Natural Resources Research ( 2018)

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11053-018-9405-4

Original Paper

Groundwater Quality Assessment in a Hyper-arid Region

of Rajasthan, India

1,2,3 1
Prashant Bhakar and Ajit Pratap Singh

Received 10 March 2018; accepted 17 August 2018

Groundwater is an important source of livelihood in regions where rainfall is scanty, surface

water sources are absent, and all domestic and agricultural needs are fulfilled with
groundwater. This study deals with groundwater quality assessment in a hyper-arid region
using multivariate statistical analysis. A total of 43 samples were collected and analyzed
using principal component analysis and hierarchical cluster analysis to model the relation-
ship and interdependence among the various physicochemical variables contributing to
groundwater quality in the study area. The results of the statistical techniques showed that
the variables are in strong correlation with each other. Cluster analysis proved to be a good
tool to ascertain the spatial similarity between the contributing variables. The methodology
adopted in the present study has been found to be effective and can be utilized to establish
strong water quality monitoring network in similar areas.
KEY WORDS: Sustainable groundwater development, Water quality, Multivariate statistical methods,
Geochemistry, Hyper-arid region.

INTRODUCTION chemical processes that impact groundwater quality

are a matter of growing interest. Vasanthavigar et al.
Groundwater is considered as a blue gold of (2010) considered hydrogeochemical parameters to
vital social and economic importance. Its quality has ascertain groundwater suitability for human needs as
significant effects on human health and agriculture. well as for irrigation purposes. Li et al. (2016) re-
The sustainability of groundwater quality and ported that variations in regional hydrology and
quantity is essential for its domestic and agricultural water resources are driven by human activities and
uses, so that it can be utilized effectively for a long natural environmental changes. When groundwater
time in an optimal manner without damaging the comes in contact with dissolved salts derived by
environment (Singh 2010). As water is a good sol- weathering of mineral rocks, its salinity increases the
vent, it is highly vulnerable to quality degrade action concentrations of various cations and anions in it as
due to geological and anthropogenic sources of well. The active management of agricultural land-
pollution and other developmental actions (Tiwari scapes affects the quality of groundwater in aquifers.
et al. 2017; Das et al. 2010). Therefore, hydrogeo- The use of wide variety of fertilizers, manure, and
excessive phosphorus and nitrogen substances dur-
1
Civil Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology and ing agricultural production causes degradation of
Science, Pilani 333031, India. groundwater quality (Getahun and Keefer 2016).
2
Department of Civil of Engineering, Government Engineering Groundwater quality in arid to hyper-arid regions
College, Bikaner 334001, India. occurs due to over-exploitation of groundwater and
3
To whom correspondence should be addressed; e-mail:
bhakarprashant@gmail.com

