3f4c4c_9590d121e1f84627bea7454227a8cf43

Centre for Distance and Online Education
Punjabi University, Patiala
Class : B.Com. I Semester : 1

Paper : BCOU1106T (Computer Applications in Business)
Unit : I Medium : English
Lesson No.
1.1 : Computer Fundamentals
1.2 : Computer Memory
1.3 : Number System and its Conversion
1.4 : Introduction to Operating System
1.5 : MS-DOS
1.6 : Internal and External DOS Commands
1.7 : Features of MS-Word
1.8 : Working with Documents and Templates
1.9 : Inserting Pictures, Symbols and Objects
1.10 : Formatting Documents
1.11 : Using Tools
1.12 : Working with Table
Department website : www.pbidde.org

B.COM. PART-I (Ist Semester)
Paper: BCOU1106T - COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN BUSINESS
Max Marks : 100 External Assessment : 60
Time : 3 Hours Internal Assessment : 20
Pass Marks : 35% Practical : 20
Instructions for Paper-Setters/Examiners
The question paper covering the entire course shall be divided into three sections as follows:
SECTION-A
It will consist of essay type questions. Four questions shall be set by the examiner from Unit-I of the
syllabus and the candidate shall be required to attempt two. Each question shall carry 9 marks; total
weight of the section shall be 18 marks.
SECTION-B
It will consist of essay type questions. Four questions shall be set by the examiner from Unit-II of the
syllabus and the candidate shall be required to attempt two. Each question shall carry 9 marks; total
weight of the section shall be 18 marks.
SECTION-C
It will consist of 10 very short answer questions from entire syllabus. Students are required to attempt 8
questions up to five lines in length. Each question shall carry 3 marks; total weight of the section shall be
24 marks
UNIT - I
Computer: Introduction, Functions and Classification of Computer, Overview of Software and Hardware,
Input and Output devices, Computer Memory: RAM, ROM, Number System and its Inter Conversion
Introduction to Operating System, DOS and WINDOWS, working with files and folder, Understanding the
control panel, Opening and exiting Windows applications, Copying and moving information between
windows and learning other basic functions of window (latest version).
Introduction to Word Processing, Word Processing concepts, Use of Templates, Working with word
document: Editing text, Find the replace text, Formatting, spell check, Auto correct, Auto text; Bullets
and numbering, Tabs, Paragraph formatting, Indent, Page formatting, Header and footer. Tables:
Inserting, Filling and formatting a table; Inserting Pictures and Video; Mail Merge: Including linking with
Database; Printing documents.
UNIT - II
Preparing Presentations: Basics of presentations, Slides, Fonts, Drawing, Editing; Inserting: Tables,
Images, texts, Symbols Media; Design; Transition; Animation; and Slide show. Creating Business
Presentations using above facilities. Spread sheet and its Business Applications: Spreadsheet
concepts, Managing worksheets; Formatting, Entering data, Editing, and Printing a worksheet;
Handling operations in Formula, Project involving multiple spread sheets, Organizing Charts and
Graphs. Generally used Spread sheet functions: Mathematical, Statistical, Financial, Logical, Date
and Time Look up and reference, Database, and Text functions. Graphical representation of data:
Frequency distribution and its statistical parameters; Mean, Median, Standard Deviation. Correlation
and Regression.
Database Designs for Accounting and Business Applications: Reality-Expressing the Application;
Creating initial design in Entity Relationship Model; Transforming E.R. Model to Relational Data
Model Concepts Applying DBMS in Areas of Accounting & Inventory.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE PRACTICAL EXAMINATION
The students would be required to solve any one problem out of two set by the examiner based on the
packages covered in the syllabus.
The break-up of marks for the Practical will be as under:
(i) Lab Record 5 Marks
(ii) Viva-voce 5 Marks
(iii) Program Development and Execution 10
MarksBOOKS RECOMMENDED
1. Microsoft Office 2000 Complete: BPB Publication.
2. Alexis Leon, Mathews Leon : Introduction to Computers with MS Office 2000, Tata McGraw
3. Implementing Tally: BPB Publication
4. PC Complete, BPB Publications
Jana Calabria : Windows 98-6in I, Prentice Hall

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B.COM. PART-I Paper: BCOU1106T
(SEMESTER-I) COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN BUSINESS
LESSON NO. 1.1 AUTHOR: Dr. Renu Dhir
Converted into SLM by Dr. Vishal Singh

Last updated on August, 2023
COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS
1.1.1 Objective
1.1.2 Introduction
1.1.3 What is Computer?
1.1.4 Classification of Computers
1.1.4.1 Personal Computer
1.1.4.2 Mini Computer
1.1.4.3 Mainframe Computer
1.1.4.4 Super Computer
1.1.5 Functions of Computer
1.1.5.1 Input
1.1.5.2 Store
1.1.5.3 Process
1.1.5.4 Output
1.1.5.5 Control
1.1.6 Components of Computer
1.1.6.1 Central Processing Unit
1.1.6.2 Arithmetic Logic Unit
1.1.6.3 Control Unit
1.1.6.4 Memory Unit
1.1.7 Hardware
1.1.8 Software
1.1.8.1 System Software
1.1.8.2 Operating System Software
1.1.8.3 Development Software
1.1.8.4 Application Software
1.1.9 Input Devices
1.1.9.1 Keyboard
1.1.9.2 Mouse
1.1.9.3 Joy Stick
1.1.9.4 Scanner
1.1.9.5 Touch Screen
1.1.9.6 Light Pen
1.1.9.7 Mark and Character Reader
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1.1.10 Output Devices

1.1.10.1 Visual Display Unit (VDU)
1.1.10.2 Printer
1.1.10.2.1 Impact Printers
1.1.10.2.2 Non Impact Printers
1.1.11 Keywords
1.1.12 Summary
1.1.13 Self Check Exercise
1.1.14 Suggested Readings
1.1.1 Objectives
The lesson provides one with a fairly good concept of fundamentals of
computers and Software and Hardware, Commonly occurring input and output
devices and different functions of all these devices.
1.1.2 Introduction
The world of today is a world of computers. Computers are everywhere,
whiring and whizzing their electronic way into our homes, our schools, our
hospitals, our lives. Scientists are using computers to unscramble the
genetic codes; police is using them to identify and track down criminals.
The age of these versatile machines seem almost limitless. While gear, gas
engines and electrical motors extend our physical power, computers of
today give us the information we need to extend our thinking power, thus
in addition to mass-producing goods, we are now mass-producing
information and in years to come, we will probably double the amount of
knowledge available every two years.
This knowledge is a driving force in our economy. To be educated citizen
today, one must have a general understanding of the limitations of these
amazing machines. Project yourself into the future and take a look around
you, your home is computerised. You don't even need to worry about the
water temperature for your shower because it is preprogrammed. Your
factory or office is computerised, making for better utilization of time and
space. If you become ill, a computerised device might scan your body
tissue and recommend treatment. If your house is burglarized, the police
might catch the culprit before he or she even leaves your home, thanks
to the new computerised alarm system that links your home to law-
enforcement headquarters.
1.1.3 What is Computer ?
A Computer is an electronic device comprises of many devices which
accepts data, performs calculations and gives the output in a meaningful
manner. Computer mainly consist of the following parts :-
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1. The cabinet inside which CPU, Motherboard, SMPS, RAM,
ROM, Floppy disk, Hard disk, CD-ROM Drive etc. are attached
with each other by serial ports and parallel ports.
2. The monitor.
3. Keyboard and Mouse.
1.1.4 Classification of Computers
Computer can take various forms. Certain computers are used in audio
and video system, cameras and other such equipment. The CATSCAN
machine and equally sophisticated machines used in hospitals to help in
medical diagnoses contain computer. Such computers are used for specific
purpose.
1.1.4.1 Personal Computer
The most popular form of the computer in use today is probably the PC or
Personal Computer. The PC can be used for various applications and infact
there are millions of PC's already in use by individuals enough to handle large-
sized applications. It can perform a diverse range of function, from keeping
track of household accounts to keeping records of the stores of a large
manufacturing company.
Although the PC system is the most popular computer system, there are other
computer systems too which are categorised on the basis of size, cost and
performance. Before we describe some of these computer systems, it is
essential to understand the term “system”. A system is a group of integral
parts that have a common purpose of achieving a certain objective. These
parts of components of the PC system will be discussed in greater detail
later.
1.1.4.2 Mini Computer
Mini computer is a small general-purpose computer. It can vary in size
from a small desktop model to the size of a small filling cabinet. Mini
systems are usually designed to simultaneously handle the need of multiple
user, i.e., more than one person can work on a mini.
Block Diagram And Overview of Computer
Figure. 1.1.1
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
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(ALU)
Key —> Data Flow

---> Command Signal
Figure 1.1.2
Hardware & Software Hierarchy for Computers
Figure 1.1.3
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Figure 1.1.4
1.1.4.3 Mainframe Computer
A mainframe is another form of a computer system that is generally more
powerful than a typical mini. Mainframe themselves may vary in cost and
performance capabilities. They are mostly used in large organisations for large
scale jobs.
1.1.4.4 Super Computer
However, there is an overlap between the expensive mini's and small
mainframe models in terms of cost and capability. Similarly, there is an overlap
between the more powerful PC system and the mini computer. At the end of the
size, capability, scale are the supercomputer. These systems are the largest,
fastest and most expensive computers in the world. They are mostly used for
complex scientific applications
Self check exercise-I

Q1. What is minicomputer?
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Ans…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...
Q2.Define mainframe computer
Ans……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
1.1.5 Functions of Computer
1.1.5.1 Input : The process of entering data and instruction into the
computer system is called inputting.
1.1.5.2 Store : Saving data and instruction so that they are available
for initial or for additional processing as and when required is called storing.
1.1.5.3 Process : Performing arithmetic operations or logical
operations on data in order to convert into useful information is called
processing.
1.1.5.4 Output : The process of producing useful information for the user-
such as a printed report or a visual display is called outputting.
1.1.5.5 Control : Directing the manner and sequence in which all of
the above operations are performed is called controlling.
1.1.6 Components of Computer
1.1.6.1Central Processing Unit
The CPU or microprocessor is a device which can receive the information in
bits, process it and transform it into a meaningful output. The CPU comprises
of control unit, memory unit and Arithmetic logic unit. The CPU is the brain of
any computer system. In a human body, all major decisions are taken by the
brain and all other parts of the body function as directed by the brain. Similarly,
in a computer system, all major calculations and comparisons and controlling
the operations performed by the other unit of the computer system.
1.1.6.2 Arithmetic Logic Unit
The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) of a computer system is the place where the
actual execution of instruction takes place during the processing operation. To
be more precise, all calculations are performed and all comparisons (decisions)
are made in the ALU. The data and instructions, stored in the primary storage
prior to processing, are transferred as and when needed, to the ALU where
processing take place. No processing is done in the primary storage unit.
Intermediate results generated in the ALU are temporarily transferred back to
the primary storage until needed again a later time. Data may thus move from
primary storage to ALU and back again to storage many times during the
processing information. After completion of the process, the final results which
are stored in the storage unit are released to an output device. The type and
the number of arithmetic and logic operations that a computer can perform is
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determined by the engineering design of the ALU. However, almost all ALU's are
designed to perform the four arithmetic operations, i.e. add, subtract, multiply,
divide and logic operations of comparisons such as less than, equal to or
greater than.
1.1.6.3 Control Unit
How does the input device know that it is time for it to feed data into the
storage unit ? How does the ALU know what should be done with the data once
they are received ? And how is it that only the final results are sent to the
output device and not the intermediate results ? All this is possible because of
the control unit of the computer system. By selecting, interpreting and seeing
to the execution of the program instruction, the control unit is able to maintain
order and direct the operation of the entire system. Although, it does not
perform any actual processing on the data, the control unit acts as a central
nervous system for all components of the computer. It manages and coordinates
the entire computer system. It obtains instructions from the program stored in
the main memory, interprets the instructions and issue signals that cause
other units of the system to perform their functions.
1.1.6.4 Memory unit
All the data and results are stored in memory unit. The memory unit comprises
of million of cells each capable of storing a unit of information. These
electromagnetic cells are also referred as storage locations or addresses. The
memory unit comprises of internal processor memory which comprises a small
set of high speed registers used as a working memory. The registers are (i)
General purpose registers which are used for temporary storage of data (ii) special
purpose registers which are used by microprocessor itself. They are not
accessible to programmers.
1.1.7 Hardware
The physical component of a computer is called hardware. A physical component
may be electronic, electrical, magnetic, mechanical, optical e.g. IC's, hard disk,
floppy disks, optical disks, cathode ray tube (CRT), key board, printer, plotter etc.
1.1.8 Software
Software as often called as set of programs and instructions or code. Several
other names are language, package and application. All these names refer to
the same concept : a set of instruction used to make the computer perform a
specific task. Software is usually classified into three groups :
1. System software
2. Development software
3. Application software
1.1.8.1 System software
System software are sets of one or more programs that are basically designed to
control the operation of a computer system. They are general programs written
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to assist the users in the use of operations, moving data into a computer and
all the other steps in executing the application program.
System software run the computer. All application and developmental software
can only be run when system software is present. These programs are mostly
available on disks. However, part of the system software is provided by the
manufacturer.
1.1.8.2 Operating system software
Used the collection of program by the computer to run the supervisor and control
the flow of other programs and data is called the operating system software. The
operating system integrates the computer hardware with other softwares. Rather
than involving the user in the internal action of the machine, the operating
system take care of this and let the user concentrate on the actual task to be
performed. In order to use this PC efficiently you must have a thorough
knowledge of its operating system.
1.1.8.3 Development software
We, human beings, have a great deal of difficulty communicating with a
computer in machine language and computer can not as yet spoke our
language. Several intermediate languages have been developed to allow human
beings to converse easily with computers. These intermediate languages are
called developmental languages. By using these languages we can develop
specific programs for solving problems. These specific application oriented
programs are grouped as application software. An example of an application
program would be the development of an “inventory program for managing the
stock of a factory.”
The developmental programming languages use more easily recognisable
symbols, english like words, and they are easier than to use assembly language.
These are referred to as the third generation languages and also as the high-
level languages.
1.1.8.4 Application Software
1. Software which are use for data processing, document creation,
creation of presentation etc. are called application software. There
are ready to use software.
2. Utility Software include utilities for computer management
compression and decompression of large files, encryption and
decryption of documents etc.
Self check exercise-II

Q3. Define Operating system.
Ans…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Q4. What is the difference between system software and application software?
Ans…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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1.1.9 Input Devices

Some of the important device are discussed below :-
1.1.9.1 Keyboard :- The key board is similar to a type writer, but
here are certain differences. While working on PC, a flashing
point of VDU is a cursor. When key is pressed on a key board, a
character is displayed at different point where the cursor is
flashing and the cursor moves one position forward. It has all the
alphabets and 0 to 9 on the upper line with some control
characters like ! @ # $ % ^ & * ( ) _ + etc., written above the
numeric digit on upper line.
There are few more keys like shift, caps, ctrl, alt, spacebar etc. On
the right is numeric key pad with all numeric digit and calculation
symbols (=,-,*,/ .)
1.1.9.2 Mouse :- A mouse is an input device which is used to point
and select some option on the VDU. mouse may be classified on
the basis of the number of buttons they have, the technology they
use and the kind of interface they use with the computer.
The mouse may have one, two or three buttons. The function of
each button is determined by the programme that uses the mouse
as an input device.
1.1.9.3 Joy Stick :- By using of a joy stick or track ball one can play
with computer for entertainment and training purpose while
pluging the video games the use of key board is not so easy for
small children so the joy stick & track ball are easier to use and
provide better control. As you move the stick around in its socket
the movements are translated into binary instructions with the
help of electrical contracts in the base of joy stick. When the
movement of firing games, a button provided at the base is pressed
that the sets of an explosive pattern of dots on the screen.
The track ball also does the same but it is found in shape. Both of
these devices allow the user & move objects around screen easily.
1.1.9.4 Scanner :- Another input device that being increasingly used
is the scanner. There are the situations when some information is
available on paper and is needed on the computer disk for further
manuplation. The simplest way would be to take a photograph of
the image directly from the source and convert it into a form that
can be saved on the disk. A scanner scans the image and
transform the image to ASCII code and graphic. These can be
changed, manipulated and combined and then printed. The
scanners are of two types. Roller feed scanner and flat bed scanner.
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1.1.9.5 Touch screen :- Imagine a cardiac surgeon performing bypass
surgery. In between he needs to check on the laboratory test result of
the patient. Assuming that the information is stored on a
computer he can access the information through a keyboard of
a mouse. A touch screen input interface does exactly this.
Two popular technologies exist for touch screen. In on the
screen is made sensitive to touch and the exact position is
detected. In the order, the screen is lined with light emitting
device on its vertical sides. Photo detector are placed on
horizontal side. When the user finger approaches the screen,
the light beam is broken and detected by photo detectors.
1.9.6 Light pen :- A light pen is a input device which can be used to
select an portion by just pointing at it, or draw figures directly on
the screen and more the figures around. You can input your
drawing on computer just drawing it on screen using light pens.
Light pens are useful for menu based applications. A light pen is
useful for drawing graphics in CAD.
1.1.9.7 Mark and Character Reader :- This includes the various
devices that read the character with the help of light beams.
1.1.9.7.1 Optical Mark Reader :- This is an input device
which interprets pencils marks on the paper. It serves
account the amount of light transmitted through dot is
less as compared to its surroundings area, its purpose is
evaluating the multiple choice or objective type question
where the correct answer is marked with soft pencil at
proper spot in the form of paper. The OMR reads the
paper keeping into.
1.1.9.7.2 Optical Character Reader :- The idea is to
have a system which can directly read the printed
characters and convert them into codes understood by
computer. This system looks very attractive but it is not
very practical as these types of equipment are very
costly.
1.1.9.7.3 Magnetic Ink Character Reader :-
This
system is largely applicable in banks, where they have
to process many cheques. The cheque books supplied by
the banks to their customers carry an identifying bank
code and customer's account number printed in the
magnetic ink. The amount of the cheque is later
entered by a clerk using a machine which prints the
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amount with magnetic ink.
1.1.10 Output devices

Common used output devices are :-
(1) Visual Display Unit (VDU)
(2) Printers
1.1.10.1 Visual Display Unit :- This is most commonly used output
device. Every computer system has this output device. Outlook of
this is similar to TV in day to day language we call it monitor. This
device is capable of displaying keys input and CPU output on a
cathods ray tube. It looks like a television and is used to display
input data messages, processed information from computer.
1.1.10.2 Printer :- The output of the VDU cannot be stored for later
reference. For a permanent, output common output device printer
is required using printer output can be obtained on paper. The
printers are capable of printing at very high speeds. Output of it is
called hard copy. Printers are classified on the basis of parameters
like mechanism used for printing, speed of printing, quality of
output, direction of printing and kind of interface they have with
computer.
Mechanism :- Depending on the technique used for printing.
Printers are classified into two categories :-
1.1.10.2.1 Impact Printers :-
In the impact printer,
characters are printed by pressing type face against an
inked ribbon which makes the mark on the paper. The
most common impact printer is the dot matrix printer
(DMP). The other types of impact printers in the use are
drum printers, Daizy wheel printers & Gold ball printers.
1.1.10.2.1.1 Dot Matrix Printer (DMP) :- In
DMP, an arrangement of tiny hammers or
pins strickes the ribbon to produce the
desired characters. Those tiny pins typically
print in a matric of 7 dot across and 9 dots
down. DMP are inexpensive but noisy. They
can print both text and graphics. Draft mode
and high speed mode (200-480 characters per
sec.) letter quality mode upto 180 characters
per sec.
1.1.10.2.1.2 Daisy Wheel Printer :- The daisy
printers use a daisy wheel in a flat disk
having set of spokes. Each spoke has a single
character embossed at the tip. The hub of the
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wheel rotates the desired character into
position and is then struck by a hammer
mechanism to form the image on the paper.
Daisy wheel comes with several types of fonts
which can be inter changed quality. Daisy
wheel are mainly use in word processing
application where high quality is required.
The printing speed lies between 25 to 60
characters per sec.
1.1.10.2.2 Non Impact Printers :- In non impact printer
there is no contact between a type face and the paper
while printing. The most common non-impact printers
are laser printers. The other types of non-impact
printers are thermal printers & inkjet printers.
1.1.10.2.2.1 Line Printer :- The line printer
print at the rate of lines per seconds they can
print very fast and are therefore very useful
where large volumes of data to be printed. The
quality of print is not as good as the laser
printer. One major drawback of line printer is
that they do not support graphics.
However, instead if pin, in the print head
there are several microcopies holes. Instead
of using ribbon, ink is forced out of the tiny
holes directly on the paper to form characters.
1.1.10.2.2.2 Inkjet Printer :- INKJET printers
use a technology similar to dot matrix
printers. The inkjet printers are generally
higher priced than most dot matrix printers.
Their print quality is closer to that of the
laser printers. So they are generally called as
poor man's laser.
1.1.10.2.2.3 Laser Printer :- The laser printer
are at the top of the line printer technology of
PC's but their prices are still higher than
most of the printers. A laser printer look like
a photocopies in the sense that instead of
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working photographically from a printed

document, as in photocopies the laser printers
uses a laser beam to create the image.
1.1.11 Keywords
(1) Program :- Set of sequential instructions given to

computers toperform the required job.
(2) Data :- All facts & figures relating to a situation or a
system orraw material from which we can produce
information.
(3) Information :- Processed data.
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1.1.12 Summary
Computer is a house hold name today because this magic device is not
to be used only by highly qualified engineers or scientists. Now it is
popular with all kinds of people from businessmen to employees, from
scientists and engineers to school going children. Its recognition and
application has grown up to a very fast face in the development of other
areas of scientific, technical and general interest. They have come like a
storm and have to stay and conquer.
1.1.13 Short answer type questions
(1) What do you mean by CPU ?
(2) Distinguish between RAM & ROM ?
(3) Different between impact & non-impact printer.
(4) Define the following terms :-
(i ) keyboard
(i i) Floppy disk
( ii i ) Hard disk
(iv) Plotter or Tracer.
1.1.14 Long answer type questions
1. Define computer. Explain various components of computer.
2. What is software? Discuss various types of software.
3. What do you mean by input device? Explain various input devices in
detail.
(1) Computer Fundamentals, by Pradeep K. Sinha, BPB
Publications, New Delhi.
(2) Introduction to Information Technology by V. Rajaraman, PHI,
New Delhi.
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Computer Memory
1.2.1 Objective
1.2.2 Introduction
1.2.3 Main Memory
1.2.4 Read Only Memory (ROM)
2.4.1 Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)
2.4.2 Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)
2.4.3 Electrically Erasable Programmable Memory (EEPROM)
2.4.4 Flash EPROM
1.2.5 Random Access Memory (RAM)
2.5.1 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
2.5.2 Static RAM (SRAM)
1.2.6 Hard Disk
1.2.7 Secondary Storage Devices
2.7.1 Floppy Disk
2.7.2 High Speed Memories
1.2.8 Cache Memory
1.2.9 Programming Languages
2.9.1 Machine Language
2.9.2 Assembly language
2.9.3 High Level language (HLL)
1.2.10 Translation From HLL to Machine Language
2.10.1 Interpreter
2.10.2 Compiler
1.2.11 Loader
1.2.12 Linker
1.2.13 Keywords
1.2.14 Summary
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1.2.1 Objective :
The lesson provide one with computers memory unit in details. The students
should be familiar with the different types of RAM and ROM and the secondary
storage devices, students should also be familiar with the different types of
programming languages to communicate with the computer.
1.2.2 Introduction :
Memory in computer system is required for storage and subsequent retrieval of
the instruction and data. A computer system uses a variety of devices for
storing the instructions and data that are required for its operations. Normally,
we classify the information to be stored on computer into two basic categories-
data and instructions.
The storage device along with the algorithm or information on how to control
and manage these storage devices constitute the memory system of computer.
A memory system is a very simple system. Yet it exhibts a wide range of
technology and types. But unfortunately, faster memory technology is very costly.
In addition, fast memories require power supply till the information is stored.
Both these things are not very convenient but on the other hand the memories
with smaller cost have very high access time which means the time taken by
CPU. Thus the cost versus access time normally has lot to a hierarchy of
memory where we supplement fast memories with larger, cheaper and slower. It
has led to a hierarchy of memory units which may vary in different physical and
operational characteristics. Therefore, they make the memory system very diverse
in type, cost organisation, technology and performance. Thus memory hierarchy
would be fruitful if the frequency of access to slower memories is significantly lesser
than that in the case of faster memories.
CPU
Register
 
