermal Physics
 Investigating transfer of heat energy – Conduction, Convection and Radiation
 Experiments to investigate about good/bad absorbers and emitters of heat
 Investigating cooling and heating
 Calibration of thermometer
 Use of clinical and laboratory thermometer
 Use of thermocouple
 Linearity/Sensitivity and range of thermometer
 Calculation of specific heat capacity/latent heat
 Thermal expansion

Waves
 Wave motion Transverse and longitudinal waves
 Ripple tank to demonstrate Reflection and Refraction in water waves
 Experiments to shoe reflection and refraction in sound waves.
 Experiments to illustrate laws of reflection
 Experiment to find the position and characteristics of an optical image formed by a plane
mirror.
 Experiments to show refraction of light through glass blocks.
 Experiments to show refraction of light through prism.
 Experiments to show total internal reflection.
 Experiment involving calculation of focal length by three main methods
o By two pin method
o By focusing image of an illuminated object on a screen
o By focusing image of a distant object on a screen. (rough method)
 experiment to demonstrate that sound requires medium to travel – Bell Jar Experiment
 experiment to measure speed of sound
 Experiments to study Quality of sound waves using cro

Prepared By: Ms Urooj Fatima

Electricity and Magnetism
 Plotting of magnetic field lines with compass
 Investigating strength of Electromagnet
 Experiment to investigate Electrostatic force of attraction and Repulsion
 Use of Ammeter and Voltmeter with different ranges
 emf of batteries arranged in series/parallel
 Experiment to measure the resistance of a metallic conductor using a voltmeter and an
ammeter and make the necessary calculations – Ohm’s law
 Experiments to investigate relation between current, voltage, length of resistance wire,
temperature ect
 Net effect of number of resisters in Series and Parallel
 Series and Parallel circuits/ Potential Divider Circuits
 Experiments to investigate effect of Thermistor, LDR, Diode, Capacitor
 Experiment to demonstrate Thermionic emission
 Use of CRO
 Use of Resistor Colour Code

Atomic Physics
 Detection of alpha-particles, beta-particles and gamma-rays by appropriate methods – use
of GM tube

Prepared By: Ms Urooj Fatima

 ATP - Common Experimental Procedures

Determine Diameter of a Flexible Thin Wire using given apparatus

Apparatus: Reel of thin wire, meter rule (in mm), sellotape/blu-tack, scissors
Method #1:
 Wrap the thin wire on the ruler using number of turns (N ≥10)
 Find total distance x from one end to other end of the wire.
 Divide x by the number of turns N to determine average value of diameter (d = x/N)
 Use something to hold the wire in place on the ruler/keep wire from moving
 Coils of the wire should be tight and close together

Method#2:
 Cut wire into number of pieces (N ≥10)
 Line up the pieces horizontally, next to each other
 Find total distance x from first piece to last
 Divide x by the number of pieces N to determine average value of diameter (d = x/N)
 Place the cut pieces of wire tightly closed to each other
NOTE:
 Sellotape is transparent tape used for joining, sealing, attaching, etc
 Blu-tack is an adhesive used to attach light weight objects to wall or other dry surfaces

Determine Outside Diameter of a Beaker/Cylinder/Pipe

Apparatus: string, two half meter rules, 30 cm ruler, pencil/marker pen, blocks of wood,
sellotape/blue-tac, scissors
Method #1:
 Wrap/Wound the string around the beaker several times (N ≥10)
 Use something to hold the string in place on the beaker
 Unwind the string and measure its total length using ruler
 Divide total length of string by the number of turns N to get l (l = circumference of beaker)
 Use formula l = λ d to calculate diameter of beaker d

Precautions:
 String should be wounded tightly and close together around the beaker
 Avoid parallax error in reading the ruler

Method #2:
 Place the beaker between two blocks of wood
 Place the 30 cm ruler next to the wooden blocks
 determine the diameter of the beaker by measuring distance on ruler between (the inner edges
of) wooden blocks

Precautions:
 Use set squares with the ruler to avoid parallax error

Prepared By: Ms Urooj Fatima

Determine Volume of an Irregular shaped object
Method #1: By using measuring cylinder
 Use of measuring cylinder stated
 note initial reading
 immerse object
 note new reading
 find difference

Method #1: By using displacement can

 use of measuring cylinder stated
 fill can to spout
 immerse object
 find volume of water collected

Precautions
 tap cylinder to release air
 avoiding parallax in reading volume of water (read lower meniscus)
 careful pouring / avoid splashing
 repeat & average

Determine Density of an Irregular shaped solid object

Apparatus: electronic balance, graduated cylinder
Procedure:
 find volume of the object by using displacement method
 find mass of object using balance
 Calculate density using formula: d = m/v
 Repeat and take average

Determine Density of a Regular shaped solid object

Apparatus: electronic balance
Procedure:
 Calculate volume of the object by using relevant geometrical formula
 find mass of object using balance
 Calculate density using formula: d = m/v
 Repeat and take average

Measurement of Time Period (T) of a Pendulum/vibrating mass

Apparatus: Simple pendulum or vibrating mass, stop watch. Fiducial aid

Procedure:
 Release the pendulum/vibrating mass from its mean position
 measure total time, t, for a number of oscillations, N (N = 10 to 20)
 Calculate Time Period: T = t / N
 repeat readings and take average
Precautions
 count the oscillations from the centre of the swing (use fiducial aid)
 release the pendulum carefully to ensure smooth oscillations
 amplitude of swings should be small

Prepared By: Ms Urooj Fatima

Determine Centre of Mass of a Lamina
Apparatus: Lamina, plumb line, retort stand and clamp, pencil, ruler

Procedure:
 make 2/3 holes at edges of lamina
 freely suspend lamina from one hole
 use plumb-line to ensure that lamina is exactly vertical (freely suspended)
 mark vertical line on lamina (using the thread of plumb line)
 repeat from different hole(s) and find where lines meet

Precautions:
 use sharp pencil/draw neat and thin lines
 holes should be marked approx. equal distance apart and as far away as possible
 repeat from 3rd hole to check accuracy

Verify Principle of Moments

Apparatus: meter rule, retort stand (pivot), different masses with hanger
Procedure:
 first balance the meter rule on pivot without any weights/masses
 hang two sets of masses on each side and adjust their position so that the ruler is balanced
 calculate moments; clockwise moments and anticlockwise moments should be equal:
o sum of clockwise moment = sum of anticlockwise moment (hence verified)
 Repeat by using different sets of weights and changing distances

Precautions:
 Avoid parallax error in reading the rule
 Use rule with uniform width and weight
 Use smaller and equal size threads to hang weights
 Use distances from the pivot greater than 25 cm.

Verify Laws of Reflection (< i = < r)

Method #1: Using Optical Pins

Apparatus: mirror, common pins, ruler, protractor, soft board, paper, pencil

Procedure:
 Place mirror on sheet of paper
 Draw line at back of mirror on the paper
 Place 2 pins P1 and P2 on incident ray
 View pins or image (of pins) through mirror
 Place P3 and P4 in line with images of P1 and P2 to trace reflected ray
 Draw lines and normal and measure angles i and r to normal
 Repeat

Precautions:
 Pins should be placed at least 5cm apart
 Bottom of pins should be viewed to avoid parallax error

Prepared By: Ms Urooj Fatima

Method #2: Using Ray- box
Apparatus: mirror, ray-box, ruler, protractor, soft board, paper, pencil

Procedure:
 Place mirror on sheet of white paper and draw line at back of mirror on the paper
 Place ray-box in front of the paper so that light ray can be seen on the paper
 By using ray box, direct a ray of light (incident ray) at some angle to the plane mirror.
 Trace incident ray and reflected ray on paper (mark two points for each ray and then draw
straight lines with ruler)
 Draw normal and measure angles i and r to normal
 Repeat by directing ray of light at different angles

Precautions:
 Thin ray of light should be used
 Use darkened room

Refraction of Light/Find Refractive Index

Method #1: Using Optical Pins

Apparatus: Glass block, common pins, ruler, protractor, board, paper, pencil

Procedure:
 Place glass block on sheet of white paper and draw its Outline on paper
 Place 2 pins on incident ray
 View pins through glass block from other side
 place P3 and P4 in line with P1 and P2 to trace emergent ray
 Join points to get incident ray and emergent ray (in air), remove block and draw ray inside
block to get Refracted ray
 Draw Normal, measure Angle of incidence and angle of refraction.
 Calculate Refractive Index using formula : μ = sin i /sin r
 repeat

Method #2: Using Ray-box

Apparatus: Glass block, ray-box, ruler, protractor, board, paper, pencil

Procedure:
 Place glass block on sheet of white paper and draw its Outline on paper
 Place ray-box in front of the paper so that light ray can be seen on the paper
 By using ray box, direct a ray of light (incident ray) at some angle to the glass block
 Trace incident ray and emergent ray on paper (mark two points for each ray and then draw
straight lines with ruler)
 Remove the block and draw Refracted ray inside block by joining the point where ray
entered the block to the point where it emerged out of the block.
 Draw Normal, measure Angle of incidence and angle of refraction.
 Calculate Refractive Index using formula : μ = sin i /sin r
 repeat

Prepared By: Ms Urooj Fatima

Total Internal Reflection/measure Critical angle
Apparatus: semicircular glass block, ray-box, ruler, protractor, board, paper, pencil