 Cache Memory
 
Main Memory

 
Secondary Memory
Figure 1.2.1
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Thus, a memory system can considered to be consisting of three groups of
memories. These are :-
(A) Internal Process or Memories :- These consist of a small set
of high speed registers which are internal to a processor and are
used as temporary locations where actual processing is done.
(B) Primary Memory or Main Memory :- It is a large memory
that is fast but not as fast as inter processor memory. This
memory is accessed directly by the processor. It is based mainly on
integrated circuits.
(C) Secondary Memory/Auxiliary Memory/Backing Store
Auxiliary memory is larger in size than main memory but it is
slower than main memory. It normally store programs (programs
that are used by the system to perform various operational
functions), other instructions, programs and data files. Secondary
memory can also be used as an overflow memory in case the
capacity of main memory has been exceeded, secondary memories
are not accessed directly by a processor. First, the information of
these memories is transferred to the main memory and then the
information can be accessed.
There is another kind of memory which is increasingly
being used in modern computers; This is called Cache memory. It
is logically positioned between the internal memory (registers) and
the main memory. It stores or catches some of the contents of the
main memory that is currently in use of the processor.
1.2.3 Main Memory :
Memory, also called primary storage, is where data and instruction are stored
during processing by the microprocessor. The memory or the storage section of
the computer consists of the devices used to store the information that would be
used during the computations. The memory section of the computer is also used
to hold both intermediate and final results as the computer proceeds through
the program. Memory device are constructed so that it is possible for the control
unit to obtain any information from the memory. The time required to obtain
information may vary somewhat. And is determined by the type of device used
to store the information. Common storage devices are integrated circuit
memories, magnetic tapes and magnetic disks.
Further the memory unit is an essential component in any digital computer
since it is needed for storing the programs that are executed by the CPU. The
memory unit that communicated directly with the CPU is called the main
18
memory and devices that provide backup storage are called the auxiliary
memory. Only programs and data currently used by the processor reside in main
memory.
There are two types of memories :-

Read only memory (ROM)
Random access memory (RAM)
1.2.4 Read Only Memory (ROM) :
A read only memory (ROM), as the name implies, is a memory unit that
performs the read operation only; it does not have a write capability. This
implies that the binary information stored in a ROM is made permanent during
the hardware production of the unit and cannot be altered by writing different
words into it. While a RAM is a general-purpose device whose content can be
altered during the computational process, a ROM is restricted to reading words
that are permanently stored within the unit.
An m and n ROM is an array of binary cells organised into m words of n bits
each.
Read only memory is a type of memory chip that we can read only and we
cannot write on it. ROM provides permanent storage for program instructions.
The most important ROM chip in any computer is ROMBIOS (Basic input and
output system). ROM is only often used in microprocessors that always execute
the same program such as BOOT STRAP LOADER. A ROM is prepared by the
manufacturer and cannot be altered once the chip has been made. Another
disadvantage of ROM is that it is slow. When the microprocessor asks for data
from ROM memory. The data is almost available immediately, but it takes time
for chips to respond. The ROM memory could be better classified as follows :-
1.2.4.1 Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM) :- A control memory
in which the stored information can be altered, but not as easily as in
ordinary memory. In some PROMs, the contents may be erased by
prolonged (minute's) application of ultraviolet light and then rewritten.
Once operation to be performed have been written into a PROM chip,
they are permanent and cannot be altered.
1.2.4.2 Erasable programmable read only memory (EPROM) :- This
type of ROM can be erased and programmed with the help of special
equipment. An EPROM has a window on its top, which if exposed to
ultraviolet light, allow data to be erased. Most EPROM's have a level
covering the window.
19
1.2.4.3 Electrically Erasable Programmable Memory (EEPROM)
:- This type of ROM is required to be removed from its socket to be
erased and reprogrammed.
1.2.4.4 Flash EPROM :- This is the latest type of ROM which is becoming
very popular. By running a special program, a manufacturer can
make changes to the flash EPROM while it remains in the PC.
Self Check Exercise-I

Q1. What is main memory?
Ans……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Q2. What is PROM?
Ans……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
1.2.5 Random Access Memory (RAM) :
RAM chip is made with metal oxide semiconductor (MOS). We can select any
location on this chip randomly and can use it to store retrieve data and
instruction directly. A memory unit is a collection of store registers, together
with the associated circuits, needed to transfer information in and out of the
registers. Memory registers can be accessed for information transfer as required
and hence the name Random Access Memory, abbreviated as RAM.
A memory unit stores binary information in groups of bits called words. Each
word is stored in one memory register. A word in memory is an entity of n bits
that move in and out of the memory unit. A words of eight bits is sometime
called a byte. A memory is a group of 0’s and 1’s and may represent a number,
an instruction code, alpha numeric characters or any other binary-coded
information. RAM chip is classified can be (a) Dynamic RAM; and (b) Static RAM.
1.2.5.1 Dynamic RAM (DRAM) :
The storage cell circuits in dynamic RAM chips contain a transister that acts
in much the same manner as a mechanical on-off light switch and a capacitor
that is capable of storing an electric charge. Depending upon the switching
action of the transister, the capacitor action of a transister, the capacitor either
contains no charge (0 bits) or hold a charge (1 bit).
Since the charge on the capacitor tends to “leak off”, a provision is made to
periodically regenerate or refresh the volatile storage i.e., the data stored is lost
in the event of a power failure.
1.2.5.2 Static RAM (SRAM) :
Static RAM chips are also volatile in nature but as long as they are supplied
with power, they need not require special regenerator circuits to retain the
20
stored data. As it takes more transistors and other devices to store a bit in a
static RAM, these chips are more complicated and take up more space for a
given storage capacity than dynamic RAM chips. Static RAM chips are thus used
in specialised applications while Dynamic RAM chips are used in the primary
storage sections of most of the computers. Due to the volatile nature of these
storage elements, a backup uninterrupted power system (UPS) is often installed
along with larger computer systems.
1.2.6 Hard Disk :

The hard disk is a permanent fixture containing one or more circular metallic
disk that are used to store data files and software programs. The internal hard
disk is sealed in a container to prevent any foreign matter from getting inside.
Hard disks are packs of rigid disks made up of light alloy and coated on both
sides with a layer of magnetizable oxide. The disk rotate at a very high speed
(about 3,600 rpm) on the drive. Data is stored on the disk surface along
concentric tracks. The tracks are divided into sectors and track index locates
specific records directly. Tracks of the same radius on all the surface are
imagined as a cylinder. A block is a part of the track within the sector address.
A common capacity for a block is 512 bytes. Read/write head do not come in
contact with the disk surface but float above it with a gap of about 20 millionth
of an inch. Thus hard disk do not suffer from so much wear as floppy disk and
are therefore suitable for long term usage.
1.2.7 Secondary Storage Devices
1.2.7.1 Floppy Disk :
The second main type of secondary storage is the floppy disk. Floppy disks store
data on a flexible plastic disk. It allows instructions into the computer from
disks containing software programs and to save data and retrieve data from disk
that contains information. The main advantage of a floppy disk is that it is
transportable. The listing below summarises the different types and capacities
of floppy disks.
Floppy disks come in several sizes. The most common sizes are 5.25 inches and
3.5 inches. The 3.5 inch disk is the most common disk used today. The type of
disk you use would depend on our computer hardware requirements.
Diameter Description Capacity
(inches) (bytes)
5.25 Double-sided, 1.25 MB
High-speed
3.5 Double-sided, 7.20 MB
Double-density
21
3.5 Double-sided 1.44 MB
High-density
The 3.5 inch disks are contained within a hard plastic jacket that protects the
disk. Inside the hard jacket, is the soft plastic disk that is used to store the
data. If the write-protect hole is exposed information cannot be changed on the
disk.
2.7.2 High Speed Memories :
It has been found that the access of main memories is slower than the
speed of the processor. As each instruction requires several memory accesses,
therefore, faster memories would be to tremendous help in increasing the
overall output of a computer.
These are four possible ways to increase the memory speed :-
(a) Decrease the memory access time and use a faster but expensive
technology for main memory. It would be feasible after few years.
(b) Access more words in a single memory access cycle. That would
means that instead of accessing one word from the memory in a
memory access cycle, access more words. This is termed as
memory interleaving.
(c) Insert a high speed memory termed as Cache between main
memory and the processor.
(d) Use associative addressing in place of random access.
1.2.8 Cache Memory
A method for reducing the access time to data that is stored in a large and a
slow medium by retaining the most often accessed data in a smaller than a
faster medium. A special type of buffer used by fixed disk systems to move data
between the computer and the hard disk drive efficiently. Because the cache
operates at the computer's clock speed instead of the slower hard disk speed,
frequently used data can be held in cache and accessed more quickly than if it
were still on the disk. The advent of high speed personal computers has also led
to the development of the memory cache which is a special type of buffer using
very memory that can keep up with a fast CPU and than can feed data into the
computer's main memory as it can accept it.
These are small fast memories that are placed between the processes and the
main memory. Caches are fast but are very expensive memories and are used
in only small sizes. For example, caches size 64K, 128K, 256K, etc. are normally
used in typical PC-486s and pentium based PCs while they can have 32 MB
RAMs or even more. If we have such a small size of fast memory, how could it
be advantageous in increasing the overall speed of memory reference ? The
answer lies in the principles of locality which say that if a particular memory
location is accessed at a time than, it is highly likely that is nearby locations
22
would we accessed in the near future. The memory read or write operation is
first checked with caches and if the desired location data is available in cache,
than it is used by the CPU directly. Otherwise, block word are read from main
memory to cache and CPU uses in words from the cache.
Since cache has limited space, so for this incoming block, a portion called a
slot, is to be vacated in the cache. The contact of this vacating block are written
back to the main memory at the position is belong to. The reason for bringing
a block of words to cache is once again locality of reference. We except that next
few addresses would be close to this address and therefore, block of words is
transferred from main memory to the cache. Thus for the word, which is not in
the cache, access time is slightly more than the access time for main memory
without cache. But, because of locality of references, cache performs better. For
example, if memory-read cycle takes 100 ns and a cache read cycle takes 20 ns,
than for four continuous references, we have
The time taken with cache = (100+20) + 20 × 3
For the first For the first
Read operation Read operation
= 120+60 = 180
Time taken without cache = 100 × 4 = 400 ns
Thus the closer are the reference, better is the performance of cache and that
is why, structured code is considered to be a good programming practice since
it provides maximum possible locality.
Self Check Exercise-II
Q3. What is HDD?

Ans……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Q4. Define cache memory
Ans……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
1.2.9 Programming Languages :
A programme is a system of communication. In order to communicate with each
other, humans need languages like English, Hindi etc. In the same manner, for
communicating with the computer, we use computer language called
programming language. A programming language consist of all the symbols,
characters and usage rules that permit people to communicate with computer.
Learning to program requires learning all these symbols and rules.
These are many programming languages available and each one has its
symbols, character set and syntax but each language has an instruction set that
23
permits those familiar operations to be performed.
We know that the computer can neither think nor can make any decision on
its own. It need instructions to understand what to do. A program is a set of
logically related instructions that are arranged in a sequence that guides the
computer to solve a program. The process of writing a program is called
Programming. If a system is not correctly programmed : it delivers incorrect
information.
1.2.9.1 Machine Language :
This is a sequence of instructions written in the form of binary numbers
consisting of 1s and 0s to which the computer responds directly. A machine
language would have two parts. The first part is the command or an operation
that tells the computer what function are to be performed. The second part of
he instruction is the operand that tells the computer where to find or store the data
on which the desired operation is to be performed.
The machine language is the only one that computer can understand directly.
In the earlier computers, programmers had to translate instructions directly
into machine language that computer understood. This task is very difficult and
very few programmers can do this job. So, this language is very difficult to
understand. But the main advantage of this language is that it is faster in
execution as the computer directly starts executing it.
1.2.9.2 Assembly language :
To ease the burden of the programmer, mnemonic operation codes and symbolic
addresses were developed during the early 1950s. The mnemonic refers to a
memory aid. One of the first steps for improving the program preparation
process was to substitute letter, symbols and mnemonics for the mnemonic machine-
language operation codes. Today every computer has a mnemonic code, though the
actual symbols vary among makes and models. Machine language is still used by
the computer as it processes data but assembly language software first translates
and specified operation code symbol into its machine language equivalent.
A program written by a programmer in an assembly language is called a Source
Program. After this source program has been convent into machine code by an
assembler; it is referred to as an object program. The main advantage of
assembly is that the programs written in it are easy to understand as compared
to the programs of machine language. And a big drawback is that they are machine-
oriented, depending upon the model of processor being used.
The following program is an example of an assembly language program for
adding two numbers A and B and storing the result in the some memory
location.
LDA, 7 Load register A with 7
24
LDB, 10 Load register B with 10
ADD a, b A<-- A+B
LD (100), A Save the result in the location 100
HALT Halt process
From this program, it is clear that usage of mnemonics in our example
(LD<ADD<HALT are the mnemonics) has improved the readability of our program
significantly.
Advantage of assembly language :
Writing of a program in assembly language is more convenient than a machine
language. Instead of binary sequences as in machine language, it is written in
the form of symbolic instructions. Therefore, it gives a little more readability.
Disadvantages of assembly language :
Assembly language (program) is specific to particular machine architecture.
Assembly languages are designed for specific make and model of a
microprocessor. It means that assembly language program written for one
processor would not work on a different processor if it is architectually different.
That is why, the assembly language program is not portable.
A machine cannot execute an assembly language directly as it is not in a
binary form. An assembler is needed in order to translate an assembly language
program into the object code executable by the machine.
Assembly language ProgramAssemblerObject code in machine language.

1.2.9.3 High Level language (HLL) :
The development of mnemonic technique and macro-instruction led, to the
development of high level languages, that are often oriented towards a particular
class of problem.
Unlike assembly program high-level language programs may be used with
different makes of computers with little modifications. Thus reprogramming
expenses may be greatly reduced when new equipment is acquired. The main
advantage of HLL are as follow :-
(1) Readability :- Program written in these language are more easily
readable than those in assembly language and machine language.
(2) Portability :- Program could be run on different machines with little
or no changes.
(3) Easy debugging :- Errors are easy to find and remove.
(4) Easy software development :- Software could easily be developed
using the HLL.
1.2.9.3.1 Examples of HLL :
There are many high languages available today. The programmer chooses the
particular language according to his choice and need to the application. For
25
example, COBOL is best suited for business processing while FORTRAN is
suitable for scientific operations. Some of the programming languages with their
main characteristics have been described as follow :-
1.2.9.3.1.1 LOGO :
LOGO was designed by seymour papert who was a teacher in the USA. He
designed this language so that children could learn computer by drawing
pictures. Most of its commands enable us to draw pictures. This is one of
reasons why LOGO is called a graphic language.
1.2.9.3.1.2 FORTRAN :
FORTRAN is the short form for FORmula TRANslation. As the name suggest it
is used extensively in numeric data types such as an integer, real, float and
complex. It was the only language developed by the IBM in 1957. Since then, it
has been modified into many versions and the latest version FORTRAN 90, is
currently available in the markets. As the result of this effort, FORTRAN was
introduced in 1957 for IBM 704 computer. FORTRAN is very useful for carrying
out scientific and mathematical computations. The main feature of FORTRAN is
that it can handle the complex numbers very easily.
1.2.9.3.1.3 COBOL :
COBOL stands for Common Business Language and is one of the popular
languages used for business applications. The language has provisions that
makes computerisation of business data processing procedures relatively easy.
COBOL is suitable for processing large volumes of data and several reports can
be generated using COBOL based on the stored data. COBOL Program are
characterised by their easy readability due to their verbose syntax, and good
data organisation and file handing.
COBOL was initially developed in 1959 by a group called the CODASYL
(Conference On Data Systems Languages) committee with the objectives of
developing a standard business-oriented language for which all major
manufactures would provide compilers.
1.2.9.3.1.4 BASIC :
Basic stands for Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code. It is the most
popular computer programming language. The main characteristic of BASIC is to
handle both mathematical and business problems. This language was developed
specifically for the time-sharing environment but can also be used as a standard
programming language in batch-processing environment. This language is easy
to understand programming language in batch-processing environment. This
language is easy to understand, but the main problem in BASIC is that most
versions of this language do not support indexed files.
26
1.2.9.3.1.5 PROLOG :
Prolog stands for PROgramming in LOGic. Prolog was developed in France in
1973. Prolog is very popular in Japan where it is adopted as the official
programming language for the fifth generation computers.
As the name suggests, PROLOG lays stress on the usage of logic to solve
problems. PROLOG is basically known as a theorem proving system using a formal
logic technique known as predicate calculus to prove the turth of propositions
from a set of axioms. Programmer avoid the usage of PROLOG because he feels
that it does not offer flexibility.
Prolog is a conventional language. PROLOG wait for us to type in facts and rules
that are related to the program that we want to solve. Then, if we ask the right
type of question, PROLOG would work out and display it on the screen.
So, we can say that the computer programming in PROLOG consists of the
following steps :-
• Declaring some facts about objects and their relationship.
• Defining some rules about objects and relationship.
• Assuming questions about objects and their relationship.
1.2.9.3.1.6 C :
C is the general purpose structured programming language. C is characterised
by the ability to write very concise source programs. The compiler of C is
commonly available for the computers of all sizes. The compilers are usually
compact and they generate object programs that are small and highly efficient
as compared to the programs written in any other language. The programs
written in the C language are highly portable; the program written for one
computer with very few changes can run on other computer. The reason for this
is that C relegates most computer-dependent features to its library functions.
Thus every version of C is accomplished by its own set of library functions.
1.2.9.3.1.7 C++ :
C++ is an object-oriented programming language. As software systems develop
into more powerful instructions, they also become more complex. Every new
release of a word processor, a database or a spreadsheet program is longer than
the previous one and contains more features. This increasing size and
complexity makes it difficult to manage the software development process. As
programmers struggle to deal with this complexity, new ideas emerge. Once
collection of these ideas is based on a philosophy called object-oriented
programming.
There are no standard definitions for the C++ language. At any given time, it
is classified into three states—called traditional C++, Contemporary C++ and
future C++. Traditional C++ is the language as it had existed in released AT&T
versions and which is supported by all the major compilers. Contemporary C++
27
consists of traditional C++ with some new features which are approved by the
committee but implemented by only a few compilers. Future C++ is the language
which is under discussion in the committee with new features that have been
approved but not yet implemented.
1.2.9.3.1.8 JAVA :
Java was developed by James Gosling, the chief programmer of sun Micro
systems. Java is an object-oriented programming language that was developed
after C++. Java was designed to be small, simple and portable across platforms.
James Gosling started a project on controlling consumer electronic devices with

a language C++. After some time, he found that C++ was not suitable for the
project. They faced many problems with the complicated aspects of C++, program
bugs and memory leaks. So Gosling decided to develop a new language that could
overcome these problems.
Java is the most popular because it is used for internet programming.
Previously, only HTML was used for creating web pages. But it is difficult to
depend only upon one language for developing the application as a typical
diversity exists on internet in terms of hardware and software. Servers on
internet have to store multiple copies of the same program that has been
compiled for different hardware and software environments.
Java is the answer to these problems that exist on the internet. In Java, you
can write a single program (called an applet) that is platform independent. Platform-
independent means that the program can be used at any platform with any
operating system. The applet can be executed on internet. Java is an object oriented-
language just like C++ but it has some difference as compared to C++.
In Java, the following features are prominent :-
• No pointers.
• No multiple inheritance.
• No goto.
1.2.10 Translation from HLL to machine language :
We know that a computer can understand only machine language. So, it is
necessary to convert the entire program written in the HLL into machine
language. This can be done with the help of language processors. Some of the
language processors are as follow :-
2.10.1 Interpreter
2.10.2 Compiler
28
Compiler Interpreter
(a) Scans the entire program first and (a) Translates the program line by
translated it into machine code. line.
(b) Converts the entire program to (b) Each time of program is executed,
machine code; when all the syntax every line is checked for syntax
errors are removed, execution take error and then converted to
place. equivalent machine code.
(c) Slow for debugging (removal of (c) Good for debugging.
mistakes from a program).
(d) Execution time is less. (d) Execution time is more.
29
1.2.11 Loader
A loader is responsible for loading, linking and relocation. The basic functions
of the loader are as follow :
• To assign a load time storage area to a program ------- storage
allocation.
• Making a program to execute properly from its load time storagearea-
--- Program relocation.
• Keeping the program into assigned memory are ---- loading.
• Linking of programs with or another ---- linking.
Types of loader :
(a) Absolute loader
(b) Bootstrap loader
(c) Relocatable loader
1.2.12 Linker :
Linker is a program that does the individual program modules so that they could
communicate with each other. All the high level language are using some in-
built functions like calculating square root, sine, Cos etc. The program does not
code these functions but the standard library provides these functions. During
the process of execution, this higher-level language program should be co-
resident in the main memory along with the programs for these functions.
Whenever the HLL program invokes these functions, the control gets transferred
to the appropriate program. The linking function make the addresses of these
program know to each other so that such control transfer could be affected
during execution.
Types of linker :-
(i) Linking Loader
(ii) Linkage Editor
(iii) ) Dynamic Linker
1.2.13 Keywords :
(1) Bus :- Bus is a parallel combination of the electrical wires which
make the path between the components of computer to carry the electrical
signals. It may be data bus, address bus, control bus combining all these buses
is system bus.
(2) Loader :- Loader is a program which perform processing of program
in order to convert it to ready to run program in machine language.
(3) Interpreter :- A system software or set of programs which translate
high level language program into machine language program line by line.
30
(4) Assembler :- A special set of program or system software for
converting source language statements of low level language into equivalent
machine code statements.
Assembly Langauge Assembler Object program
1.2.14 Summary :
All the data and results are stored in memory unit. The memory unit
comprises of million of cells each capable of storing a unit of information.
Computer cannot do any thing by themselves to make a computer what we
want, you have to give it very precise set of instructions or program to
communicate with computer. For the computer to understand our programs
these must be written in programming language. Each computer language has
its own set of rules and grammer that must be followed. These are two levels of
programming
language :-
(1) Low level languages
(2) High level languages
1. Distinguish between RAM & ROM ?
2. Distinguish between Primary and Secondary memory ?
3. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of low level language ?
4. What is difference between compiler and interpreter?
5. What is difference between loader and linker?

1. What do you mean by memory? Explain different types of memories
available.
2. Explain various secondary storage devices in detail.
3. What is programming language? Discuss different types of programming
languages.
1. Computer fundamentals by Pradeep K. Sinha BPB Publications, New
Delhi.
2. Introduction to Information Technology by V. Rajaraman, PHI, New
Delhi.
31
LESSON NO. 1.3 AUTHOR: Mr. Arun Sharma

Number System and Its conversion
1.3.1 Objectives
1.3.2 Introduction
1.3.2.1 Decimal Number System
1.3.2.2 Binary Number System
1.3.2.3 Octal Number System
1.3.2.4 Hexadecimal number System
1.3.3 Conversion of a Binary Number to Decimal Number
1.3.3.1 Conversion of a Decimal Number to a Binary Number
1.3.3.2 Addition to Binary Numbers
1.3.3.3 Binary Subtraction
1.3.4 Conversion of Binary Fraction to a Decimal Fraction
1.3.4.1 Conversion of a Decimal Fraction to a Binary Fraction
1.3.4.2 Binary Coded Decimal
1.3.5 Summary
1.3.6 Keywords
1.3.1 Objectives
The lesson provides one with fundamentals of Binary number systems and
Decimal number system. Students should also be familiar that How to convert
decimal to binary systems and binary to decimal system.
1.3.2 Introduction
We are familiar with the decimal number system which is used in our day-today
work. In the decimal number system there are ten digits which are, used to
form decimal numbers. Ten separate symbols 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 are
used to represent ten decimal digits. A digital computer stores, understands and
manipulates information composed of only zeros and ones. A programmer (or
user) who works on a computer is allowed to use decimal digits; letters A, B,
C,...Z, a, b, c,........z., usual special symbols, +, -, etc. for his convenience. The
decimal digits, letters & symbols, etc. are converted to binary codes in the form
of Os and Is within the computer.
1.3.2.1 Decimal Number System
As the ten fingers of our hands are the most convenient tools nature has given,
32
human beings have always used them in counting. So the decimal number
system followed naturally from their use: The base or radix of a number system
is defined as the number of digits it uses to represent numbers in the system.
Since the decimal number system uses ten digits, from 0 to 9, its base of radix
is 10. The decimal number system is also called base-10 number system. The
weight of each digit of a decimal number depends on its relative position within
the number. This is explained by the following example.
Example : Take the decimal number 6498 as an example to explain the
weight of each digit of the number.
6498 = 6000 + 400 +90 + 8
= 6 × 103 + 4 × 102 + 9 × 101 + 8 × 100
The weight of each digit of a decimal number depends on its relative
position within the number as explained below :
The weight of the 1st digit of the number from the right hand side - 1st
digit × 100.
The weight of the 2nd digit of the number from the right hand side = 2nd
digit × 101.
The weight of the 3rd digit of the number from the right hand side = 3rd
digit × 102.
The weight of the 4th digit of the number from the right hand side = 4th
digit × 103.
The above expressions can be written in general form as follows :
The weight of the nth digit of the number from the right hand side
= nth digit × 10 n-1
= nth digit × (Base) n-1
The number system in which the weight of each digit depends on its relative
position within the number is called positional number system. The above form
of general expression is true only for positional number system.
It is India that gave this positional method of expressing any number using ten
symbols, each symbol receiving a value of position as well as an absolute value.
It was a proudful and important area. Its merit has been appreciated by a
famous mathematician Marquis de Laplace.
1.3.2.2 Binary Number (Or Base-2) System
The base (or radix) of the binary number system is 2. It uses only two digits, 0
and 1. In short binary digit is called a bit. The storing or computing electronic
elements of a computer have only two stable states. The output of such an
element at any time is either HIGH (1 volts) or LOW (0 volt). These are the only
two stable states. There is no other stable state. These stable states can be
represented by 1 and 0 respectively, that is HIGH is represented by 1 and LOW
by 0. Due to this very limitation a computer can understand information
33
composed of only os and Is. So all computers perform their internal operations
and manipulations on binary digits. For the convenience of the users
(programmers) they are allowed to use data and other information in form of
decimal digits, usual alphabets and special symbols. This information is
converted to binary codes within the computer as the computer operates on
binary bits. Thus we see that the knowledge of the binary number system is
needed for those who want to understand the operating principle of a computer.
It is not required by those who have to simply use a computer for their work.
In the decimal number system there is no difficulty in representing numbers
upto 9. But there is no symbol or digit to represent ten and therefore, it is
represented by 10. It is simply a positional technique. Again, after 99 we have
to represent hundred and utilizing positional technique it is written as 100. In
the binary number system zero is represented by 0 and one by 1. There is no
digit in binary number system to represent two. Therefore, using positional
technique it is written as 10. Three is written as 11. Again four is represented
by 100. In-this way utilizing positional technique we proceed further. Thus it is
seen that, a binary number becomes very long and cumbersome. The weight of
each binary bit of a binary number depends on its relative position within the
number. It has been explained by the following example.
Example. Take the binary number I101 as an example to explain the
weight of each bit of the number.
1101 (Binary Number) = 1 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20
= 8+4+0+1 = 13 (Decimal Number)
The weight of each bit of a binary number depends on its relative position
within the number as explained below :-
The weight of the 1st bit of the binary number from the right hand side
= 1st bit × 20.
The weight of the 2nd bit of the number from the right hand side = 2nd
bit × 21.
The weight of the 3rd bit of the number from the right hand side = 3rd
bit × 22.
The weight of the 4th bit of the number from the right hand side = 4th
bit × 23.
The above expressions can be written in the form of a general expression
given below.
The weight of the nth bit of the number from the right hand side.
= nth bit × 2n-1
= nth bit × (Base)n-1
It is seen that this rule for a binary number - is same as that for a decimal
number. The above rule holds good for any other positional number system. The
34
weight of a digit in any positional number system depends on its relative

position within the number and the base of the number system. Table 3.1 shows
binary equivalent of decimal numbers.
Table 1.3.1 Binary Equivalent of Decimal Numbers
Decimal Binary Decimal Binary
Number Equivalent Number Equivalent
0 0 11 1011
1 1 12 1100
2 10 13 1101
3 11 14 1110
4 100 15 1111
5 101 16 10000
6 110 31 11111
7 111 32 100000
8 1000 63 111111
9 1001 64 1000000
10 1010 128 10000000
1.3.2.3 Octal Number System
Although this was once a popular number base, expecially in the Digital
Equipment Corporation PDP/8 and other old computer systems. It is rarely used
today. The Octal system is based on the binary system with a-3 bit boundary.
The Octal Number System:
Uses base 8
includes only the digits 0 through 7 (any other digit would make the number
an invalid octal number)
Octal representation for the decimal numbers ranging from 0 to 7
35
Octal Digit Binary Digit

0 000
1 001
2 010
3 011
4 100
5 101
6 110
7 111
Table : Octal and Binary Numbers

Binary to Octal conversion
Converting binary to octal is also a simple process. Break the binary digits into groups
of three starting from the binary point and convert each group into its appropriate
octal digit.
Example :
Coverting (010111)2 to Octal
111 = 7 (LSB)
010 = 2 (MSB)
thus, (010111)2 = (27)8
Octal to decimal conversion

To express the value of a given octal no as its decimal equivalent we just need to sum
the digits after each has been multiplied by its associated weight.
36
Example :
Converting (756)8 to decimal
(756)8 ( )10
7×82 + 5×81 + 6×80

448 + 40 + 6
= 494
1.3.2.4 Hexadecimal Number System
The Hexadecimal system is based on the binary system using a Nibble or 4-bit
boundary. In Assembly Language programming, most assemblers require the first
digit of a hexadecimal number to be 0, and we place an H at the end of the number to
denote the number base.
The Hexadecimal Number System:
uses base 16
includes only the digits 0 through 9 and the letters A, B, C, D, E and F
Table below lists the equivalent demimal, binary and hexadecimal representations
for the decimal numbers ranging from 0 to 15.
Decimal Binary Hexadecimal
0 0000 0
1 0001 1
2 0010 2
3 0011 3
4 0100 4
5 0101 5
6 0110 6
7 0111 7
8 1000 8
9 1001 9
10 1010 A
11 1011 B
12 1100 C
13 1101 D
14 1110 E
15 1111 F
Table : Number Systems Equivalency Table
37
Note that each hexadecimal number may be represented as a 4 digit binary number
Hexadecimal to Decimal/Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion
Example :
2AF16 = 2 × (162) + 10 × (161) + 15 × (160) = 68710
Repeat Divison-Convert decimal to

hexadecimal This method uses repeated
division by 16.
Example: convert 37810 to hexadecimal and binary:
Division Result Hexadecimal

378/16 =23+remainder of 10 A (Least Significant Bit)23
23/16 =1+remainder of 7 7
1/16 =0+remainder of 1 1 (Most Significant Bit)
Result 37810 = 17A16
Binary = 0001 0111 10102
Octal-To-Hexadecimal Hexadecimal-To-Ocatl Conversion

Convert Octal (Hexadecimal) to Binary first
Regroup the binary number by three bits per group starting from LSB if Oc
required.
Regroup the binary number by four bits per group starting from LSB if
Hexa required
Example:
Convert 5A816 to Octal
Hexadecimal Binary/Octal
5A816 = 0101 1010 1000 (Binary)
= 010 110 101 000 (Binary)
Result = 2 6 5 0 (Octal)
1.3.3 Conversion of a Binary Number to Decimal Number
To convert a binary number to its decimal equivalent we use the
following expression :
The, weight of the nth bit of the number from the right hand side = nth
bit × 2n-1.
First we mark the bit position and then we give the weight of each
bit of the number depending on its position. The sum of the weights of all bits
gives the equivalent number. The following example illustrates the Process.
Self check Exercise-1

Q1. Convert the binary number 10 to its decimal equivalent.
Ans…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
38
Ans…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Ans…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
1.3.3.1 Conversion of a Decimal Number to a Binary Number

In a decimal number the 1st position from the right hand side is for Is, 2nd for
10s, 3rd for 100s, 4th for 1000s and so on. Similarly, in a binary number the 1st
position from right hand side is for 1, 2nd for 2, 3rd for 4, 4th for 8, 5th for 16
and so on. This fact is utilized for the conversion of a binary decimal
number to its decimal equivalent. A method is to be developed to determine
which multiples of 2 are present in a given decimal number. For example, the
decimal number 13 is equal to (8+4+1). In other words it has one 8, one 4 and
a 1. It does not have any 2. Therefore, its binary equivalent is 1101. Based on
this concept, for the conversion of a decimal number to binary number, the decimal
number is divided by 2 successively. The quotient and remainder are noted
down at each stage. The quotient of one state is divided by 2 at the next stage.
The process is repeated until the quotient becomes zero. The binary number
equivalent to the decimal number is given by the following expression.
Binary Number - Rk Rk-1 Rk-2..............R3 R2 R1
Where R1 R2 Rk are the remainders at 1st, 2nd.......and 3rd stage
respectively.
Q4. Convert the decimal number 41 to its binary equivalent.
Ans………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Q5. Convert the decimal number 73 to binary.
Ans………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Q6. Convert the decimal number 153 to binary.
Ans………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
1.3.3.2 Addition to Binary Numbers

In the binary number system 1+0=1. When 1 is added to 1, the sum is 0
39
with a carry 1. If the sum is written upto 2 bits, it is equal to 10 (2 decimal).
The Table shows the rules for binary addition.
Table Binary Addition
A B A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0 with carry 1 (10)
When I is added to 1, the sum is 0 with a carry 1. This-carry is added to the
sum, of the adjacent bits.
Example-1
1001 (9 decimal number)
+ 0101 (5 decimal number)
——————————––––––––––
40
Example-2
+ 0011 (3 decimal number)
——————————––––––––––
Example-3
+1101 (13 decimal number)
——————————––––––––––
- Carry
1.3.3.3 Binary Subtraction
Example 1 Borrow 
-0101 (-5 decimal number)
——————————––––––––––
Example-2
——————————––––––––––
Example 3
——————————––––––––––
Example 4
——————————––––––––––
In the above examples smaller number has been subtracted from a larger
number. Let us see what happens if a larger number is subtracted from a
smaller number.
41
Example 1
Borrow

–––—————————––––––––––
1110 (-2 decimal number)
The result is not a simple representation of -2 i.e. -0010. The result is the 2’s
complement of 2. This will be explained in the next section.
Example 2
Borrow

–––—————————––––––––––
1111 (-1 decimal number)
The result is 2’s complement of 1.
1.3.4 Conversion of Binary Fraction to a Decimal Fraction
In the decimal number system the weights of the digits, which come after the
decimal point, are represented as :
0.635=06+0.03+0.005
= 6 × 1/10 + 3 × 1/100 + 5 × 1/1000
= 6 × 10-1 + 3 × 10-2 + 5 × 10-3
Similarly, in the binary number system the weights of the binary bits which
come after the binary point, can be expressed as -
01101 = 1 × 2-1 + 1 × 2-2 + 1 × 2-3 + 1 × 2-4
= 1 × ½ + 1 × ¼ + 0 × 1
8 + 1 × 1
16
= 0.5+0.25+0+0.625
= 0.8125 (decimal)
1.3.4.1 Conversion of a Decimal Fraction to a Binary Fraction
To convert a decimal fraction to its binary equivalent a technique of successive
multiplication by 2 is used. The integer Part is noted down after the
multiplication by 2 at each stage and the remainder new fraction is used for the
multiplication by 2 at the next stage. The following example will illustrate the
procedure.
42
Self Check Exercise-III
Q7. Convert the decimal fraction 0.8125 to an equivalent binaryfraction.
Ans……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Q8. Convert the decimal fraction 0.635 to its binary equivalent.
Ans……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Q9. Convert the decimal real number 12.625 to an equivalent binary real number.
Ans……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
1.3.4.2 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD Codes)

The BCD is the simplest binary code to represent a decimal number. In BCD
code a decimal number is represented by four binary bits. For example, 3 is
represented by 0011. If a decimal number consists of two or more than two
digits, each decimal digit is individually represented by its 4-bit binary
equivalent. For example, 56 is represented by 01010110.
Numbers are usually represented by some sort of binary codes. There is a
difference between a binary equivalent of a decimal number and the binary
code of a decimal number. For example, the binary equivalent of the decimal
number
43 is 101011, but it is represented in BCD code as 01000011.
Table 3.2 shows the standard BCD codes for one-digit and two-digit decimal
numbers.
Table 1.3.2 Standard BCD Codes
Decimal Number Standard BCD Code
0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001
In the standard BCD code the weights of four binary bits which represent an
individual digit is 8, 4, 2, 1. At present modern computers perform subtraction
using complements. There is difficulty in forming complements when
numbers are represented by standard BCD. For example, the I's complement of
43
0010 (2 decimal) is 1101 (13 decimal) which is not an acceptable BCD code
in this system. To overcome this difficulty other BCD codes such as Excess-3
code; 2, 4, 2, 1 code etc. have been used in earlier computers. In excess-3
code 3 is added to the individual digit of a decimal number, then their binary
equivalents are written. For example, 5 (decimal) = 1000 (8 decimal) in excess-3
code. 253 (decimal) in excess-3 code will be 0101 100 0110. The draw back of
this code is that it is not a weighted code that is the sum of weights of binary
bits is not equal to the corresponding decimal digit.
Another BCD code is 2, 4, 2, 1 code. It is a weighted code and it has
complements. For example, 5 is 0101, 9=1111, 7=1101.
BCD codes are used where the decimal information is directly (in coded form)
transferred into or out of a-digital system. Electronic calculators, digital
voltmeters, frequency counters, electronic counters, digital clocks etc. work with
BCD numbers. BCD codes have also been used in early computers. Modern
computers do not use BCD numbers as they have to process name and other non-
numeric data.
In addition to difficulty in forming Complements for binary subtraction there
is also difficulty in performing addition in standard BCD. If the result lies in
the range 10 to 15 or if there is carry from the 4th bit of any BCD digit, a
collection of +6 has to be made to obtain the correct result. This will be clear
from the following example.
1.3.5 Summary
Computer understands information composed of only zero and ones. Therefore
instructions and data are fed to the computer in the form of 0’s and I’s. The
decimal number is convenient for the programmer. The computer uses binary
digit for its operation. The programmer feeds instructions and data in
mnemonics and decimal digits, but for the operation of computer these are
converted into binary bits.
1.3.6 Keywords
Binary coded, complemented number, BCD codes.
1.3.7 Short Answer Type Questions
1. What is decimal number system?
2. What is binary number system?
3. What is octal number system?
4. What is hexadecimal number system?
1.3.8 Long Answer Type Questions

1. Define decimal number system. Explain conversion of a decimal number system to
other number systems by giving suitable examples.
2. Discuss binary number system. Explain conversion of a binary number system to
other number systems with the help of examples.
(1) Computer Fundamentals by Pradeep K. Sinha, BPB publicatios, New
Delhi.
(2) Introduction to Information Technology by V. Rajaraman, PHI, New
Delhi.
44

Introduction to Operating System
1.4.1 Objective
1.4.2 Introduction
1.4.3 What is Operating System ?
1.4.4 Popular Operating Systems for PCs
1.4.5 Operating System as a resource manager
1.4.6 Functions of Operating System
1.4.6.1 Memory Management
1.4.6.2 Process Management
1.4.6.3 Device Management
1.4.6.4 Information Management
1.4.7 Types of Operating Systems
1.4.7.1 Single User
1.4.7.2 Batch Processing
1.4.7.3 Multi Programming
1.4.7.4 Multi Processing
1.4.7.5 Time Sharing
1.4.7.6 Real time
1.4.7.7 Parallel Processing
1.4.8 Keyword
1.4.9 Summary
1.4.1 Objective
The lesson provides one with an operating system and different types of
Operating System and their working in details.
1.4.2 Introduction
An operating system is a system software that may be viewed as an organised
collection of software consisting of procedures for operating a computer and
providing an environment for execution of programs. It is a class of programs
that manages the resources of the computer, processes commands and controls
program execution. As the foundation of all computer operations, it is the
program executed the most on the computer.
45
There are many important reasons for studying the operating systems. Some of
them are :-
• User interacts with the computer through an operating system in
order to accomplish his task as it is his primary interface with a
computer.
• It helps the user to understand the inner function of a computer
very closely.
• Many concepts and techniques found in an operating system have
general applicability in other applications.
An operating system can be a single-user OS, a multi-user OS or a multi-
tasking OS.
A single user OS caters to a single user and all the resources are available to
this user at all times. Microsoft's Disk Operating System (MS-DOS) is one such
OS.
A multi user OS is one that supports several user at a time. Most operating
system for minicomputers and mainframe computers are multi-user operating
systems, Unix and Xenix are the popular multiuser operating systems.
1.4.3 What is an operating system ?
An operating system is an essential component of a computer. The primary
objectives of an operating system is to make computer system convenient to use
and utilise computer hardware in an efficient manner.
An operating system is a large collection of software that manages resources of
the computer system such as memory, processor. File system and input/output
devices. It keeps track of the status of each resource and decided who would
have a control over computer resources, for how long and when the positioning
of operating system in the computers system.
1.4.4 Popular Operating Systems for PCs
PCs constitute over 90% of the total world population of computers and this
proportion is growing. It would therefore, be useful to understand the
characteristics of some of the more popular operating systems in use in PCs
which in a way lend personality to individual makes/models of PCs. These
operating systems are as follows :-
• CP/M
• UNIX (and its look alike)
• OS/2.
• MS-DOS
• Windows
46
An operating system plays a role something like that of a symphony conductor.