Procedure:
 Place semicircular glass block on sheet of white paper and draw its Outline on paper
 Place ray-box in front of the paper so that light ray can be seen on the paper
 Using ray-box, direct a ray of light (incident ray) to enter the semicircular block from its
curved edge towards its centre
 Gradually increases angle of incidence until refracted ray runs along surface
 At this point, trace incident ray.
 Draw normal, measure angle of incidence. < i = < c (angle of incidence = critical angle)
 Further increase < i , TIR is observed. (ray of light will not emerge out of the semicircular
block from other side but will be reflected back)

Determine Focal length of lens – Rough method

Apparatus: converging lens, distant object/source of light, screen, meter rule/optical bench

Procedure:
 use light from a distant object (or light from sun)
 move lens or screen until a focused image is obtained on the screen
 measure distance from lens to screen
 repeat and average

Focal length of lens – accurate method

Apparatus: converging lens, illuminated object, screen, meter rule

Procedure:
 place lens at centre of meter rule
 place object and screen on either side of lens
 move object or screen until a focused image is obtained on the screen
 measure object distance (u) and image distance (v)
 use formula to calculate focal length : f = (u x v) ÷ (u + v)
 repeat by changing object/image distances

Precautions:
 use darkened room
 align centres of object, lens and screen
 avoid parallax error in reading meter rule

Plotting Magnetic Field lines of a Bar magnet using plotting compass

Apparatus: bar magnet, plotting compass, paper, pencil

Procedure:
 Place plotting compass near magnet
 Mark the position of end of compass needle with a dot
 move the compass to point to previous dot, mark new dot (along one field line)
 repeat until the S-pole of the bar magnet is reached
 join dots to give filed line
 Repeat with different starting points to get more filed lines

Prepared By: Ms Urooj Fatima

Precautions:
 There should not be any other magnet or magnetic material present nearby the apparatus
 Use smaller plotting compass (gives more dots)
 Avoid parallax error in marking the dots

Measure Resistance of an unknown Resistor/Verify Ohm’s Law

Apparatus: Ammeter, voltmeter, fixed resistor of unknown value, Rheostat/variable resistor (or
any means of varying current in circuit), battery/power supply, connecting leads,

Procedure:
 Set up circuit containing power supply, resistor, ammeter in series, voltmeter across resistor
and some means of varying current (e.g. variable resistor, variable power supply, change/add
cells)
 Adjust the variable resistor so that a suitable value of voltage and current is obtained. Record
V and I
 Take several reading of V and I (by changing current in the circuit)
 Use V = IR and calculate average R or plot I–V graph and find R

Precautions:
 Avoid parallax error in reading ammeter/voltmeter
 Switch off current after each reading to avoid overheating
 Use smaller values of current
 All electrical connections should be tight and rust free

To Investigate effect of Temperature on Resistance

Apparatus: Ammeter, voltmeter, resistor, water/oil bath, battery/power supply, connecting leads,

Procedure:
 Set up circuit containing Resistor (immersed in water/oil bath), power supply, ammeter in
series, voltmeter in parallel with resistor
 Heat water bath to change temperature
 Use thermometer above resistor to record temperatures
 Record values of Current and Voltage at different values of Temperature,
 Calculate R (R = V/I)

Precautions:
 Thermometer should be placed close to resistor (even in air)
 Stir water / allow to settle
 Avoid parallax error in reading ammeter/voltmeter
 Reduce draughts in the room/lab
 Use wooden/plastic stirrer to avoid short circuit

Prepared By: Ms Urooj Fatima

To Investigate how Resistance of a wire/conductor depends on its Length

Apparatus: Test Wire/Conductor, ammeter, voltmeter, fixed resistor, battery/power supply,

connecting leads, movable lead
Procedure:
 Set up circuit containing fixed Resistor, wire under test, power supply and ammeter in series,
and voltmeter in parallel with wire under test
 Change length of wire by connecting the movable lead at different lengths along the wire
 Record values of Current and Voltage at different values of length
 Calculate R (for each length) (R = V/I)

Precautions:
 Avoid parallax error in reading ammeter/voltmeter
 Use smaller values of current
 Switch off the circuit after taking each reading
 Use water bath to keep the temperature constant

Prepared By: Ms Urooj Fatima

 Graphs Analysis in ATP

y y y

x x x

Directly Proportional Linear Relation Inverse Relation

As x increases, y decreases

y y y

x x x
Direct Relation Direct Relation As x increases, y increases
As x increases, y increases As x increases, y increases initially, then becomes constant
but ‘non-linearly’ but ‘non-linearly’
(or) As x increases, y increases with (or) As x increases, y increases with
an increasing rate a decreasing rate

y y y

x x x
Inversely Proportional Inverse Relation Inverse Relation
As x increases, y decreases As x increases, y decreases
but ‘non-linearly’ but ‘non-linearly’
(or) As x increases, y decreases with (or) As x increases, y decreases with
a decreasing rate an increasing rate

Prepared by: Ms. Urooj