Q1. Define OS.
Ans……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Q2. Name some of the popular operating systems.
Ans……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
1.4.5 Operating system as a resource manager
The operating system manages the different resources like processors, main
storage and input/output device and files. It acts as the interface between
different resources and resolves the conflicts between the resources, make
effective usage of the system. As a resource manager operating system performs
the following activities.
• Monitoring the different resources.
• Decide which resource gets what, when and for how much time.
• Allocate the resources.
• Reclaim the resources.
1.4.6 Functions of Operating System
Following are the functions of operating systems :
1. Memory Management
2. Processor Management
3. Device Management
4. Information Management
1.4.6.1 Memory Management :
The memory management component of operating system is concerned mainly
with the primary memory or main memory. The operating system does the
following functions to manage the primary memory :-
• Keep trace of the status of each memory location. Whether it is
allocated or free.
• Select the allocation policy for the memory.
• Select the allocation technique of determine the specific locations
to be allocated and to update the allocation information.
• Handle the delocalisation of memory.
The different types of policies and techniques for memory management are as
follows:
Single contiguous allocation
The technique is simplest among all the allocation techniques. As the name
suggest in the policy, the memory is allocated to the single job. This scheme
requires no special hardware devices and is usually associated with small and stand-
47
alone computers with simple batch OS.
Partitioned allocation
In a single job, the main memory is available to single job. But if it is allowed
to have more than one job in the main memory at one time, the system can
utilise all the resources in efficient manner but by increasing the complexity of the
operating system. This technique of allowing more than one job to reside in the
main memory is called Multiprogramming. The number of jobs reside in the memory is
called the Degree of multiprogramming.
This technique is the simplest for supporting multiprogramming. In this
technique, the main memory is partitioned into different memory regions and
each memory region can hold different jobs. The partitioned allocation needs
very little hardware support.
In static partition specification, the memory is divided into partitions prior to
the processing of any jobs. The computer operator may specify the partition
specification or it may be built into the operating system.
Size Location Status
32 K 300 K In use
16 K 332 K Not in use
32 K 348 K In use
32 K 380 K Not in use
64 K 412 K In use
The first entry gives the size of partition and the next entry gives the starting
location of each partition. The last entry gives the status of each partition.
The block of instructions and data occupying partitions at any time are
generally of different lengths. As the content of partitions are changed
unoccupied regions or hole of various sizes tend to appear between successive
blocks. This process is known as FRAGMENTATION.
Compaction :
There are many problems that arise due to fragmentation. To overcome this
problem, all the free areas have to be periodically combined into one contiguous
area. This process is called Compaction.
1.4.6.2 Process Management :
The operating system must keep a track of the states of each resources to
different processes based on certain policy, decide how long these processes
would be utilising these resources and finally, de-allocate it. In this section, we
shall have detailed discussion on processor management issues of the operating
system only.
Processor management is concerned with the management of physical processor
i.e. the allocation of processors to a processor. The notion of a process is central
to the understanding of operating system's functioning. Everything is centred
around this concept and it is very important to understand this concept right
48
from the beginning.
A process is basically a program while it is being executed. A process is a
running program with some specific tasks to do. In a multi-user environment,
in which several processes share the processor, sometime it is required to
interrupt the running process and load another process. When the process is
temporarily suspended, information about it is stored in a memory location so
that its execution could start from the same location from where it was
suspended. In many operating system, the entire set of information about each
process is stored in a process table.
1.4.6.3 Device Management :
The management of the input and output devices like Keyboard, Printer, Disks,
Cards readers and control unit comes under the topic Device Management. The
device management part of operating system manages and utilises these
devices in an efficient manner. The basic functions of device management are
as follow :-
• Using special mechanisms, it has to keep track of the status of all
the devices.
• When requests come, then it has to decide a policy to determine
who gets a device, when and for how long.
• Assigning a device to jobs.
• When the job is over, deallocating the device and changing the
status information.
The module that keeps the track of the status of devices is called I/O Traffic
Controller. All modules associated with the operation of a single device are
called I/O device handlers. All the I/O devices can be classified into any one of
the following three categories :-
(1) Dedicated
(2) Shared
(3) Virtual
A dedicated device is allocated to a single job for the job's entire duration. For
example, consider the output device printer. This device by nature falls in this
category. There may be a situation where several users want to use the printer
at the same time. If it is not dedicated, imagine the output produce by the
printer. Because of this reason the printer is a dedicated device.
The device like disks, drums and other direct access devices are shared
devices. Because these devices can be shared by several jobs at a time. Many
jobs can be read from the disk at a time. These devices are efficient but
complicate to manage. For example, if two jobs request a read from disk, some
mechanism must be employed to determine which request should be handled first.
Some devices can be converted from dedicated devices to the shared device, it
is called spooling. For example, a spooling program can read and copy all card
input on to a disk at high speed. Later when a process tries to read the card
49
reader, the spooling program intercepts the request and convert it to read from
the disk. Here a dedicated device is converted to a shared device, changing card
reader into may “virtual” card readers.
In the modern computers most of the jobs upon the disk for loading and output
files, it is important that disks service be as fast as possible. The OS can
improve on the average disk service time by scheduling the request for the disk
access. There are sufficient algorithms available to achieve the above
requirement. These are :-
• First-come-first served (FCFS)
• Shortest-seek-time-first (SSTF)
• Scan
1.4.6.4 Information Management :
This part of the operating system manages the information. Before going in
detail of the information, let us understand the concepts of a file. File
management aspect of operating system is one that deals with the management
of data and program that reside on the secondary storage device. File is a
collection of related information defined by its user. It is named and referred to
by its name.
The file system is the most visible part of an operating system. For many
computer users, the interface, structure and reliability of the file system largely
determine the convenience and usability of the operating system. Files are
normally organised on the directories for easy access. Therefore, we shall also
look at different directory structures. As files are shared among multiple users.
They must be protected against unauthorised users.
Directories :-
A directory is a file that keeps track of all other files. A single directory can
contain a list of all files in a system. Flat directories are those directories in
which, the root directory contain a list of all files.
Root
Directory
D1 D2 D3
F1 D21 F22 D31 F31
F21
F32 F33
50
The operating system provides convenient procedures for sorting and

accessing the information file or directories. The following are the basic functions
of information management.
• Keep track of all the information in the system like file directory.
• Decide a policy to determine where and how information is
stored and who gets access to the information.
• Once the decision is made to let a process have access to
information, the allocation modules must find the desired
information, make the information accessible to the process
and set a appropriate access rights.
• When information is not needed, release the temporary table
entries and other resources held by that process.
File can be implemented on several devices like disks, tapes and other
secondary storage devices. Basically, we perform four basic operations on the
files. These are as follow :-
(a) Creating a file :- For creating a file firstly, we have to
search for the free space in the file system i.e., on the storage
device. If the space is available, then we make the entry for the
new file. The directory to find the location of the file system and all
other information released to that file.
(b) Writing into a file :- For writing into a file, a system should
know the name of the file and the contents that should be
written into the file. Given the name of the file, the system
searches for the directory to find the location of the file. The
directory should contain a pointer to the current end of the file.
Using this pointer, the address of the next block can be located
and the information can be written.
(c) Reading from the file :- To read the file, we again need the
name of the file from which, the information has to be read. A
request should be made to the system call with the name of
the file and starting address of the main memory where the read
constant should be put in. To achieve this, the directory is
searched for a valid file name. As soon as it finds the name, it
has to get the contents from the secondary storage device and
transfer into the main memory.
(d) Delete a file :- When the command delete is given, the directory is
searched for the named file. If found, release all file space so
that it could be reused by the other files and directory entry could
be deleted.
51
Self Check Exercise-2
Q3. What do you mean by process?

Ans……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………
Q4. Define Directory.
Ans……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………
1.4.7 Types of operating system :

• Single user
• Batch processing
• Multi programming
• Multi processing
• Time sharing
• Real time
• Parallel processing
1.4.7.1 Single user :
Single user operating system is a type of operating system that allow only one
user at a time. The most popular single user OS is MS DOS (Microsoft disk
operating system).
1.4.7.2 Batch processing :
In a batch processing system a computer serves one user at a time. When the
program of one user is completed, then only, another program is started. This
type of system does not allow a user to interact with the computer used in the
1960s, executed programs one by one using this method.
1.4.7.3 Multi-programming :
Multi-programming operating system is an efficient way to improve the system
performance. Multi-programming approach allows more than one job to
utilise the CPU time at any moment. The more the number of programs competing
for system resources, the better would be the resource utilisation.
1.4.7.4 Multi-processing :
In a multi-processing system, two or more independent processors are linked
together in a coordinated system. In such a system, instructions from
different and independent programs can be processed at the same instant in
time by different processors.
1.4.7.5 Time sharing :
Time sharing is a general term used to describe a processing system with a
number of independent, relatively low-speed, on line stations. Each station
provides direct access to the CPU. In a time sharing system, a small amount of
time is allocated for each process for the processing simultaneously. The CPU
52
works for one job for that time slice that is defined in millisecond.
1.4.7.6 Real Time :
Real time processing method is one that controls the environment by
receiving the data, processing them and taking action or returning results
sufficiently quickly to attract the functioning of the environment at the time.
1.4.7.7 Parallel processing :
Light or electromagnetic waves travel 3 cm in 0.1 nano second. The speed of
electrons in electronic devices has a limit set by the speed of light. The
electron speed in modern digital system is reaching its speed limit. Hence,
it is not possible to increase the speed of a computer consisting of a single
processing unit beyond a limit. Therefore, to get higher speed an alternative
approach is to use several processing units to operate in parallel. When several
computations are performed concurrently in a computer. It is known as parallel
processing. A multi-processor system performs.
1.4.8 Keywords
Functions of operating system, Types of operating system.
1.4.9 Summary
An operating system is an integrated set of specialised programs that are
used to manage the resources and over all operations of a computer. The
operating system permits the computer to supervise its own operations, several
OS have been developed over the years.

1. What is multi-programming ?
2. What is real time OS ?
3. Distinguish between single-user and multi-user operating system ?
4. Name some multi-user system ?
5. Define multi-processing ?
6. Give some popular operating system ?
7. What is parallel processing ?
1. What is operating system? What are the various services provided by the operating
system?
2. Explain various types of operating systems in detail.

1 Operating System Concepts by Silberschatz and galvin, John Wiley & Sons Pvt.
Ltd. Singapore.
2. Computer fundamentals by Pradeep K. Sinha, BPB publications, New Delhi.
53

MS-DOS
1.5.1 Objective
1.5.2 Introduction
1.5.4 Multi user Operating System
1.5.5 DOS structure
1.5.5.1 Files
1.5.5.2 Directories
1.5.5.3 Current Directory
1.5.5.4 Drivers
1.5.5.5 Using Path to Specify the location of files
1.5.6 System Files
1.5.7 Batch Files
1.5.8 Configuration SYS files
1.5.9 Booting the system from Floppy Disk and Hard Disk
1.5.9.1 Basics of Booting
1.5.9.2 Booting Computer with Hard Disk
1.5.10 DOS Commands
1.5.11 Summary
1.5.12 Keywords
1.5.1 Objective
The lesson provides one with the introduction of DOS (Disk Operating System)
and how to boot the system and various internal commands of DOS.
1.5.2 Introduction
MS-DOS (microsoft-disk operating system) is also an operating system well for
personnel computer. IBM lanced its first PC in 1980 with MS DOS. DOS acts as
an interpreter, which link the hardware and software.
54
The commands your enter through the key board or mouse are translated by
DOS into signals that computer can understand. The CPU does the processing
and returns the results in the form of signals which are displayed on the
monitor or printed in the languages we understand. The system unit contains
the brain of your PC the CPU, hard disk and so on. But all these are driven by
DOS, which in turn is directed by commands, you type in at the key board.
There are certain functions which DOS does automatically, there are others
which you can get DOS to do for you.
Today widely used operating systems are :-
1.5.3.1 Single user operating system
Single user operating system allows only one job or user to use the CPU
at a time. The chie f drawback of executing only one job at a time is that the
processor and I/O devices are idle for a large percentage of time and execution
is strictly sequential. Example DOS operating system.
55
1.5.3.2 CP/M (Control program for micro processor)

The operating system was developed by digital research corporation of USA in
early 1970's for 8 Bit PC systems, but soon it lost its popularity in 1980’s with
the introduction of MS DOS operating system.
1.5.3.3 MS DOS (Microsoft disk operating system)
It is actually modified version of CP/M to run on IBM's 16 pc. It is a single user
operating system and at present all the micro computers manufactures use MS
DOS operating system.
1.5.3.4 UNIX
It is the operating system used in 32 bit micro and mini computers.
1.5.4 Multi user Operating System
As clear by the name these are the operating systems in which more than one
user can work at a time. Multi means more persons are using a single CPU at
a particular time.
Multi user operating system is introduced to keep the processor and I/o devices
busy as much as possible by allowing more than one job or user to the CPU at
the time, For example, UNIX<XENIX<LMS etc.
Q1. What is OS?
Ans………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Q2. Name various types of OS
Ans………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
1.5.5 DOS structure

This topic introduces the commands you will most often use to find more
information. It also introduces some important terms—file, directory and drive
that you need to understand to use MS DOS effectively. This section provides
more information about these terms and explain how MS DOS organises
information.
1.5.5.1 Files
A file is the primary unit of storage on the computer. A file enables MS DOS to
distinguish one collection of information from another. For example, when you
use a word-processing to write a letter, you store the letter in your own file.
Every file has a name, which generally indicate what type of information the file
contains.
Like the files you create, each file in your DOS directory has a name that
reflects the contents of the file. Before long, there will be hundred or even
thousands of files on your computer. This can make it difficult to locate specific files-
just as it would be difficult to find a particular knife if stored all the items in
your kitchen in one large box.
1.5.5.2 Directories
A directory is nothing but named section of storage area of the disk (Hard or
Floppy disk), which is used for storing files.
56
Storing groups of files in different directories makes the file easier to find. For
example all the files that come without MS DOS are stored in a single directory
that is usually named DOS. If you ever need to locate an MS DOS file,
you know where to look. For example if you use your computer to store files that
contains STUDENT<DIRECTORY. You might want to create a directory called.
STUDENT : So these files will be easier to find.
1.5.5.3 Current Directory
Directories would be hard to use if you did know which one you were in. How
you might ask, can you be “in directory”? MS DOS indicate which directory you
are in by displaying the directory name in the command prompt. For example,
the following prompt indicates that you are in the DOS DIRECTORY.
C:\DOS>
The following command prompt indicates that you are in the students directory.
C:\STUDENT>
The directory you are in is called current directory. Knowing which directory is
current helps you find files and help you move from one directory to another
directory more easily.
Sub Directories
Directories can contain other directories. A directory within another directory is
57
called a sub directory. By creating sub directory, you can better categorise your
files, for example suppose you have 3 files in your student. If you are looking
for a particular file and cannot remember the name, you would search all
through the name of 3 files. You can avoid this problem by creating sub
directory in the student directory and storing the files in the appropriate sub
directory. For example you could create sub directories called Ist year, IInd year,
IIIrd year. Each of which might contain about 60 files.
The Root Directories
Strictly speaking all directories are sub directories, except for one, which is
called the root directory. In this guide the term sub directory is used only to
emphasize the relationship between two directories. The root directory is the
starting point from which all other directories branch out. The root directory
does not have a name. Instead, it is represented by a back slash (\) when the
root directory is the current directory, the command prompt appears similar to
the following :
C:\>
The prompt indicates that you are in the root directory of drive C.
1.5.5.4 Drivers
Just as a directory is a group of a files, a drive, which is always represented by
a drive letter, is a group of directories. The drivers are usually associated with
a peace of hardware called a disk.
The first floppy disk is drive A. The second floppy disk drive, if you have one is
the B drive. The hard disk or at least part of it is called C drive.
If there is compact (CD-ROM) discs or a network, it have additional drive letter (D,
E, and so on). Every drive, no matter what type it is, has one root directory.
1.5.5.5 Using Path to Specify the Location of Files
A path is the course that leads from the root directory of a drive to file you want
to use, for example, suppose the drive C has the following directory structure.
58
To access the result file in the IInd year directory, MS DOS must go to from root
directory through the students directory to IInd year directory, as shown in the
illustration.
To specify the same path the command prompt, you would type it as shown in
the following illustrations :
This is the path of the result file the first letter and colon (C:) represent
the drive the file is on. The first back slash (\) represents the root directory.
The second back slash separates the student directory from the sub directory
from the file name. The third back slash separates IInd year sub directory from
the file name result. This path is called a full path because it contains all the
available information about the location of the result file.
MS DOS recognize path upto 67 characters long (including the driver
letter colon & back slash). To delete the result file by specifying the full path,
you would type the following at the command prompt :-
1.5.6 System Files
System files are the first files to be executed. There are three system files.
59
(a) I/O SYSTEM (b) MS DOS SYSTEM (c) COMMAND>COM
(a) I/O System
This will occupy the area in the memory just above the data area. And MS DOS
System will be loaded above it. I/O system, contains device drivers which
control your console disk and printer ports.
(b) MS DOS System
This is the MS DOS system which is the actual DOS. It is known as KERNEL.
This file understands directories, files, memory etc. Now the Dos is loaded the
config. System file is searched for.
(c) Command. Com
The command. com file is loaded by default previous set. This file is not, as is
commonly held, the DOS file is merely a shell through which we can talk to
DOS. Infact it is a dispensable and can exchange for any of the other shells in
the market.
1.5.7 Batch Files
Assuming that you mostly work in word star on a large document called Vikas
and the file is in the \WS\Reports directory. Each time you want to work on it,
you will have to type \WS\WS\Report\Vikas. To start the program and go
directly to that file.
You can also use DOS to do typing of any sequence of commands.
You need to type the command only once, then save them as a file you are
ready for DOS too type the command just enter the name of file.
This type of file is called Batch file.
1.5.7.1 Uses of Batch files
Batch file can be created for any command or sequence of commands. Following
are the three most useful applications.
(1) Starting a Program
The previous illustration showed to go directly into a word star file that located
in sub directory. To save some typing, you can put the command in a simple
batch file called WS/BAT. Then to execute the command, just type WS1 and DOS
will start Word star & retrieve the file.
(2) Time Saver
If you use certain commands frequently, you can automate them with Batch
files. For example if you routinely copy all your correspondence files to diskette
in drive A. You can put the command copy C:/WS/Letter/*.* A: in a batch file
called CL.Bat. When ever you want to copy those files, you simply type CL.
60
1.5.7.2 Initial Settings

When you boot your system, it does not remember anything from you last work
session. So if you want your prompt, path and other setting to be the way they
were yesterday, you have to enter them all over again. But by putting these
commands in a special batch file that is called AUTOEXEC.BAT, DOS. will
automatically enter these commands for you during booting up.
1.5.7.3 Creating simple batch files
The quick way to create a batch file is to use a variation of the copy command.
Here, you tell Dos to copy the key strokes you type on the keyboard into a file.
To create a batch file, you must give the file a BAT extension. The command
create a file is copy CON, foiled by the file name.
The following examples illustrate how to create batch files.
A batch file for starting a program
Create a batch file that starts word star and bring up a particular file. Here the
file will be Vikas (located in the WS \ Report \ sub directory \) start in the root
directory.
C:\>COPY CON WSI.BAT. Press the cursor will now appear in the next
line. You can now enter the command needed to start word star and load the
file. When you are finished, press F6 to indicate the end of the file and then
enter to bring back the DOS prompt.
So, type the following command :-
WS/WS REPORT/VIKAS. & then press F6 the batch file is now complete. You can
test it by going to any directory and typing WS1. Keep in mind that you create
this executable file in the root directory.
1.5.8 Configuration SYS files
When you start your computer, DOS carries out certain command which
configurate your hardware and reserve space in memory for information
processing. The file which contains these commands is called CONFIG.SYS. This
file helps in enhancing the PC's performance. The, command in your
CONFIG.SYS. Determine how your hardware should work.
Now create the CONFIG.SYS, file, go to the root directory and type the
following :
C:\>COPY CON CONFIG.SYS
FILES=30
BUFFERS=20
^Z
The first line, It is for creating a file named CONFIG.SYS.
In the second line, we specify the maximum number of files that can be
61
opened at a time. Here we specified 30. This number can be increased or

decreased, but this is the optimum setting. If the number of files are less
then it may create a problem during the execution of an application where
large files are handled e.g. windows.
The third line specify how much memory DOS reserve for transferring
information to and from the disks.
In order to improve efficiency of the system enough number of buffers are
specified in the config. sys file. Buffer means that the enough memory is
allocated for performing the operation successfully. The minimum buffer and
maximum buffer which can be given in CONFIG.SYS file are 1 to 99.
“Dos+Z is pressed to end the file creation. To execute CONFIG SYS,
Reboot the System.

Q3. What do you mean by Current Directory?
Ans………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Q4. What are Batch Files?
Ans………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
1.5.9 Booting the system from Floppy Disk & Hard Disk
Booting means starting of the machine or making it ready for the operations
to be performed. Every time we switch on a computer the system software
loaded in the primary memory of the machine with the peripheral recognition and
in utilization process programs.
1.5.9.1 Basics of Booting
You can get your system started by running on the switch the monitor and the
system unit.
(1) Booting System from Floppy Disk
When the power is switched on some running digits on the left corner of the
screen appears. The final number on the screen indicates the amount of
Random Access Memory present in our computer. In which each & every byte of
which is checked. Look at the screen where you first switch on and you will
see it counting up this memory in kilobytes (KB). Once the memory check is
complete, the PC tests its major components. Some machines display
information on their screens as each component is checked others report only
errors.
If a problem occurs with any of these component, the machine displays
massage on screen beeps twice and normal will continue until the problem
has been fixed. If your PC is working correctly, once it has finished its memory count
and component check, it beeps once to let you know that all is well.
INSERT SYSTEM DISK in Drive A. The system disk is the disk containing the
operating system i.e. the computer is asking for Operating System Disk.
The process upto this point is called post. (Power on Self Test). It means that
62
upto this point the system checks for its component before it starts our work.
This is for PC. We insert the system Disk and press enter Key. The drive light
goes on and we get the following display on the screen. Current data is...................
Enter new Date (mm;dd;yy) then enter. If we want to change the date we
typeit and press enter or only press enter to by pass the Command.
Next we get Similar display for Time.
Current Time is............
Enter New time (hh;mm;ss)
We follow the same procedure as described in the previous step and
getA:>
The process of loading the MS-DOS from floppy disk is called Booting from A
and the prompt in this case would appear as follow
A:\>
It may sometimes happen that your system is unable to start or boot, as it
is not able to load the DOS from the hard disk. In that case you can use a
floppy disk containing DOS Files to boot the system. Insert the floppy in the
A Drive and then switch on the computer.
The process till we get A> is termed as Booting process, A> is called DOS
Prompt. It is an indicator to the user that he can enter data to computer or
it can load any on paper Software.
The booting process described above is known as hard or cold booting.
Booting can also be done by pressing together Ctrl+Alt+Del Keys. However this
can be done only when the computer is on. This type of booting is called soft or
warm booting. This is usually done to come out of hung state, means when
some program gets hung and computer stops responding.
If the hard disk is installed DOS Prompt is Letter C. The Letter A or C identifies
which is the default Drive. The default drive is the drive that DOS assumes to
contain diskette or files specified by the commands. The default drive can be
changed from A to B in case of double drive system by entering the following :
A>B: then enter.
DOS then
displaysB>
When B is the default drive in B when file is specified without drive
identifier. The drive identifier consist of the drive letter and a colon proceeding
the file name.
1.5.9.2 Booting Computer with Hard Disk
(1) Turn on the power on/off switch is usually located on the right
hand side of the main processing unit.
(2) If monitor has an on/off switch, turn on that switch too. Do not
put any diskette in drive A. Wait for some time. PC performing
‘SelfTest’ and loads DOS.
After loading the DOS, the screen Displays A:\>, C:\> or a similar message, the
Message displayed on screen is called the prompt or the system prompt. The
prompt serves two purposes.
(1) It indicates that DOS is ready to receive command from the Key
63
board.
(2) It displays the default drive name which is used for all file
operations unless indicated otherwise by user with Command.
1.5.10 DOS Commands
What is a Command
It is an Instruction given to the computer in accordance with OS to perform a
specific job, e.g. DIR. Command. It tells us about the files stored on the
Hard disk and it is similar to looking a Telephone Directory.
Types of Dos commands: DOS Commands are of two types
(1) Internal Commands
(2) External Commands
1.5.11 Summary
DOS stand for Disk Operating System. DOS is the software program which
controls the primary input and output of your computer while we-use an
application program such as Word processor or Data base.
When we first turn on the switch to start the computer in the morning,
Machine goes through a process called “Booting”.
1.5.12 Keywords
DOS :- Disk Operating System
Booting :- When the computer is first turned on in the morning
Machine goes through a process called booting.
Directory :- To keep various programs & files separated from each
other.
File :- A unit having all information on a topic in the PC.
Cold boot :- Starting computer by switch it on.
1. What is DOS?
2. Define Directories
3. What are system files?

1. Define DOS. Explain the structure of DOS.
2. What is booting? Discuss different types of booting.

(1) Operating System Concepts by silberschatz and Salvin, John
Wiley & Sons pvt. Ltd. Singapore.
(2) Computer fundamentals by Pradeep K. Sinha, BPB Publications,
New Delhi.
64

Internal & External Dos Commands
1.6.1 Objective
1.6.2 Introduction
1.6.3 Internal Commands
1.6.3.1 The DIR Command
1.6.3.2 What to do if Files do not fit in one screen
1.6.3.3 Looking at file names (width wise)
1.6.3.4 Making a Directory
1.6.3.5 Changing Directories
1.6.3.6 Removing the Directory
1.6.3.7 File Command of DOS
1.6.3.8 Copying of File to another drive with same name
1.6.3.9 Copy a file to another drive with different name
1.6.3.10Copy a file from one directory to another directory
1.6.3.11Copy contents of a whole directory
1.6.3.12Renaming a File
1.6.3.13Deleting a File
1.6.3.14Wild Card Characters
1.6.4 External Commands
1.6.4.1 Format command
1.6.4.2 ATTRIB
1.6.5 Summary
1.6.6 Keywords
1.6.7 Answer to Self-check Exercise
1.6.1 Objective
The lesson provides with various internal and external commands of DOS.
1.6.2 Introduction
The command processor COMMAND.COM contains all internal commands.
Internal commands does not need any DOS file. External commands are
separate files sending on the disk. These files can be seen by listing the
directory of the disk on which they reside.
65
1.6.3 Internal Commands

These commands do not require any special files for being executed and are
brought into the memory as soon as the computer is switch on. e.g. COPY, DEL,
DIR, TYPE CD, MD, CLS, DATE, TIME, PATH, DIRECTORY COMMAND OF DOS :-
1.6.3.1 The DIR Command
It is similar to looking a telephone directory. If one wishes to know which files
are stored on hard disk or on a particular Floppy, one can command DOS to
display the List of files on the Disk-. For e.g. to list the files on hard disk the
command would be
C:>Dir then enter
It will show the following message on the screen
volume in drive C is Ms-DOS-5
Volume Serial Number is A6A-675 B
Directory of c: \
Assign. Com 3699 12-3-97 9.00 A
Back'up Com 36092 05-23-97 10.00 p
Personal <DIR> 9-07-98 3.09 A
3 files 345614 bytes
6890654 bytes free
C:\ Signifies the C drive. Pressing <Enter>
Keys indicates the end of command
Columns Contents
1. Primary name.
2. Extension (Hence Col. 1&2 Gives Complete file name)
3. Size of Each file in Bytes.
4. Date on which the file was either created or modified last.
5. Time at which the file was either created or modified last.
To see the files on floppy disk i.e. in A drive the command will be.
C> DIR A:
In the list of files with <DIR> Signifies a Directory.
The root Directory of C drive Contains among various files a directory
named personal to view the contents of this directory, the command is :-
C>DIR C:\Personal
Where C refers to the root Directory under which the Directory Personal
Exists.
Let us assume the Directory PERSONAL Contains a Sub directory called
ADDRESS To view its contents, the Command is :
C>DIR C:\PERSONAL\ADDRESS
Where personal is the path to the Sub directory Address.
66
1.6.3.2 What to do If Files do not Fit in One Screen

If the List of files is too long, they will scroll off the screen (you will not be able
to see) and only the last few file names will be seen. In such case the following
command will work.
C>DIR/P
The /P makes the files listing stop when the screen is full of files. Once the
screen is full of file names, a message saying. Press any key to continue will
be displayed and the screen will stop Scrolling. You can further continue to see
the listing by pressing any key.
1.6.3.3 Looking at File Names (width wise)
If you want to see the file names width wise then give the following command.
C>DIR/W
The /W displays the file names width wise. The Screen will show as follows.
Volume in drive C is Ms.Dos-5
Volume in Serial Number is IA52-6951
Directory of C- \
CH.KDSL.EXE Command.Com DiskComp.Com Disk copy, com
[WORD STAR] [LOTUS] EDUN.EXE
5 files 99624 bytes.
34986176 bytes free
File names are listed in five columns across the screen. The other file in
formation (size, data, time) does not appear.
1.6.3.4 Making a Directory-MD COMMAND
When no directories have been created all the files reside in one main directory
i.e. the root directory. To club together all the files of Students, one can create
a -directory called STUDENT, the command is
C> MD STUDENTS
MD means make directory for students. After this command, a sub directory
called STUDENTS will be created under the root directory.
Q. (1) Create a sub Directory of stock on disk & A;
Ans……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Q. (2) Give the command to make directory named Manisha on A Disk:
Ans……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Q. (3) Give the command to make a sub directory CASH under the rootand sub
directory CASH FILE under it;
Ans……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
67
1.6.3.5 Changing Directories-CD COMMAND
Let us suppose that you were working on the files under the STUDENTS
directory and now wish to work on the files in the PERSONAL Directory. This
means that you would have changes from the STUDENTS Directory to PERSONAL
directory.
DOS allows you to change your directory by using the CD Command, the
Command to make the PERSONAL Directory the active directory without
specifying the path. The Command is CD PERSONAL or CD PERSONAL
C: \>CD \ PERSONAL
The Command for setting back to the root directory is
C> CD\
The Command for going to the Parent Directory is
C>CD..
By using the above command, this will take you one step up i.e. to parent
directory. If you want to see the name of the Directory in which you are working
the command is
C> Cd
This command will display the name of the Directory.
While you are in Root Directory, if you issue the CD...Command DOS will say
invalid Directory.
Q 4. With reference to above fig. if you are in the credit Sub-Sub-Sub- directory how will
You move to clerks Sub-Sub directory under SALARY directory ?
Ans…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Q 5. With reference to the above FIG. Outline the step to make the STOCK
DIRECTORY UNDER THE BILLS sub-Directory, ASSUMING
You UNDER THE BILLS SubDIRECTORY, Assuming you are in theroot Directory ?
Ans…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
1.6.3.6 Removing the Directory-RD Command
If all the files which were in a Sub directory are no longer required and have
68
been removed. It may no longer be necessary to retain the directory the RD
command can be used to remove such a directory. RD command of DOS removes
a Sub Directory. Some home work had to be done before you give the RD
command as per following steps :
(i) Make sure that all the files in the sub-directory are deleted i.e.uld
be no files or sub directories inside it.
(ii) You should be out of the sub-directory which you want to delete.
The following examples will make things easier.
Suppose you want to delete cash sub-directory and you are in the root, i.e.
prompt is c
c-. \. then do the following.
(i) c- \>CD\BILLS\NORTH\CASH
In this step, you move to the cash Sub Directory
(ii) C:\>BILLS/NORTH/V/CASH>Del.*.*
Here you delete all the file in the cash sub-directory, all files will be deleted!
Are you sure (Y/N) ?
(iii) ) Press Y to confirm and then press enter.
When DOS Ask you to confirm whether YOU want to delete all files, you say yes.
(iv) C.\ BILLS \ NORTH \ CASH>CD..
In the final step you issue the Command RD cash to remove the Directory.
Self Check Exercise-III
Q6. Write the steps to delete CLERKS SUB-Directory, assuming that you are in the
Root DIRECTORY with reference ?
Ans……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
1.6.3.7 File Command of DOS :
DOS Allows you to perform certain activities on the files on a Disk such as
copying a files, Detecting them etc.
(I) Creating a File-COPY CON COMMAND
The copy command is also used to copy files from one place to another. The way
to execute COPY Command is to type COPY. Leave a space followed by the source
(File name you want to copy) again a space followed by the destination (Where
target file is to be copied) and the name of the file.
A new file can be created with a COPYCON Command. The Commands is C>Copy
Con <File name>.
If you want to create a file SALARY the Command would be
C:\> Copy CON SALARY
To save a file <Ctrl> +z is pressed.
(II) Type
It displays the contents of specified file SYNTAX is
C:\>TYPE<file name> e.g. C:\>type PASS PRG
The Contents of the file PASS.PRG will be displayed on the screen.
(III) Copy
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This command is used-to COPY one or more files to specified file on specified
directory or disk. Suppose you want to duplicate the file Command.Com and
name the duplicate copy as Main.Com then the Command will be
C>CopyCommand.Com Main-Com.
So the Command makes the Copy of files Command. Com and names it Main.
Com and both remain present in C drive.
1.6.3.8 Copying of File to another Drive with Same Name
If you want to copy a file from C to A drive which gives the following command.
C>Copy C:<Source file> A: Target file name
C:\Copy C: Command. Com A: Command.Com
This copy the files command.com from C drive to A drive and the DOS flashes
the following message on the Screen.
C: \>Copy Command. Com. A:
I files Copied.
1.6.3.9 Copy a File to another Drive with Different Name
If you wish to copy a file from A Disk to C disk, the copy command is almost the
same with a few changes. The following command copies the file NAME.TXT FROM A
DISK to C DISK by the name of VIK.TXT.
C: \Copy A: NAME.TXT C: VIK.TXT
If you wish to keep the name of the target file same as the source file then do
not type the new name of the file, i.e. Vik.TXT. in the above case. Then the
command is.
C: \>Copy A: Name.TEXT C: \
Even if you do not specify C: in case you wish to copy from a Disk to C Disk
then also the command will work.
C: \>Copy A:Name.Text.
1.6.3.10 Copy a File from One Directory to Another Directory
To copy a file from one directory to another, specify the path of the Source and
the destination Directory in the Copy Command. However, the Path need not be
specified in the source or destination, if it refers to the Current Directory. For
example to copy a file.
COMMAND.COM from Root Directory to DOS Directory type
C:\> Copy\WS\LETTER.Doc
Note : In the above Command the destination directory is not specified, as the
file has to be copied into the current Directory.
1.6.3.11 Copy Contents of a Whole Directory
To copy the whole contents of a directory to another directory, you need not Copy
it file by file. The following Command would copy the entire contents of a
Directory ‘DOS’ to directory Ws.
C:\>Copy\Dos\WS. in case you copy from the Root.
1.6.3.12 Renaming a File
DOS allows you to change the name of a file, using the REN Command.
The REN Command is issued following by a space, the old file name.
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Suppose if you want to change the name of a file TEXT.BAK to
RESULT.BAK. the following- command will work:
C: \> REN TEXT.BAK RESULT.BAK
The new file name (Res’ult.Bak in the above example) does not require
the drive name to be specified before it.
Renaming a file on another Disk.
The example is if you want to rename a file called SHALINT.TXT on a
Disk to Vikas.Txt the command will be as follows :
C: \REN a:SHALINI.TXT VIKAS.TXT
1.6.3.13 Deleting a File
A file can be deleted with DEL Command. All you need to do is type DEL followed
by a space. If you want to delete a file SAMPLE.BAK on the C drive, issue the
following command. The above command will delete the file simple, bac.
C:\>Del SAMPLE.BAK
1.6.3.14 Wild Card (?*) Characters
When you want to work with a group of files, you can use wild cards. There are
two types of wild cards : a star (*) and a question mark (?) Sometimes is
required to copy, List or delete a group of files having some common features in
them i.e. either same extension name or starting with same character.
What is ‘?’
The ? wild care is used to represent a single character in a file name. If you
want to list the files in the C drive which have the first name upto 6 characters
long and an extension name of EXE the Command will be as follows.
C:DIR ??????.EXE.
It will list all the files which have six alphabets or less as its first name.
If you want to list all the files which start with MONTH followed by a maximum
of two letters and have the extension-.DAT the command will be :
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C: \DIR MONTH??.DAT
This will list all the files such as. MONTH 1, MONTH 2 .........MONTH 10,
MONTH 99 BUT NOT MONTH 100.
What is ‘*’
The star * wild card is used to represent a group of characters in a file name.
Suppose you want to list all the files which have an extension, the
following command will work.
C:\>DIR *.EXE
It will list all the Extension EXE files on the Screen.
Self Check Exercise-IV
Q.7 How will you list the files on C Drive which have an extension.COM ?
Ans…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Q.8 GIVE the Command to LIST the files on C drive which start withCHAP followed by
two character and have any extension Name.
Ans…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Copying Wild Cards
Suppose you want to copy all the files which have extension of Doc on the
A DISK, the command will be.,
Chap*.DOC A:
C:\> Copy
Copying using WILD CARD To DISK
If you want all files like CHAP 10, CHAP 11, CHAP 12.... to be copies on
to A DISK, the Command will be.
C:\>Copy Chap ?? A:
DATE Command
The DATE Command displays the current data and allows you to change it. Give
the following command.
C> DATE
The Screen appears as follows :-
C>Date
current date is Sun 07-19-1998
Enter new date (mm-dd-yy) :-
If you do not want to change the date, just press enter, otherwise type in the
new date in month-day-year format.
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TIME Command
The time command allows you to change time and display the To change the
time give the command.
C>Time
Current Time is II: 05:20:01 A
Enter new time........
If you prefer not to change the time then just press Enter otherwise type the
correct time.
Clearing screen With CLS
When you want to clear the screen, type in the following command.
C>CLS
DOS editing Keys
When you type a line and press enter, DOS puts a copy of the line in an input
buffer (A temporary storage place)
The DOS editing Keys are used in the line that is put in the input buffer. The
Keys numbered F1 to F5 and the INS, Del & Esc key are DOS Editing keys.
(1) INS. Allows to insert characters within a time.
(2) Del Delete one character in the input buffer. The character in
buffer is not displayed and the cursor does not move.
(3) Esc. Cancel the line currently being displayed the buffer
remains unchanged.
(4) F1 Display one character from the buffer each time when it is
pressed.
(5) F2 Display all characters upto the specified character.
(6) F3 Display all characters in the buffer.
(7) F4 Display all characters after and including the specified
characters F4 is opposite to F2.
(8) F5 Accepts the time currently edited as the current buffer line.
1.6.4 External Commands
External Commands are separate file residing on the disk. These files can be
seen by listing the directory of the disk on which they reside.
These are the commands which require certain special DOS files for being
executed e.g. FORMAT, CHK DSK, XCOPY, PRINT, ATTRIB, TREE, DISK COPY etc.
You may not necessary have all these files in your system.
1.6.4.1 Format Command and other commands
It is similar to making pitch in ground before start playing a cricket match. It
creates tracks and sectors on the DISK. The process of creating tracks and
sectors on a disk is called formatting. The example is when a long roll sheet is
cut into small pieces and then it is wound in the form of copy and it is
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numbered, it is equivalent to formatting.

When you purchase new floppies, they have to be formatted before they can be
used. The FORMAT Command is executed by typing FORMAT followed by a space
and then the drive you want to FORMAT. Do not forget to put : (Colon) after the
drive letter.
C> FORMATA:
The screen will flash the message
:Insert new diskette for drive A
:and strike Enter when Ready,
Insert an unformatted floppy disk in drive A, Close the drive door and press
enter. After the formatting is Complete, it displays the follows. Volume label <
I I characters, Enter for None>?
Here you may give a name to the floppy. If you are not interested in naming,
just press enter. At this point the computer shows you some information, which
is worth skipping. It asks you Format another Y/N. Press N if you don't have any
more disk to format.
For Formatting Floppy having less storage space in a floppy drive meant for
floppies with higher capacity the format command is bit different.
C>FORMAT A:/4.
The above command is given when you are formatting a 360 KB floppy in a drive
that's meant for floppies capacity of 1.2 MB
To make a floppy bootable also while formatting command is
C> FORMAT A:/S.
/s option format the floppy and make it bootable also i.e., copy 3 essential
files of DOS.
The PRINT Command
Suppose you want to print two monthly Salary statement, which is in the file
SALARY.DOC on C Drive. You can do this with PRINT Command. To print a file
type Print, then a space followed by a FILENAME you want to print. Make sure
that your printer is on and the paper has been put into it. Now, give the
following command.
C:\>PRINT SALARY.DOC
If the print command is being used for the first time since you stitched
on your Computer, the screen, will display Name of list Device [PRN]
Just Press here-enter
The screen will display following message.
Resident part of Print installed.
C: \>Salary. Doc is currently being Printed.
PRINTING A FILE WHICH EXISTS ON FLOPPY DISK :- If you want print a
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file MANISHA TXT which is on A disk. The command is as follows :
C: \>Print A: MANISHA.TXT
Checking Disk Space. Computer Memory and Correcting Errors in
Files the CHKDSK COMMAND
This command is used to display information about the disk space and memory.
It also lets you to repair damage to the data structure.
(1) Use the Command :-
C:\>CHKDSK
(2) It will display the information.
(3) CHKDSK works one drive at a time. To check the disk in A or B
drive, give the following Command :
C:\ CHKDSK A:
C:\>CHKDSK B:
However if you do not specify the drive CHKDSK checks the current active drive.
Making Copies of FLOPPY Disks....(The Disk Copy)
The command is executed by the Disk copy.Exe program.
Making Copies of your floppies is wise as they often get bad and become-
unusable. In such a case you have copies to fall back on. The way to execute
this command is to type DISKCOPY : than a space followed by the source and
destination disk drive.
This disk copy command can only be used for making copies from one floppy or
vice versa. Also the floppies used should be of the same size (3 1/2. “or 5.1/4”)
and capacity.
(i) In order to start type
C:\>DISKCOPY A: B:
(ii) Now enter the source floppy in the A drive and target copy in the B
drive and press any key.
(iii) ) The copying will take place and after completion you will be asked.
Copy anther Y/N?
Using Disk Copy Where You have only One F.D. Drive.
Here also you can use DISK COPY by typing.
C: \> Disk copy A.
The computer will ask you.
Insert SOURCE-diskette in drive A.
Press any key to continue.
Insert the floppy, where you want the copying to be done & the floppy, where you
want copying to be done & press any key.
The computer will again ask for the source disk in drive A and then for target
disk and this will continue until the copying is complete.
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X-Copy
X Copy is kind of super version of copy command available with all DOS
versions. This command is faster and allows you to copy entire directories, sub
directories, and their files. X copy, on its own, makes sub directories to the
destination. It reads a group of files from the source drive/directory and then,
copies, then is a group.
x copy <source> destination.
Let us suppose you wish to copy all the files including the sub directories under
the directory ‘Rahul’ to the floppy drive. The command sequence
C:\RAHUL>XCOPY *.* A:/S
TREE Command
This command lists all directories and sub directories in the form of a tree.
(1) Come to the root directory by pressing CD \ and type in.
C:\>Tree
This will list all the Directory like a tree.
(2) Giving the Command.
C:\>Tree/F
It will show not only the directories and sub directories but also
Files under them.
(3) To see the directories in a floppy in a drive.
Then insert the floppy and type.
C:\Tree A:
C:\
1.6.4.2 ATTRIB
This is an external command, used to set the attribute of the file. This
command sets or resets the attribute of a file to read only or read write or
hidden. Read only means that one can read file. But he cannot change the
contents of the file. Read write means that he can read the file and change the
contents. Hidden means it will not be displayed using directory command.
ATTRIB [+r] [-r] [+a] [+h] [-h] [drive:] Path name
+r sets read only attribute of a file
-r disables the read only mode
+a sets the archive attribute of a file.
-a clear the archive attribute of a file.
+h make file hidden.
-h make the file again unhidden.
1.6.5 Summary
DOS utilities are small software program files which are found on DOS disk.
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These utility files perform helpful task such as formatting a disk or checking
it for errors., Since they are a part of DOS, they live on the same disk, but are
not needed all the time (e.g. we may need to format disk only once or twice a
week and thus occasionally use FORMAT.COM which lines on DOS disk.) Thus
these external disk based utility programs line in the computer's RAM chips
while in use and usually are kept on the disk until needed. They are external
commands.
1.6.6 Keywords
Directory, File, label, menu.
1. What is internal command?
2. What is external command?
3. Define Directory.
4. What are Wild Card Characters?

1. List various internal commands of DOS in detail.
2. Explain different external commands of DOS.
1.6.9 Suggested Reading

(1) Computer Fundamentals by Pradeep K. Sinha, BPB Publications, New
Delhi.
(2) A text book of Window based Computer Courses, by Gurvinder Singh&
Rachpal Singh, Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi.
77
LESSON NO. 1.7 AUTHOR: DR. DHARAMVEER SHARMA

Last updated August, 2023
Features of MS Word
Objectives
1.7.1 Introduction
1.7.2 New Features in MS Word
1.7.3 Foreign Language Features
1.7.4 Web Documents
1.7.5 What is Word Processor?
1.7.6 Features of Word Processors
1.7.7 Getting Started with Word
1.7.7.1 Menus
1.7.7.2 Shortcut Menus
1.7.7.3 Toolbars
1.7.7.4 Customizing Toolbars
1.7.8 Summary
Objectives
In this lesson we will study Microsoft Word and its various features. We will also
study the different part of Ms-word interface.
1.7.1 Introduction
Clear and organized writing is one of the most important skills for
success in today’s world. Ms-Word can help students develop those skills as
well as help you with your own writing needs. Ms-Word provides an easy
way to create handouts, worksheets, student papers and other printed
documents and also makes it easy to save your documents to the Web or
send them through e-mail. Some of word’s new features also make it an
78
excellent tool for collaboration and for teaching and learning foreign
languages.
Ms-Word can encourage the use of writing process from developing ideas
and content, through revising multiple drafts and publishing student work.
For example :
* Developing ideas and content : Students can use Ms-Word
Outline view to brainstorm an outline for their writing project.
Outline view shows the document’s organization and makes
it easy for students to restructure a document by moving
text and headings up or down.
* Producing drafts : Students can produce a rough draft knowing

that Ms-Word offers them the freedom to easily edit and revise.
Students can even save multiple drafts of their documents
within the same file using the Versions feature, so they can
easily refer to previous drafts. Educators may find this useful
when reviewing earlier versions of a student’s work.
* Organising documents : Students can use Ms-Word’s Outline
view to determine how well their writing is organized. In
Outline view, you can collapse a document to show only the
headings and body text you want. This makes it easy to view
the document’s organization, move through the document
and rearrange large chunks of text.
* Revising writing : Students can refine their writing through
individual or peer editing. With the Reviewing toolbar, students
or educators can easily Insert Comments, Track Changes,
Highlight areas of text with colour, Save Version and even Send
Mail. They can also proof using the spelling and grammar
checkers. Rewriting becomes a challenging, exciting
opportunity to improve quality, rather than a time-consuming
chore.
* Formatting papers : Students can select styles, font sizes,
colors, align and space words, bullets, numbered lists, tables
and drop caps. They can set margins, borders, page borders,
shading and document layout.
* Publishing : You and your students can print documents,
submit documents electronically or save files to HTML for
publishing on the Internet or an internet. With built-in HTML
79
support, you simply select Save As HTML and all text, graphics
and tables are converted to HTML format. Once in this format,
new Ms-Word’s features let you add scrolling text, background
sound, background effects and more. You can also create
Power Point presentations from Ms-Word outlines and
documents. For more information, see the Power Point lesson.
1.7.2 New Features in MS Word
The following features in Ms-Word make it even easier to create Web, e-
mail andprint documents.
* Click-n-type : In Page Layout view, you can move the cursor
anywhere on a page, double-click and then start typing. This
simplifies complex document layout.
* Collect and paste : Gather information from multiple sources
and place upto 12 items on the Microsoft Office Clipboard at a
time.
* Personalized menus : Commands that you use most often
are prominently featured on the menus. Menus are easily
expanded to reveal all commands.
* Tables : Create nested tables (tables within table cells), floating
tables (text wraps around a table), arbitrarily positioned tables
including side- by-side tables and integrated header rows
(header rows integrated with
the outside border).

* Thesaurus : Ms-Word has a new thesaurus developed for
Microsoft by Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. Right-click a word,
point to synonyms and then you can select a word from the
synonyms list.

Q1. List various features of MS-word
Ans………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
1.7.3 Foreign Language Features
New features allow students learning foreign language, faculty and
students collaborating with others around the world, multi-lingual students
and non-native speakers to easily create documents in languages other
than English, even documents in more than one language.
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* Microsoft Office Multi-Language Pack : You can set the
language of the user interface and the Help, without affecting
the operating of the program. This allows you to work in the
language of your preference.
* Microsoft Proofing Tools Kit: The Microsoft Proofing Tools Kit is
part of the Microsoft Office Multi-Language Pack (see above). The
Microsoft Proofing Tools Kit allows you to install tools such as
spelling and grammar checker, thesaurus and Autocorrect for
various languages.
* Language Auto Detect : Ms-Word automatically detects the
language you are typing in and can intelligently use the correct
spelling and grammar checker, Auto Correct and other
proofing tools.
* Multilingual Auto Correct : Ms-Word now supports multiple
Auto Correct lists, so the automatic correction works for
multilingual authors.
* Hyphenation : Hyphenation works in many languages. When
different languages are detected, hyphenation is done
correctly for that language.
1.7.4 Web Documents
As more schools develop internets where students and faculty can publish,
share, collaborate and manage their projects, Ms-Word lets people put
information in an online format without having to know HTML. The
following features make creating Web documents easier than ever :
* Save as HTML : All of your formatting (except versioning and
passwords) will be preserved when you save documents as
HTML files.
* Web Page Wizard : Ms-Word provides a wizard for creating
professional- looking Web pages and multi-page Web sites.
* Browser compatibility : People often create Web pages that are
not viewable in older browsers. To make sure others can view
your pages, Ms-Word allows you to turn off features that are not
supported in older browsers.
* Web Page Preview : From Ms-Word, you can preview Web

pages in the default browser, even without saving the pages
first.
* Themes : Themes have been created and coordinated between
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Microsoft Office.
* Tables of contents : Ms-Word can automatically generate tables
of contents with several options that work well for online
viewing including the use of frames.
* Hyperlinks : In Ms-Word you can easily create, edit, follow and
remove hyperlinks in online and Web documents.
Consider the following typed letter :
1124, PII
Urban Estate
Patiala -
147002
Dear ABC,
We both have holiday next Monday. What do you say to a trip to muree and a
ramble in the gullies? We could start early, say 6 a.m., in my car and take
some group with us, and make a day of it up in the cool. It would be a
change from this heat down here. If you agree, I will arrange the picnic, and
be round at your hose at a quarter to six on Monday morning. Bring your
camera with you.
Yours
XYZ
Just notice, in this letter, there are some spelling errors, typing mistakes,
missing words, missing lines, a paragraph to be moved down and so on. In
order to make the changes, the entire document has to be retyped and if
there were many documents of this sort, the time and effort required to
retype each would be phenomenal.
Such work, defined above, is called Word Processing. A word processor is a
software package, which helps enter and edit a document much faster than
the usual manual ways. Most of the word processors today allow much
more than allowing one to enter and edit a document. The following is a list
of some of the functions that are possible by using the Word Processor :
• Creating the document (typing in)
• Saving the document
• Opening an existing document
• Moving or copying paragraphs from one place in the document to
another
• Finding the words and replacing them with another word
• Searching for spelling errors
• Printing the document etc.
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In this block, we will describe the use of a word processor : Microsoft Word
(MS Word). MS Word is a windows based application and is a normally
available as an icon in the Application group or the MS Office group. This
unit describes the various features related to typing and revising text,
selecting test as a group, instead of a letter of word at a time. Most word
processing efforts, whether a note to yourself or an annual report are
created through an iterative process of typing & editing. In this unit, we
briefly cover some simple ways of revising documents.
With Word, you can search a document for specific characters, formats, or
styles using the Find & Replace command. Various editing & proofing tools
including spell check have been explained. Word’s spelling feature is
used to check an entire document or a block of selected text against
Word’s built-in-dictionary or against specialized dictionaries that you
create.
For most people, writing is an everyday occurrence. When computers
have affected our life styles and work patterns, this activity is also not left
out. Many application programs have been developed to make writing
easier and smooth operation. One such most popular program is Word
Processor. Word-processing software provides a general set of tools for
entering, editing and formatting text. Nearly all the document types that
we use in our daily lives can be created in a word processor. In fact,
word processors have affected our lives to a large extent. Therefore, it is
suggested generally that every person must be aware of word processing
and its features. This lesson is dedicated to word processing and word
processors. This lesson shall introduce the kinds of documents that you
can create with word processors and the features that you will find
within word processors.
Since there are variety of word processors available in the market that offer
similar functions and features, we are covering here one of them
"Microsoft Word", which is a Windows based word processor.
1.7.5 What is Word Processor?
A word processor is a package that processes textual matter and creates
organized and flawless documents. A word processor has everything that a
conventional, typewriter has. In addition to it, a word processor not only
removes all the limitations of typewriters but also offers various useful
features that can not be even dreamt of with typewriters. For instance,
making corrections through typewriters on a typed text is (though) not
83
impossible but it certainly makes the document untidy. However, with word
processors, the corrections are very simple without affecting the
neatnessof documents.
Also if same textual matter is to be reproduced with minor changes,
retyping is the only option in typewriters. For example, if same invitation
letters are to be sent to 200 employees and names & addresses of the
invites are to be typed in the documents individually. Then, with
typewriters, retyping the same matter 200 times with the changed names
and addresses can be performed and no other alternative is available. On
the other hand, the same situation can easily tackled within word
processors using its mail merge feature. Mail merge feature allows you to
combine text and data without requiring any retyping.
The word processing (and word processor) originated way back in 1964
when special typewriters Magnetic Tape Selectric typewriters (MTST) were
launched by IBM (International Business Machines). These machines
were capable of storing documents on magnetic storage. The Stored data
could easily be reprinted when desired.
1.7.6 Features of Word Processors
Now that you have started appreciating the word processors, let us dwell
deep to find more about word processor features.
1. Fast : Typing text in a word processor becomes speedy as
there no mechanical carriage movement associated.
2. Editing features : Any type of correction ( insertions,
deletion modifications etc.) can be made easily as and when
required.
3. Permanent Storage : With word processors, documents can be
saved as long as desired. The saved document can be retrieved
whenever desired.
4. Formatting Features : The typed text can be made to appear
in any form or style (bold, italic, underline, different fonts etc.)
All this is possible due to formatting features of word
processors.
5. Graphics : Most modern word processors provide the
facility of incorporating drawings in the documents which
enhances their usefulness.
6. OLE (Object Linking and Embedding) : Most modern word
processors provide facilities to link or embed objects in a
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document. OLE is a program integration between programs
through objects. Objects are saved entitles of different types
like charts, equations video clips, audio clips, pictures etc.
7. Spell Check : Word processors not only are capable of checking
spelling mistake but also can suggest possible alternatives for
incorrectly spelt words. Some word processors can check for
grammatical mistakes and suggest alternatives or
improvements.
8. Auto Correct : Some spelling errors can be automatically
corrected. This facility can also be extended to expand
abbreviations.
9. Tables : Tables provide a facility for storing data in tabular
form on which some functions like SUM can also be
performed.
10. Mail Merge : The mail merge facility enables you to print a large
number of letters/ documents with more of less similar
text. As in earlier example, same invitation letter was being
sent to invitees, only the names and addresses were to be
changed.
Mail merge feature actually merges main document with a data source.
The main document stores the original text with data area at appropriate
places. These data areas are successively filled by the information in the
data source and the merged document is printed.

Q2. What are the features of word processor?
Ans…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
1.7.7 Getting Started with Word

Working with a MS Word usually involves these
steps :(i) Creating or opening a document,
(ii) typing text in it,
(iii) editing the document, if required and
(iv) saving the document for later use.
We shall learn about these in context to one word processor. Windows
based word processor (Microsoft Word or MS Word in short).
Before creating or opening a document in Word, first you’ll have to
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load/open Word in memory. This can be done either by clicking at the
shortcut of Word on the desktop, if available or by choosing Microsoft
Word application from Programs menu pad of Start menu. One you start
Word, following Window (See Fig.1), the document window appears wherein
you can start typing your text
Before you start working in Word, you must know the basic components of a
document window. The document window has following major
components :
(i) Title bar : Located at the top of the screen; it displays the name
of application (MS Word) and the active document (Document
1).
(ii) Menu bar : Located below the Title bar, lists the Word menu
options.
(iii) Formatting toolbar : Formatting toolbar consists of tools
frequently used for formatting document.
(iv) Standard toolbar : Standard toolbar consists of most frequently
used command and utilities.
(v) Ruler bar : Ruler bar allows formatting the vertical alignment
of text in a document. It is used to get tab stops, margins and
indents.
(vi) Status bar : The Status bar displays information which includes
page numbers, the column and line number on which you
cursor is presentat any given point of a time.
(vii) Scroll bar : Scroll bars are used to view different areas of the
active window. You can do so by moving the elevator along the
scroll bar, or by clicking on the buttons with the arrows
marked on them, to move up and down a page.
(viii) The Workspace is the area in the document window wherein
you enter the text of your document.
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Most of the tools and commands you need are easy to find on the Standard
and Formatting toolbars and on the Ms-Word menus. The following
illustrations is of the Ms-Word window with a blank document in Print
Layout view.
Horizontal ruler, use to view and set
paragraph indents, tab stops page
margins and column widths
Menu Toolbar
Standard Toolbar
Formatting Toolbar
Web Toolbar
Tab stop - a position
you set for placing
and aligning textion a
page. Click here to change
the kind of tab stop.
Vertical ruler use to
view and set top and
bottom margins of
pages and the height
of rows in tables.
Drag the markers
to adjust settings.
Only available in
Print Layout View.
View buttons - click to

switch between Normal
Web Labout, Print
Layout and Outline
views.
Select Browse Object - click to

Scroll bar - drag the box
Status bar - Page number of open the Select Browse Object
or click the arrows to
displayed page. Section of page Menu where you can browse for
nagivate through the footnotes or graphics. Use the
and page number / total number
current document. previous and next arrows to
of pages.
brows through the items.
Status bar - Distance from the top of the page to Status bar - Double click REC to turn the macro
your insertion point. Line of text where the insertion recorder on or off; Double-click TRK to turn the
point is located. Distance, in number of characters, track changes feature on or off. Double click
from the left margin to the insertion point. No EXT to turn the extend selection mode on or off.
measurements are displayed if the insertion point Double click OVR to turn the overtype mode on
is not in the window. or off. The current language is displayed.
Fig. 1 The Screenshot of Microsoft Word and Document Window in Word

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1.7.7.1 Menus
When you begin to explore Ms-Word, you will notice a significant
change in the menu structure if you are familiar with previous versions of
Word. The menus in Ms-Word display only the commands you have
recently used. To view all options in each menu, you must click the double
arrows at the bottom of the menu. The images below show the Format menu
collapsed (left) and expanded (right) after the double arrows at the bottom
of the menu were clicked.
Follow the steps below to display menus similar to previous versions of

Word with allthe choices listed initially :
* Select View (Toolbars) Customize from the menu bar.
* Click on the Options tab.
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* Uncheck the Menus show recently used commands first check box.
1.7.7.2 Shortcut Menus

These features allow you to access various Word commands faster than
using the options on the menu bar. View shortcut menus by right-clicking
with the mouse. The options on this menu will vary depending on the
element that was right-clicked. For example, the shortcut menu below is
produced by right-clicking on the bulleted list.
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Actions such as ‘Decrease Indent’ and ‘Increase Indent’ are only
applicable to lists and therefore only appear on the list shortcut menu.
The shortcut menus are helpful because they only display the options
that can be applied to the item that was right- clicked and therefore,
prevent searching through the many menu options.
1.7.7.3 Toolbars
Many toolbars displaying shortcut buttons are also available to make editing
and formatting quicker and easier. Select View/Toolbars from the menu
bar to select the toolbars. The toolbars that are already displayed on the
screen are checked. Add a toolbar simply by clicking on the name.
1.7.7.4 Customizing Toolbars

There may be certain actions on a toolbar that you do not use and there
may also be commands that you execute often but that are not located on
any toolbar. Word toolbars can be customized so these commands can be
added and deleted.
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* Select View/Toolbars/Customize and click the Commands tab.
* By highlighting the command categories in the Categories box,

thechoices will change in the Commands box to the right.
* Select the command you would like to add to the toolbar by
selecting itin the Commands box.
* Drag the command with the mouse to the desired location on
the toolbarand release the mouse button.
* Remove a button from the toolbar by clicking and dragging the
button offthe toolbar.
1.7.8 Summary
In this lesson we have studied Microsoft Word, which is a widely used word
processing application that allows users to create, edit, and format documents.
It offers a range of features for text manipulation, document organization, and
collaboration, making it a versatile tool for various writing and document-
related tasks. We have also studied various features of Ms-word and its
interface.
1. What do you mean by a word processor?
2. What are the main components of a document window?
3. How toolbars can be customized?
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1. Explain various features of MS-word in detail.
2. Define word processing package. Discuss components of word processing
package.

1. "Microsoft Office 2000 Complete," BPB Publications.
2. "Introduction to Computers with MS Office 2000," Tata McGraw Hill.
3. "A textbook of windows based Computer Courses", Kalyani publishers.
4. "Microsoft Office 2000 bible," IDG Books Worldwide.
92

Working with Documents and Templates
Objectives
1.8.1 Introduction
1.8.1.1 Create a new document
1.8.1.2 Open an existing document
1.8.1.3 Saving documents
1.8.1.4 Renaming documents
1.8.1.5 Working on multiple documents
1.8.1.6 Close a document
1.8.2 Working with Text
1.8.2.1 Typing and inserting text
1.8.2.2 Selecting text
1.8.2.3 Deleting text
1.8.2.4 Formatting text
1.8.2.5 Format Painter
1.8.2.6 Undo
1.8.3 Styles
1.8.3.1 Applying Style
1.8.3.2 Apply a Style from the Style dialog box
1.8.3.3 Create a new styles from a model
1.8.3.4 Create a simple style from the style dialog box
1.8.3.5 Modify or rename a style
1.8.3.6 Delete a style
1.8.4 Lists
1.8.4.1 Bulleted and numbered lists
1.8.4.2 Nested lists
1.8.4.3 Formatting lists
1.8.4.4 Bullets and Numbering Dialog Box
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1.8.5 Summary
1.8.6 Short Answer Type Question
1.8.7 Long Answer Type Question
Objectives
In this lesson we will study about different ways of creating Ms-Word document
and various methods of formatting text. We will also study about Styles in Ms-Word.
1.8.1 Introduction
Working with files
1.8.1.1 Create a new document
* Click the New Document button on the menu bar.
* Chooser File/new from the menu bar.
* Press CTRL + N (depress the CTRL key while pressing ‘N’) on the
keyboard.
1.8.1.2 Open an existing document
* Click the Open File button on the menu bar.
* Choose File/Open from the menu bar.
* Press CTRL: +O on the keyboard.
Each method will show the Open dialog box. Choose the file and click the Open
button.
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1.8.1.3 Saving documents

* Click the Save button on the menu bar.
* Select File/Save from the menu bar.
* Press CTRL+S on the keyboard.
1.8.1.4 Renaming documents
To rename a Word document while using the program, select File/Open
and find the file you want to rename. Right-click on the document name
with the mouse and Rename from the short-cut menu. Type the new
name for the file and pressthe Enter key.
1.8.1.5 Working on multiple documents

Several documents can be opened simultaneously if you are typing or editing
multiple documents at once. All open documents are listed under the
Window menu as shown below. The current document has a checkmark
beside the file name. Select another name to view another open document
.
or click the button on the Windows taskbar at the bottom of the screen
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1.8.1.6 Close a document

Close the current document by selecting File/Close or Click the Close
icon if it’s visible on the Standard Toolbar.
Q1. Write steps of Creating a New Document
Ans…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Q2. Write steps of Saving a Document
Ans…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
1.8.2 Working with Text
1.8.2.1 Typing and inserting text
To enter text, just start typing ! The text will appear where the blinking
cursor is located. Move the cursor by using the arrow buttons on the
keyboard or positioning the mouse and clicking the left button. The
keyboard shortcuts listed below are also helpful when moving through the
text of a document :
Move Action Keystroke

Beginning of the line Home
End of the line END
Top of the document CTRL+HOME
End of the document CTRL+END
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1.8.2.2 Selecting text
To change any attributes of Text it must be highlighted first. Select the text
by dragging the mouse over the desired text while keeping the left mouse
button depressed, or hold down the SHIFT key on the keyboard while
using the arrow buttons to highlight the text. The following table contains
shortcuts for selecting a portion of the text :
Selecting Technique
Whole word Double-click within the word
Whole paragraph triple-click within the paragraph
Several words or lines drag the mouse over the words, or hold
down SHIFT while using the arrow
keys
Entire document choose Edit/Select All from the menu
bar, or press CTRL + A
Deselect the text by clicking anywhere outside of the selection on the

page or pressan arrow key on the keyboard.
1.8.2.3 Deleting text
Use the BACKSPACE and DELETE keys on the keyboard to delete text.
Backspace will delete text to the left of the cursor and Delete will erase
text to the right. To delete a large selection of text, highlight it using any of
the methods outlined above and press the DELETE key.
1.8.2.4 Formatting text
The formatting toolbar is the easiest way to change many attributes of
text. If toolbar as shown below isn’t displayed on the screen, select
View/Toolbars and choose Formatting.
* Style Menu - Styles are explained in detail later in this lesson.

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* Font Face - Click the arrowhead to the right of the font name
box to view the list of fonts available. Scroll down to the font
you want and select it by clicking on the name once with the
mouse. A serif font (one with ‘feet’ circled in the
illustration below) is recommended for paragraphs of text
that will be printed on paper as they are most readable. The
following graphic demonstrates the difference between serif
(Times New Roman on the left) and Sans-serif (‘no feet’, Arial
on the right) fonts
* Font Size - Click on the white part of the font size box to enter
a value for the font size or click the arrowhead to the right of
the box to view a list of font sizes available. Select a size by
clicking on it once. A font size of 10 or 12 is best for
paragraphs of text.
* Font Style - Use these buttons to bold, italicize and underline text.
* Alignment - Text can be aligned to the left,..center or right
side of thepage or it can be justified across the page.
* Numbered and Bulleted Lists - Lists are explained in detail
later inthis lesson.
* Increase/Decrease Indent - Change the indentation of a paragraph
in
elation to the side of the page.
* Outside Border - Add a border around a text selection.
* Highlight Color - Use this option to change the color behind a
text selection. The color shown on the button is the last color
used. To select a different color, click the arrowhead next to
the image on the button.
* Text Color - This option changes the color of the text. The
color shown on the button is the last color chosen. Click the
arrowhead next to the button image to select another color.
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The Font dialog box allows you to choose from a larger selection of
formatting options. Select Format/Font from the menu bar to access the
box.
1.8.2.5 Format Painter

A handy feature for formatting text is the Format Painter located on the
standard toolbar. For example, if you have formatting a paragraph
heading with a certain font face, size and style and you want to format
another heading the same way, you do not need to manually add each
attribute to the new headline. Instead, use the Format Painter by
following these steps :
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* Place the cursor within the text that contains the formatting
you wantto copy.
* Click the Format Painter button in the standard toolbar.
Notice thatyour pointer now has a paintbrush beside it.
* Highlight the text you want to add the same format to with
the mouseand release the mouse button.
To add the formatting to multiple selections of text, double-click the Format
Painter button instead of clicking once. The format painter then stays
active until you press the ESC key to turn it off.
1.8.2.6 Undo
Feel free to experiment with various text styles. You can always undo your
last action by clicking the Undo button on the standard toolbar or
selecting Edit/Undo... from the menu bar. Click the Redo button on the
standard toolbar or select Edit/Redo... to erase the undo action.
The use of styles in Word will allow you to quickly format a document with a
consistent and professional look. Paragraph and character styles can be
saved for use in many documents.
1.8.3 Styles
1.8.3.1 Applying Style
* Place the cursor in the paragraph where the style will be applied.
* Click the Style drop-down menu on the Formatting toolbar and
select a style by clicking on it.
* To apply the same style to multiple paragraphs, double click the
Format Painter button on the standard toolbar and click in all
the paragraphs that style should be applied to. Press the ESC
key to disable the Format Painter.
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1.8.3.2 Apply a Style from the Style dialog box

Choose from a larger selection of styles from the Style dialog box.
* Click in the paragraph you want to add a style to.

* Select Format/Style...from the menu bar.
* From the List drop-down menu, choose All styles to view all the
styles available.
* The styles are displayed in the Styles list. Preview each style by
clicking once on the name. Paragraph styles are preceded by
the paragraph symbol and character styles are preceded by an
‘a’ icon (a). A pointer arrow is located next to the current
style. Highlight the style you want to the paragraph and click
Apply.
1.8.3.3 Create a new styles from a model
To create a style from text that is already formatted in a document,
Follow thesesteps :
* Place the cursor in the paragraph you would like to set as a new
style.
* Click the Style box on the formatting toolbar so the style name
ishighlighted.
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* Delete the text in the field and type the name of the new style.
* Press the Enter key to save the new style.
1.8.3.4 Create a simple style from the style dialog box
* Select Format/Style... from the menu bar and click the New
button onthe Style dialog box to access the New Style dialog
box.
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* Type the name for the new style in the Name field.
* Select 'Paragraph' or 'Character' from the Style type drop-
down menu.
* Click the Format button at the bottom of the window and
choose the paragraph element that will be formatted for the
style. Continue to make changes from the options from the
Format button menu, making changes to the dialog boxes for
each element you choose.
* Click OK to set the style and close the New Style dialog box.
* Click Apply on the Style dialog box to apply the new style to the
current paragraph.
1.8.3.5 Modify or rename a style
An existing style can be changed from the style dialog box.
* Select Format/Style... from the Styles list that you want to
modify and click the Modify button.
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* Use the same methods to modify the style from the Modify
Style dialogbox that were used for the New Style box.
* To only rename the style, type a new name in the Name field.
* Click OK when you are finished making modifications.
* Click Apply to update the style in the document.
1.8.3.6 Delete a style
Preset styles created by Word cannot be deleted, but to delete a style
you have made follow these steps :
* Select Format/Style... from the menu bar.
* Highlight the style from the Styles list that you want to delete.
* Click the Delete button.
* You will be asked if you really want to delete the style. Click
Yes.
* Click Close on the dialog box.
To create a bulleted or numbered list, use the list features provided
by word.
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Q3. What is format painter?
Ans………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Q4. What is a style?
Ans………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
1.8.4 Lists
1.8.4.1 Bulleted and numbered lists
* Click the Bulleted list button or Numbered List button on the
formatting toolbar.
* Type the first entry and press ENTER. This will create a
new bullet or number on the next line. If you want to start
a new line without adding another bullet or number, hold
down the SHIFT key while pressing ENTER.
* Continue to typing entries and press ENTER twice when you
are finished typing to end the list.
Use the Increase Indent and Decrease Indent buttons on the formatting
toolbar to create lists of multiple levels.
NOTE : You can also type the text first, highlight the section and press
the Bulleted List or Numbered List buttons to add the bullets or
numbers.
1.8.4.2 Nested lists
To create a nested list, such as a numbered list inside of a bulleted list,
follow these steps :
* Type the list and increase the indentation of the items
that will make up the nested list by clicking the Increase
Indent button for each item.
Lists Lists
* Bulleted and Numbered Lists 1. Bulleted andNumbered
Lists
* Nested Lists 2. Nested Lists
* Formatting toolbar. 3. Formatting Lists
Tables Tables
* Create a Table 1. Create a Table
* Highlight the items and click the Numbered List button
on the formatting toolbar.
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1.8.4.3 Formatting lists
The bullet image and numbering format can be changed by using
this list.
1.8.4.4 Bullets and Numbering Dialog Box
* Highlight the entire list to change all the bullets or
numbers, or place the cursor on one line within the list to
change a single bullet.
* Access the dialog box by selecting Format/Bullets and
Numbering from the menu bar or by right-clicking within
the list and selecting Bullets and Numbering from the
shortcut menu.
* Select the list style from one of the seven choices given, or
click the picture.... button to choose a diferent icon. Click the
Numbered tab to choose a number list style.
* Click Ok When finished.
1.8.5 Summary
In this lesson we have studied about different ways of creating Ms-Word
document. And various methods of formatting text, by selecting it and using the
toolbar options or keyboard shortcuts to change font styles, sizes and colors.
Additionally, apply formatting such as bold, italic, underline and alignment to
enhance the visual appearance of text. We have also studied about Styles, which
are pre-defined sets of formatting that can be applied to text, providing
consistency and easy document-wide changes.
1. How files are created and opened in MS word?
2. Write the procedure of creating bulleted and numbered lists.
3. Write the procedure of applying styles to the text.
1.8.7 Long Answer Type Question

1. Write the various ways of creating, saving and deleting a word document
2. Discuss different types of lists available in MS-Word

1. "Microsoft Office 2000 Complete", BPB Publications.
2. "Introduction to Computers with MS Office 2000", Tata McGraw Hill.
106

INSERTING PICTURES, SYMBOLS AND OBJECTS
Objectives
1.9.1 Introduction
1.9.2 Adding clip art
1.9.3 Add an image from a file
1.9.4 Editing a graphic
1.9.5 Auto Shapes
1.9.6 Summary
Objectives
In this lesson we will discuss about different ways of inserting about inserting
pictures, symbols and objects in Ms-Word.
1.9.1 Introduction
Inserting pictures, symbols, and objects in Microsoft Word can greatly enhance
the visual appeal and communication effectiveness of your documents. Here
are some key benefits of incorporating these elements:
1. Visual Engagement:
 Pictures: Images capture attention and engage readers. They can

convey complex ideas quickly, making the document more visually appealing
and stimulating.
2. Clarity and Understanding:

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 Pictures: Visual representations help clarify concepts, especially when
dealing with data, processes, or instructions. They enhance the reader's
understanding by providing a tangible reference.
3. Professionalism:
 Pictures and Objects: Including relevant images and well-designed

objects contributes to the overall professionalism of your document, making
it more polished and aesthetically pleasing.
4. Branding and Identity:
 Pictures and Symbols: Incorporating company logos or relevant symbols

can reinforce branding and identity, ensuring consistency across different
documents.
5. Emphasis and Highlighting:
 Symbols and Objects: Symbols and objects can be used to highlight key
points or draw attention to specific information, aiding in the emphasis of
critical details.
6. Illustration of Processes:
 Pictures and Objects: For instructional or procedural documents,

pictures and objects can illustrate steps or processes, making it easier for
readers to follow instructions.
7. Cross-Platform Communication:
 Pictures: When sharing documents across platforms or with individuals

who may not have access to the same software, pictures are a universal way
to convey information.
8. Visual Hierarchy:
 Pictures, Symbols, and Objects: These elements contribute to creating a

visual hierarchy in your document, guiding the reader through the content
and emphasizing key elements.
9. Creativity and Customization:
 Pictures, Symbols, and Objects: They allow for creative expression and
customization. You can tailor the visuals to suit the tone and style of your
document, making it more engaging and unique.
10. Improved Memory Retention:

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 Pictures: Visuals are processed more quickly by the brain than text,
which can lead to improved memory retention. Including relevant pictures
can make your document more memorable for the reader.
11. Enhanced Communication of Data:
 Pictures: Especially useful for data-driven documents, charts, graphs,

and other visual representations help convey complex data in a more
digestible and understandable format.
12. Multimodal Learning:
 Pictures and Symbols: For educational materials, using pictures and

symbols supports multimodal learning, catering to visual learners and
reinforcing concepts through different channels.
13. Improved Document Accessibility:
 Pictures and Symbols: Alt text for images and symbols enhances
document accessibility, ensuring that individuals with visual impairments
can still access and understand the content.
14. Aesthetics and Creativity:
 Pictures, Symbols, and Objects: They contribute to the overall aesthetics of

your document, making it visually appealing and inviting for the reader.
15. Cross-Referencing:
 Symbols and Objects: Symbols and objects can be used as markers or

indicators for cross-referencing within the document, helping to connect
related information.
In short, the benefits of inserting pictures, symbols, and objects in Microsoft

Word are multifaceted. These elements contribute to improved
communication, clarity, engagement, and overall document quality, making
your content more impactful and effective.
1.9.2 Adding clip art
To add a clip art image from Miscrosoft library to a document, follow these
steps:
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* Select Insert | Picture | Clip Art from the menu bar.
* To find an image, click in the white box following Search for clips.
Delete the words “Type one or more words...” and enter keywords
describing the image you want to find.
-OR-
Click one of the category icons.
* Click once on the image you want to add to the document and the
following popup menu will appear :
insert clip preview clip

add clip to favorites
find similar clips
* Insert Clip to add the image to the document.

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* Preview Clip to view the image full-size before adding it to the
document. Drag the bottom, right corner of the preview window to
resize the image and click the “x” close button to end the preview.
* Add Clip to Favorites will add the selected image to your favorites
directory that can be chosen from the Insert Clip Art dialog box.
* Find Similar Clips will retrieve images similar to the one you have
chosen.
* Continue selecting images to add to the document and Click the
Close button on the top, right corner of the Insert Clip Art window
to stop adding clip art tothe document.
1.9.3 Add an image from a file

Follow these steps to add a photo or graphic from an existing file:
* Select Insert | Picture | From File from the menu bar.
* Click the down arrow button on the right side of the Look in:
window to findthe image on your computer.
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* Highlight the file name from the list and click the Insert button.

Q1. What is clip art?
Ans……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Q2. How will you add an image from a File?
Ans……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
1.9.4 Editing a graphic
Active the image you wish to edit by clicking on it once with the mouse. Nine
handles will appear around the graphic. Click and drag these handles to
resize the image. The handles on the corners will resize proportionally
while the handles on the straight lines will stretch the image. More picture
effects can be changed using toolbar. The Picture toolbar should appear
when you click on the image. Otherwise, select View
| Toolbars | Picture from the menu bar to activate it.
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Image More/Les Line Format

Control s Style Picture
Brightness
Insert More/ Crop Text Reset

Picture Less Wrappin Picture
Contract g
* Insert Picture will display the image selection window and allows you
to change the image.
* Image Control allows to make the image grayscale, black and white or
a watermark.
* More/Less Contrast modifies the contrast between the colors of the
Click Crop and drag the handles on the activated image to delete
outer portion ofthe image.
* Line Style will add a variety of borders to the graphic.
* Text Wrapping will modify the way the document text wraps around
thegraphic.
* Format Picture displays all the image properties in a separate window.
* Reset Picture will delete all the modifications made to the image.
1.9.5 Auto Shapes

The AutoShapes toolbar allows you to draw many different geometrical
shapes, arrows, flow chart elements, stars and banners on the document.
Activate the AutoShapes toolbar by selecting Insert | Picture | AutoShapes
or View | Toolbars | AutoShapes from the menu bar. Click the buttons on
the toolbar to view the options for drawing each shape.
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Block Star
Line Arrow and
s s Banner More
s
Basic Flo Call

Shape w Out
s Char s
t
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* Lines - After clicking the Lines button on the AutoShapes toolbar,
draw a straight line, arrow or double-ended arrow from the first row
of options by clicking the respective button. Click in the document
where you would like the line to begin and click again where it
should end. To draw a curved line or freeform shape, select curved
lines from the menu (first and second buttons of second row), click in
the document where the line should appear, and click the mouse
every time a curve should begin. End creating the graphic by
clicking on the starting end or pressing the ESC key. To scribble,
click the last button in the second row, click the mouse in the
document and hold down the left button while you draw the design.
Let go of the mouse button to stop drawing.
* Basic Shapes - Click the Basic Shapes button on the AutoShapes
toolbar to
select from many two- and three-dimensional shapes, icons, braces
and brackets. Use the drag-and-drop method to draw the shape in the
document. When the shape has been made, it can be resized using
the open box handles and other adjustments specific to each shape
can be modified using the yellow diamond handles.
* Block Arrows - Select Block Arrows to choose from many types of two-
and three-dimensional arrows. Drag-and-drop the arrow in the
document and use the open box and yellow diamond handles to
adjust the arrowheads. Each AutoShape can also be rotated by
first clicking the Free Rotate button
on the drawing toolbar Click and drag the green handles

around the image to rotate it. The tree image below was created
from an arrow rotated 90 degrees.
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* Flow Chart - Choose from the flow chart menu to add flow chart
elements to the document and use the line menu to draw
connections between the elements.
* Stars and Banners - Click the button to select stars, bursts, banners
and
scrolls.
* Call Outs - Select from the speech and thought bubbles and line call
outs.
Enter the call out text in the text box that is made.
* More AutoShapes - Click this button to choose from a list of clip art
categories.
Each of the submenus on the AutoShapes toolbar can become a separate
toolbar. Just click and drag the gray bar across the top of the submenus off
of the toolbar and it will become a separate floating toolbar.
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1.9.6 Summary
In Microsoft Word, you can easily insert pictures, symbols, and objects to enhance
your documents:
1. Inserting Pictures:
o Click on the "Insert" tab in the ribbon.
o Select "Pictures" to upload an image from your computer.
o Choose the desired picture and click "Insert."
2. Inserting Symbols:
o Again, go to the "Insert" tab.
o Click on "Symbol" and choose "More Symbols."
o Select the desired symbol or special character and click "Insert."
3. Inserting Shapes:
o In the "Insert" tab, choose "Shapes."
o Pick a shape from the gallery, click and drag to draw it on your
document.
4. Inserting SmartArt:
o Navigate to the "Insert" tab and select "SmartArt."
o Choose a SmartArt graphic to represent your ideas visually.
5. Inserting Screenshots:
o Click on "Insert" and choose "Screenshot" to capture and insert a

screenshot.
6. Inserting Online Pictures:
o Select "Online Pictures" in the "Insert" tab to search and insert images
from the web.
7. Inserting Hyperlinks:
o Use the "Insert Hyperlink" option to link text or objects to websites,

files, or other locations.
8. Inserting Text Boxes:

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o Click on "Text Box" in the "Insert" tab to create a box for placing text
or additional information.
9. Inserting Watermark:
o Go to the "Design" tab and choose "Watermark" to insert predefined

watermarks or create custom ones.
10. Inserting Equations:
For mathematical equations, use the "Insert" tab and select "Equation" to access
the equation editor.
1. How clip art objects can be added to documents ?
2. How graphics added to documents can be edited?
3. What are autoshapes?
1. Write a detailed note on inserting pictures, symbols and objects in MS-word.

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FORMATTING DOCUMENTS
Objectives
1.10.1 Introduction
1.10.1.1 Paragraph attributes
1.10.1.2 Moving, copying and pasting text
1.10.1.3 The clipboard
1.10.1.4 Columns
1.10.1.5 Drop caps
1.10.2 Page Formatting
1.10.2.1 Page margins
1.10.2.2 Page size and orientation
1.10.2.3 Headers and footers
1.10.2.4 Page numbers
1.10.2.5 Print preview and printing
1.10.3 Creating Web Pages
1.10.3.1 Hyperlinks
1.10.3.2 Saving web pages
1.10.3.3 Creating a web page from a template
1.10.3.4 Web page themes
1.10.3.5 Preview the web page
1.10.4 Summary
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Objectives
In this lesson we will discuss about formatting of paragraphs and page in Ms-
Word. We will also study various ways of creating web pages using Ms-word.
1.10.1 Introduction
Formatting Paragraphs
1.10.1.1 Paragraph attributes
Format a paragraph by placing the cursor within the paragraph and
selecting Format Paragraph from the menu bar.
1.10.1.2 Moving, copying and pasting text

HIghlight the text that will be moved and select Edit | Cut from menu bar,
click the cut button on the standard tool bar or press CTRL+X at once.
This will move the textto a clipboard.
To move a small amount of text a short distance, the drag-and-drop
method may be quicker. Highlight the text you want to move, click the
selection with the mouse, drag the selection to the new location and
release the mouse button.
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Copying Text
To copy text, choose Edit | Copy, click the Copy button on the standard
toolbar, or press CTRL+C to copy the text to the clipboard.
Paste Text
To paste cut or copied text, move the cursor to the location you want to move
the text and select Edit | Paste from the menu bar, click the Paste button on the
standard toolbar or press CTRL+V.
1.10.1.3 The clipboard
The last 12 elements that were cut or copied are placed onto Word’s
clipboard. You can view the elements on the clipboard by selecting View |
Toolbars | Clipboard from the menu bar.
Place the mouse arrow over each element in the clipboard to view the
contents of each item and click on an element to add its contents to the
document. Click Paste All to add all of the items to the document at once.
Click the Clear Clipboard button (the icon with an “X” over the clipboard
image) to clear the contents of the clipboard.
1.10.1.4 Columns
To quickly place text in a column format, click the Columns button on the
standard toolbar and select the number of columns by dragging the
mouse over the diagram.
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For more column options, select Format | Columns from the menu bar. The
Columns dialog box allows you to choose the properties of the columns.
Select the number and width of the columns from the dialog box.
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remove columns
Select a present check to place a

column vertical line
enter the between column
number of
columns enter the
enter the width amount of space
of each column between
columns
check if all
columns are
equal width
1.10.1.5 Drop caps

A drop cap is a large letter that begins a paragraph and drops through
several lines of text as shown below :
W elcome to the at
the Florida
website.
will
We
increase
your know
office
programs.
Add a drop cap to a paragraph by following these steps:

* Place the cursor within the paragraph whose first letter will be
dropped.
* Select Format | Drop Cap from the menu bar.
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* The Drop Cap dialog box allows you to select the position of the
drop the font,the number of lines to drop and this distance from the
body text.
Q1. Write the shortcuts of cut, copy and paste
Ans………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
1.10.2 Page Formatting
1.10.2.1 Page margins
The page margins of the document can be changed using the rulers on
the page andthe Page Setup window. The ruler method is discussed
first:
* Move the mouse over the area where the white ruler changes to gray.
* When the cursor becomes a double-ended arrow, click with the

mouse anddrag the margin indicator to the desired location.
* Release the mouse when the margin is set.
The margins can also be changed using the Page Setup dialog box:
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* Select File | Page Setup and choose the Margins tab in the dialog box.
* Enter margin values in the Top, Bottom, Left and Right boxes. The
Preview
window will reflect the changes.
* If the document has Headers and/or Footers, the distance this text
appearsfrom the edge of the page can be changed.
* Click OK when finished.
1.10.2.2 Page size and orientation
Change the orientation page within the Page Setup dialog box.
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* Select File | Page Setup and choose the Paper Size tab.
* Select the proper size from the drop-down menu.

* Change the orientation from Portrait or Landscape by
checking the corresponding radio button.
1.10.2.3 Headers and footers
A header is text that is added to the top margin of every page such as a
document title or page number and a footer is text added to the bottom
margin. Follow these steps to add or edit headers and footers in the
document:
* Select View | Header and Footer from the menu bar. The Header and
Footer
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toolbar will appear and the top of the page will be highlighted as shown
below:
switch between
format page number header and
insert number of pages footer
insert page number
* Type the heading in the Header box. You may use many of the
standard textformatting options such as font face, size, bold,
italics, etc.
* Click the Insert AutoText button to view a list of quick options
available.
* Use the other options on the toolbar to add page numbers,
the current dateand time.
* To edit the footer, click the Switch between Header and Footer
button on thetoolbar.
* When you are finished adding headers and footers, click the
Close button on the toolbar.
Q2. Why do we use header and footer?
Ans…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
1.10.2.4 Page numbers
Follow these instructions for another way to add page numbers to a
document.
* Select Insert | Page Numbers from the menu bar and the following
dialog boxwill appear:
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* Select the position of the page numbers by choosing “Top of page”

or “Bottom ofpage” from the Position drop-down menu.
* Select the alignment of the page numbers in the Alignment drop-
down menu.
* If you do not want the page number to show on the first page
(if it is a titlepage, for example), uncheck the Show number of
first page box.
1.10.2.5 Print preview and printing
Preview your document by clicking the Print Preview button on the
standard toolbar or by selecting File | Print Preview. When the
document is ready to print, click the Print button from the Print
Preview screen or select File | Print.
The previous page explained how to create a web page using the Web
Page Wizard. This page describes creating a web page from scratch
and adding elements to a page from the wizard. When working on a
web format document, view the page in web layout by selecting View |
Web Layout from the menu bar. Enter text and insert graphics just as
you would in a normal Word document.
1.10.3 Creating Web Pages
1.10.3.1 Hyperlinks
A hyperlink is a connection between two web pages on the Internet.
Hyperlinks can be produced from text or graphics and both methods will
be discussed here. Follow these steps to create links to other web
sites and pages within your site:
* Type the text you want to appear on the page as a link or add
the graphic thatwill be a link.
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* highlight the text or graphic and click the Insert Hyperlink button
on thestandard toolbar or press CTRL+K.
* From the Insert Hyperlink dialog box, change the Text to display if
necessary.
* Type the file or Web page name in the appropriate box or select from
list.
* Click OK to create the link.
Pages on the web must be saved in a format called HTML (Hypertext
Markup Language) that is readable by web browsers. Word will convert
your document to HTML using the Save as Web Page feature.
* Select File | Save as Web Page from the menu bar.
* Click the Change Title button to add a title to the web page.
* Type the File name in the box provided.

* Be sure the Save as type is set to Web Page.
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* Click Save.
1.10.3.3 Creating a web page from a template
Word features several layout templates that you can add your own
content to. Createa web page from a template by following these
steps:
* Select File | New... from the menu bar
* Click the Web Pages tab on the New dialog box.
* Highlight one of the templates listed and click OK.
* The template will now appear in the main window. Replace the
pleceholding text with your own text by highlighting it and typing.
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Replace photos and images by deleting them and adding new images.
* Save the page by selecting File|Save as Web Page from the menu
bar.
1.10.3.4 Web page themes

The Visual Theme feature from the Web Page Wizard can be accessed
for any web page. To add a theme to a blank page or existing page,
select Format |Theme... from the menu bar. Choose a theme from the
list and click OK. The page content will remain blank unless a
background image is part of the theme that was selected. The style
listings, default font and bullet images have been changed to reflect
the new theme. To change the theme of the page, simply select Format
| Theme... from the menu bar again and choose a different theme.
1.10.3.5 Preview the web page
The page may look slightly different when converted to HTML and
viewed on the web. Before publishing your web page, be sure to use
Word’s web preview feature. Select File | Web Page Preview to open
the page in a web browser.
1.10.4 Summary
In this lesson we have discussed about formatting of paragraphs, which
consists of options for adjusting spacing before and after paragraphs,
enhancing the overall appearance and structure of the document. We have also
studied various ways of creating web pages using Ms-word.
1. What is the use of clip board?
2. How headers and footers can added to documents?
1. What are the various paragraph attributes?
2. Write the procedure of creating web page?
4. "Microsoft Office 2000 bible," IDG books Worldwide.
131

Using Tools
Objectives
1.11.1 Introduction
1.11.1.1 Autocorrect
1.11.1.2 Spelling and Grammar
1.11.1.3 Synonyms
1.11.1.4 Thesaurus
1.11.2 Macros
1.11.2.1 Recording a macro
1.11.2.2 Running a macro
1.11.3 Table of contents
1.11.3.1 Mark Table of contents Entries
1.11.3.2 Generate a table of contents
1.11.4 Web wizard
1.11.5 Creating web page
1.11.5.1 Hyperlinks
1.11.5.3 Creating a webpage from a Template
1.11.5.4 Webpage Themes
1.11.5.5 Preview the webpage
1.11.6 Keyboard shortcuts
1.11.7 Summary
Objectives
In this lesson we will discuss about various MS-Word tools like spelling and grammar, macros, Toc
and ways of creating web pages.
1.11.1 Introduction
Spelling and Grammar
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1.11.1.1 Autocorrect
Word automatically corrects many commonly misspelled words and
punctuation marks with the AutoCorrect feature. To view the list of words
that are automatically corrected, select Tools | AutoCorrect. This may be a
hidden feature so click the double arrows at
the bottom of the Tools menu listing if the AutoCorrect choice is not listed.
133
Many options including the accidental capitalization of the first two letters
of a word and capitalization of the first word of the sentence can be
automatically corrected from this page. If there are words you often
misspell, enter the wrong and correct spellings in the Replace and With
fields.
1.11.1.2 Spelling and Grammar
Word will automatically check for spelling and grammar errors as you type
unless you turn this feature off. Spelling errors are noted in the document
with a red underline. Grammar errors are indicated by a green underline.
To disable this feature, select Tools | Options from the menu bar and
click the Spelling and Grammar tab on the dialog box. Uncheck “Check
spelling as you type” and “Check grammar as you type” and click OK.
To use the spelling and grammar checker, follow these steps:
* Select Tools | spelling and Grammar from the menu bar.
* The Spelling and Grammar dialog box will notify you of the first
mistake inthe document and misspelled words will be highlighted in

red.
* If the word is spelled correctly, click the Ignore button or click the
Ignore All
button if the word appears more than once in the document.
134
* If the word is spelled incorrectly, choose one of the suggested
spellings in the Suggestions box and click the Change button or
Change All button to correct all occurrences of the word in the
document. If the correct spelling is not suggested, enter the correct
spelling in the Not In Dictionary box and clickthe Change button.
135
* If the word is spelled correctly and will appear in many documents
you type (such as your name), Click the Add button to add the word
to the dictionary soit will no longer appear as a misspelled word.
As long as the Check Grammar box is checked in the Spelling and Grammar
dialog box, Word will check the grammar of the document in addition to the
spelling. If you do not want the grammar checked, remove the checkmark
from this box. Otherwise, follow these steps for correcting grammar:
* If Word finds a grammar mistake, it will be shown in the box as the
spelling errors. The mistake is highlighted in green text.
* Several suggestions may be given in the Suggestions box. Select the

correction that best applies and click Change.
* If no correction is needed (Word is often wrong more than it is right),
click the
Ignore button.
1.11.1.3 Synonyms
Word 2000 has a new feature for finding synonyms. Simply right-click on
the word and select Synonyms from the shortcut menu. From the list of
suggested words, highlight the word you would like to use or click
Thesaurus... for more options.
The dog runs over the hill
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1.11.1.4 Thesaurus
To use the thesaurus, select Tools | Language | Thesaurus from the
menu bar or select it from the Synonyms shortcut menu as detailed
above.
A list of meanings and synonyms are given on the windows. Double-click

on the words in the Meanings box or click the Look Up button to view
similar words. Double-click words in the Replace with Synonym box to
137
view synonyms of those words. Highlight the word you would like to add
and click the Replace button.
Q1. What is Autocorrect?
Ans…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Q2. Define Thesaurus

Ans…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
1.11.2 Macros
Macros are advanced features that can speed up editing or formatting
may perform often in a Word document. They record sequences of
menu selections that you choose so that a series of actions can be
completed in one step.
1.11.2.1 Recording a macro
To record a macro, follow these steps:
* Click Tools | Macro | Record New Macro on the menu bar.
* Name the macro in the Macro name field. This name cannot
138
contain spaces and or begin with a number.

* From the Store macro in drop-down box, select the document you
would like the macro to be associated with or choose “All
Documents” be able to use the macro in any document.
* Enter a description of the macro in the Description field. This is for
your reference only so you remember what the macro does.
* Click OK to begin recording.
* Select options from the drop-down menus and Word will record
the options you choose from the dialog boxes, such as changing
the margins on the Page Setup window. Select only options that
modify the document. Word will not record toggle actions such
as View | Toolbars that have no effect on the document itself.
* The recording toolbar will allow you to stop, pause and resume
recording.
* Click the Stop button on the recording toolbar. The macro is now
saved.
1.11.2.2 Running a macro
To run an existing macro, follow these steps:
* Select Tools| Macros from the menu bar.
* From the Macros window, highlight the Macro name in the list
and click
Run.
139
* If the macro is long and you want to stop it while it is running,

press Break
(hold CTRL and press Pause).
1.11.3 Table of contents
Word will automatically create a Table of Contents page if a document is
designed using Heading and Paragraph styles (see the Styles section).
Follow the steps on this page to create a Table of Contents.
1.11.3.1 Mark Table of contents Entries
* Highlight a heading that you would like to appear in the Table of
Contents(TOC).
* Press ALT+SHIFT+O and the Mark Table of Contents Entry box will
appear.
140
* Entry - Rename the entry if you would like a different heading to

appear inthe TOC.
* Table identifier - Select “C”.
* Level - Choose “1” for first-level heading, “2” for second-level heading, etc.
* Click the Mark button.
* The document will be toggled to “reveal codes” view and notice the
TOC field code. To hide all codes click the Show/Hide codes button ¶
on the standard toolbar.
* Select another heading to add to the TOC, or click the Close button on
the
Mark Table of Contents Entry dialog box.
1.11.3.2 Generate a table of contents
After you have marked all the heading for you TOC, follow these steps to
generate theTable of Contents.
* Place the cursor where you would like the TOC to appear in the
document.
* Select Insert | Index and Tables from the menu bar.
* Customize the appearance of the TOC from the Table of Contents
tab. You may choose a preset design from the Formats drop-down
menu. A preview of each design will be shown in the Print Preview
window.
* Check the Show page numbers box if you would like page numbers to
show on the TOC. Check the Right align page numbers box if the page
numbers should appear on the right side, then select the Tab leader
between the heading and the page number. Uncheck the box if the
page numbers should appear rightnext to the heading.
* Click OK.
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Self check exercise-II

Q3. Define Macro
Ans…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Q4. What is TOC?

Ans…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
1.11.4 Web wizard
Word’s Web page Wizard will help you quickly create web pages for the
Internet with present layouts and graphics. Follow these steps to create a web
page using the wizard.
* Select File | New... from the menu bar.
142
* Highlight the Web Page Wizard icon and click OK.

143
* Click the Next button on the first Web Page Wizard box.
* Title and Location - Enter a title for your web site and select the
location onyour computer where the files will be saved. Click Next
when finished.
* Navigation - Select a navigation type for the web page. Separate page
is usuallythe best choice as it is the easiest to use.
144
* Add Pages - The next screen will list the pages currently in the web
site. Click the Add New Blank Page button to add a new page and
highlight a page in the list and click Remove Page to delete pages from
the web site. To add a page that you have already created to the site,
click the Add Existing File... button and select the page you want to
add.
* Click the Add Template Page .. to insert a page with a layout. Highlight the
choices in the Web Page Templates window to preview the template in
the main window. Click OK to select a template.

145
* Organize Pages-Reorder the pages of the Web site. Highlight the name of
the page that will be moved and click the Move Up and Move Down buttons.
Click Rename to rename a page
* Visual Theme - Select No visual theme for a blank page or select

check Add a visual theme and click Browse Themes... to select a
graphical theme.
* From the Themes window, highlights the themes in the list to preview
them.
146
Check the Vivid Colors and Active Graphics boxes to apply those options.
Uncheck the Background Image box to remove the graphic from the
background of the page.
* Click Finish to create the web site.

1.11.5 Creating web page
The previous page explained how to create a web page using the Web Page
Wizard. This page describes creating a web page from scratch and adding
elements to a page from the wizard. When working on a web format document,
view the page in web layout by selecting View | Web Layout from the menu
bar. Enter text and insert graphics just as you would in a normal Word
document.
1.11.5.1 Hyperlinks
A hyperlink is a connection between two web pages on the Internet.
Hyperlinks can be produced from text or graphics and both methods will be
discussed here. Follow these steps to create links to other web sites and pages
within your site:
147
* Type the text you want to appear on the page as a link or add the
graphic that will be a link.
* Highlight the text or graphic and click the Insert Hyperlink button on
the standard toolbar or press CTRL+K.
* From the Insert Hyperlink dialog box, change the Text to display if
necessary.
* Type the file or Web page name in the appropriate box or select from list.
* Click OK to create the link.
Pages on the web must be saved in a format called HTML (Hypertext Markup
Language) that is readable by web browsers. Word will convert your document
to HTML using the Save as Web Page feature.
* Select File | Save as Web Page from the menu bar.
* Click the Change Title button to add a title to the web page.
148
* Type the File name in the box provided.

* Be sure the Save as type is set to Web Page.
* Click Save.
1.11.5.3 Creating a webpage from a Template
Word features several layout templates that you can add your own content to
create a web page from a template by following these steps:
* Select File | New... from the menu bar.
* Highlight one of the templates listed and click OK.
149
* The template will now appear in the main window. Replace the
placeholding text with your own text by highlighting it and typing. Replace
photos and images by deleting them and adding new images.
* Save the page by selecting File | Save as Web Page from the menu bar.
150
1.11.5.4 Webpage Themes
The Visual Theme feature from the Web Page Wizard can be accessed for any
web page. To add a theme to a blank page or exiting page, select Format |
Theme... from the menu bar. Choose a theme from the list and click OK. The
page content will remain blank unless a background image is part of the theme
that was selected. The style listings, default font and bullet images have been
changed to reflect the new theme. To change the theme of the page, simply
select Format | Theme... from the menu bar again and choose a different
theme.
1.11.5.5 Preview the webpage
The page may look slightly different when converted to HTML and viewed on
the web. Before publishing your web page, be sure to use Word’s web preview
feature. Select File | Web Page Preview to open the page in a web browser.
1.11.6 Keyboard shortcuts
Keyboard shortcuts can save time and the effort of switching from the keyboard to
the mouse to execute simple commands. Print this list of Word keyboard
shortcuts and keep it by your computer for a quick reference.
Note : A plus sign indicates that the keys need to be pressed at the same time.
Action Keystroke Action Keystroke
Document actions Text Style
Font face CTRL+SHIFT+F

Open a file CTRL+O
New file CTRL+N Font Size CTRL+SHIFT+P
Close a file CTRL+W Bold CTRL+B
Save As F12
Italics CTRL+I
CTRL+S or
Save
SHIFT+F2 Underline CTRL+U
Print Preview CTRL+F2
Double Underline CTRL+SHIFT+D
Print CTRL+P
Show/Hide paragraph Word Underline CTRL+SHIFT+W
CTRL+*
symbols All caps CTRL+SHIFT+A
Spelling and grammar F7
Change case CTRL+F3
Help F1
Find CTRL+F Subscript CTRL+=
Replace CTRL+H Superscript CTRL+SHIFT+=
Go To CTRL+G
Make Web hyperlink CTRL+K
151
Cursor movement Tables
Select all-entire CTRL+A Go to next cell Tab

document Go to previous cell SHIFT+Tab
Select from cursor to Go to beginning of ALT+PageUp
beginning of line SHIFT+Home Column
Select from cursor to Highlight to ALT+SHIFT
end of line SHIFT+End beginning of +PageUP
Go to beginning of line Home Column
Go to end of line End Go to end of ALT+PageDown
Go to beginning of CTRL+Home Column
document Highlight to ALT+SHIFT
Go to end of CTRL+End end of Column +Page Down
document Go to beginning of ALT+Home
row
Formatting Highlight to ALT+SHIFT
beginning of row +Home
Cut CTRL+X Go to end of row ALT+End
Copy CTRL+C Highlight to ALT+SHIFT
Paste CTRL+V end of row +End
Undo CTRL+Z Column break CTRL+SHIFT

+Enter
Redo CTRL+Y
Format painter CTRL+Shift+C
Left alignment CTRL+L Miscellaneous
Centre alignment CTRL+E

Right alignment CTRL+R Copyright symbol-© ALT+CTRL+C
Justified CTRL+J
Date field ALT+SHIFT+D
Delete previous word CTRL+Backspace
Go to footnotes ALT+SHIFT+F
Apply bulleted list CTRL+SHIFT+L
Show/Hide ¶ ALT+SHIFT+8
Indent CTRL+M
Page break CTRL+Enter Thesaurus SHIFT+F7
152
1.11.7 Summary
In this lesson we have discussed about MS-Word tools like spelling and grammar, which offers a
built-in spelling and grammar checker that, identifies and suggests corrections for spelling and
grammatical errors in your documents. Macros, which are sequences of recorded actions or custom
scripts that automate repetitive tasks and Table of Contents (TOC), which is an auto-generated list
that outlines the document's headings and corresponding page numbers. We have also discussed
different ways of creating web pages.
1. How spelling & grammar of a word documents can be checked?
2. What is a web page?
3. What is the purpose of web wizard?

1. What is macro? Write the procedure of creating macro?
2. How table of contents can be created?
153
Working with Table
Objectives
1.12.1 Introduction
1.12.2 Draw a table
1.12.3 Inserting rows and columns
1.12.4 Moving and resizing a table
1.12.5 Tables and Borders toolbar
1.12.6 Table properties
1.12.7 Summary
Objectives
In this lesson we will discuss about tables in Ms-Word. We will discuss various ways of creating
table in Ms-word and different settings related to it.
1.12.1 Introduction
Tables in Microsoft Word are powerful tools that offer a range of benefits, contributing to the
efficient organization and presentation of data within documents. Whether you are creating
a report, a research paper, or a simple document, tables can significantly enhance the
readability, structure, and visual appeal of your content.
1. Structured Organization: Tables provide a structured and systematic way to organize

information. By dividing content into rows and columns, tables create a clear and visually
appealing layout that helps readers understand the relationships between different sets of
data. This structured presentation is particularly beneficial when dealing with complex
datasets or when presenting comparative information.
2. Data Organization and Comparison: One of the primary benefits of tables is their ability
to organize data. Information is presented in a grid format, making it easy to compare values
154
within and across rows and columns. This feature is especially valuable for displaying
numerical data, statistics, or any information requiring side-by-side analysis.
3. Alignment and Consistency: Tables help maintain consistent alignment and formatting
throughout a document. The cells in a table are automatically aligned, providing a uniform
appearance that contributes to the document's overall professionalism. This consistency is
important for creating a polished and visually appealing document.
4. Easy Data Entry: Entering data into a table is user-friendly. Users can simply click on a
cell and input text or numbers, streamlining the data entry process. This simplicity makes
tables an excellent choice for individuals who may not have advanced formatting or data
manipulation skills.
5. Cell Formatting Options: Word provides a variety of formatting options for cells within a
table. Users can customize cell borders, shading, text alignment, and font properties. These
formatting features allow for creative and professional customization, ensuring that the table
aligns with the document's visual style and meets specific presentation requirements.
6. Sorting and Filtering: Tables in Word support sorting and filtering capabilities, allowing
users to rearrange data based on specific criteria. This functionality is particularly valuable
for large datasets, enabling users to quickly identify trends, outliers, or specific data points
within the table.
7. Calculation and Formulas: Tables in Word support basic calculations, making them more
than just containers for static data. Users can create formulas within cells to perform
mathematical operations such as sums, averages, or percentages. This dynamic capability
adds a layer of functionality to tables, enhancing their usefulness for tasks involving
numerical data.
8. Easy Editing and Flexibility: Tables are highly flexible and can be easily edited. Users can
add or remove rows and columns, modify data, or adjust the table's structure without
disrupting the overall document layout. This flexibility is crucial when working with evolving
or dynamic datasets.
9. Visual Representation: Tables in Word can be used to create visual representations of

data, such as charts or graphs. While Word itself may not offer advanced charting
capabilities, tables can be seamlessly integrated with Excel, allowing for the creation of more
complex visualizations to complement textual content.
10. Accessibility and Readability: Tables contribute to document accessibility by breaking

down complex information into a more digestible format. The organized structure of tables
155
enhances readability and ensures that information is presented in a clear and
comprehensible manner, benefiting a diverse audience.
11. Integration with Other Office Applications: Tables created in Word can be easily
copied and pasted into other Microsoft Office applications like Excel or PowerPoint. This
interoperability facilitates a smooth workflow, allowing users to leverage the strengths of
different Office tools based on their specific needs.
In conclusion, tables in Microsoft Word offer a wide range of benefits, from enhancing data
organization and comparison to providing tools for customization, calculation, and visual
representation. Their user-friendly nature and integration with other Office applications
make them indispensable for creating professional and visually appealing documents.
Whether you are a student, a professional, or anyone working with information, mastering
the use of tables in Word can significantly improve the quality and effectiveness of your
documents.
Insert a Table
There are two ways to add a table to the document using the Insert feature:
* Click the Insert Table button on the standard toolbar. Drag the mouse
along the word highlighting the number of rows and columns for the
table.
156
* Or, select Table | Insert | Table from the menu bar. Select the number
of rows and columns for the table and click OK.
1.12.2 Draw a table

A table can also be drawn onto the document:
* Draw the table by selecting Table | Draw Table from the menu bar.
The cursor is now the image of a pencil and the Tables and Borders
toolbar has appeared.
* Draw the cells of the table with the mouse. If you make a mistake, click
the
Eraser button and drag the mouse over the area to be deleted.
* To draw more cells, click on the Draw Table button

157
1.12.3 Inserting rows and columns
Once the table is drawn, insert additional rows by placing the cursor in the row
you want to be adjacent to. Select Table | Insert | Rows Above or Rows
Below. Or, select an entire row and right-click with the mouse. Choose Insert
Rows from the shortcut menu.
Much, like inserting a row, add a new column by placing the cursor in a cell
adjacent to where the new column will be added. Select Table | Insert |
Columns to the Left or Columns to the Right. Or, select the column, right -
click with the mouse and select Insert Coulumns.
Q1. How will you insert a table in Ms-Word?

Ans…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
1.12.4 Moving and resizing a table
A four-sided moving arrow and open box resizing handle will appear on the
corners of the table if the mouse is placed over the table. Click and drag the four
ended arrow to move the table and release the mouse button when the table is
positioned where you want it. Click and drag the open box handle to resize the
table. Change the column widths and row heights by clicking the cell dividers and
dragging them with the mouse.
Move handle

reside handle
1.12.5 Tables and Borders toolbar

The Tables and Borders toolbar allows you to add border styles, shading, text
effects, aligment and more options to your table. Access the toolbar by clicking
Table | Draw Table or View | Toolbars | Tables and Borders.
158
You will need to highlight the cells of the table you want to format. Click
and drag the mouse over the cells, or use the following shortcuts:
159
Selection Menu Method Mouse Method

One cell Table | Select | Cell Click the bottom, left corner of the
cell when a black arrow appears
One row Table | Select | Row Click outside the table to the left of
the row
One column Table | Select | Column Click outside the table above the
column when a black arrow appears
Several rows (none) Click outside the table to the left of

the row and drag the mouse down
Several columns (none) Click outside the table above the
column
Entire Table Table | Select | Table Triple-click to the left of the table.
1.12.6 Table properties

Use the Table Properties dialog box to modify the alignment of the table
with the body text and the text within the table. Access the box by selecting
Table | Table Properties
* Size - Check the Preferred width box and enter a value if the table
should be an exact width.
* Alignment - Highlight the illustration that represents the alignment

of the table in relation to the text of the document.
* Text wrapping - Highlight “None” if the table should appear on a

separate line from the text or choose “Around” if the text should
wrap around the table.
* Borders and Shading - Select from a number of border styles, colors

and widths. Click the Shading tab to change the background color
and pattern.
160
* Options - Click the Options button on the Table Properties window. To

change the spacing between the document text and the table borders
under Default cell margins. Check the Allow spacing between cells
box and enter a value to add space between the table cells.
161
1.12.7 Summary
In this lesson we have discussed about tables in Ms-Word, which are useful for organizing and
presenting data in a structured format. They provide a grid system for arranging information,
making it easier to create schedules, compare data or design organized layouts within
documents. Users can customize tables by adjusting formatting, merging cells, and applying
various styles to enhance visual clarity. We have also discussed various ways of creating table in
Ms-word and different settings related to it.
1. How size and number of rows and columns can be changed?
2. What are the various properties of tables?
3. How tables can be named and resized?
1. What are the benefits of using table in Ms-Word?

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Centre for Distance and Online Education

Punjabi University, Patiala

Class : B.Com. I Semester : 1

Department website : www.pbidde.org

Paper: BCOU1106T - COMPUTER APPLICATIONS IN BUSINESS

Max Marks : 100 External Assessment : 60

Time : 3 Hours Internal Assessment : 20

Pass Marks : 35% Practical : 20

Instructions for Paper-Setters/Examiners

INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE PRACTICAL EXAMINATION

The break-up of marks for the Practical will be as under:

(i) Lab Record 5 Marks

(ii) Viva-voce 5 Marks

(iii) Program Development and Execution 10

1. Microsoft Office 2000 Complete: BPB Publication.

3. Implementing Tally: BPB Publication

4. PC Complete, BPB Publications

Jana Calabria : Windows 98-6in I, Prentice Hall

LESSON NO. 1.1 AUTHOR: Dr. Renu Dhir

Converted into SLM by Dr. Vishal Singh

1.1.10 Output Devices

Key —> Data Flow

Hardware & Software Hierarchy for Computers

Self check exercise-I

Self check exercise-II

1.1.9 Input Devices

1.1.10 Output devices

working photographically from a printed

(1) Program :- Set of sequential instructions given to

LESSON NO. 1.2 AUTHOR: Dr. Renu Dhir

Converted into SLM by Dr. Vishal Singh

There are two types of memories :-

Self Check Exercise-I

1.2.6 Hard Disk :

Q3. What is HDD?

Assembly language ProgramAssemblerObject code in machine language.

James Gosling started a project on controlling consumer electronic devices with

1.2.16 Long answer type questions

LESSON NO. 1.3 AUTHOR: Mr. Arun Sharma

Converted into SLM by Dr. Vishal Singh

Number System and Its conversion

weight of a digit in any positional number system depends on its relative

1.3.2.3 Octal Number System

Octal Digit Binary Digit

Table : Octal and Binary Numbers

Coverting (010111)2 to Octal

thus, (010111)2 = (27)8

Octal to decimal conversion

7×82 + 5×81 + 6×80

includes only the digits 0 through 9 and the letters A, B, C, D, E and F

Repeat Divison-Convert decimal to

Example: convert 37810 to hexadecimal and binary:

Division Result Hexadecimal

Binary = 0001 0111 10102

Octal-To-Hexadecimal Hexadecimal-To-Ocatl Conversion

Convert 5A816 to Octal

Self check Exercise-1

1.3.3.1 Conversion of a Decimal Number to a Binary Number

1.3.3.2 Addition to Binary Numbers

1.3.4.2 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD Codes)