 2018 International Association for Mathematical Geosciences

 Bhakar and Singh

exposure of groundwater to mineral deposits in drastically in the block in the last decade. The block
aquifers. is facing an acute shortage of groundwater resources
Many researchers have carried out groundwater with the stage of groundwater development reaching
quality assessment in India (Kamra et al. 2002; Singh as high as  147%. Most of the block comprises
et al. 2002; Ravindra and Garg 2006; Gautam et al. alluvial aquifer system and is underlain by highly
2015; Kumar et al. 2015). Certain studies have found permeable and well-drained coarse sandy to sandy
that over-exploitation of groundwater results in loam soils. The alluvial aquifers become vulnerable
degradation of its quality and gradual drop of to contamination due to their high permeability and
groundwater table up to 30 m for many wells shallow characteristics (Singh et al. 2005a, b). Along
(Chintalapudi et al. 2017). These increase ground- with this, anthropogenic sources and hydrogeo-
water salinity, which increases the content of fluo- chemical processes may be accountable for con-
ride, nitrate, iron, and other heavy metals in the taminating the groundwater. The aquifer chemistry
groundwater (Kamra et al. 2002; Singh et al. 2002; is severely affected by the anthropogenic and natural
Gautam et al. 2015). Once contamination of activities, and so attention is required to focus on
groundwater occurs from agricultural residues, fer- these activities for sustainable management of the
tilizers, and over-exploitation, it can persist for ground water (Subba Rao et al. 2006). Thus, there is
decades because groundwater movement in aquifer a need to carry out extensive investigation on the
is very slow. Earlier studies of groundwater quality issues to assess different processes involved in
reveal that its chemistry is governed by typical cor- groundwater contamination in the block (Helena
relations and interactions among a wide range of et al. 1999).
physicochemical variables (Praveena et al. 2010; Multivariate methods, such as hierarchical clus-
Singh and Mukherjee 2015). Singh and Mukherjee ter analysis (HCA) and principal component analysis
(2015) assessed groundwater geochemistry in the (PCA), have been applied for understanding multi-
western part of India, whereas Praveena et al. (2010) faceted data in order to derive a clearer understand-
assessed groundwater quality in unconfined aquifers ing of water quality in an area under consideration
using numerical and hydro-chemical approaches. (Srinivas et al. 2015). Probable factors that are liable
Groundwater chemistry is a major criterion for its for variations in groundwater quality can be deter-
use for drinking and agricultural needs. Jasrotia mined effectively by applying the above-said meth-
et al. (2018) evaluated groundwater quality param- ods. These methods are important tools for
eters using geochemical plots and various other hy- formulating suitable policies for real-time and sus-
dro-chemical analytical methods in order to assess tainable management of groundwater assets (Singh
groundwater geochemistry. and Ghosh 2003; Singh et al. 2005a, b; Singh 2008).
Rajasthan is the largest state in India that Bhakar and Singh (2018) assessed environmental
stands at very critical juncture due to its alarming impacts of groundwater supply system in a hyper-arid
decrease in groundwater levels. Because of inade- region of India and found that life cycle assessment is
quate surface water potential and meager rainfall, also a possible tool for identifying major hot spots for
there is an increased dependence on groundwater sustainable groundwater management.
for meeting almost all types of water requirements. In the present study, groundwater samples have
Contamination of groundwater in Rajasthan is been collected during both pre- and post-monsoon
prone to increase due to inefficient water pumps and periods in the year 2016. The samples were analyzed
irrigation systems. Excess infiltration of groundwater using charge balance error method, and statistical z-
is due to its low prices and believed abundant scores were computed. Finally, 14 out of 43 samples
availability in aquifers, which are not true for every were found appropriate for further analysis. Differ-
location (Schmoll et al. 2006). ent multivariate statistical techniques were applied
The present study deals with the Bikaner block to extract information about the similarities or dis-
of Rajasthan, which belongs to the category of hy- similarities between the sampling sites for the iden-
per-arid zone because it receives 100–350 mm of tification of (a) water quality variables responsible
precipitation every year. In recent years, the pre- for spatial and temporal variations in groundwater
vailing groundwater situation in the block has be- quality, (b) hidden factors explaining the structure
come alarming due to incessant falling of water of the database, and (c) the influence of possible
levels in the wells. The number of pumping wells for factors (natural and anthropogenic) on groundwater
drinking and irrigation purposes has increased quality parameters.
Groundwater Quality Assessment in a Hyper-arid Region

The major issues addressed in this study are (1) nomic and anthropogenic activities in an arid region
evaluation of the suitability of groundwater in the in Western China.
Bikaner block of Rajasthan, (2) assessment of pre- Important observations made from the litera-
vailing association among the contributing parame- ture review are the following:
ters and/or groundwater occurrence, and (3)
determination of the utility of multivariate statistical  Most of the existing studies found that
methods in order to achieve sustainable groundwa- groundwater quality is deteriorating due to
ter quality management. fast economic and anthropogenic growth.
Figure 1 depicts the graphical representation of  In many of the studied regions, groundwater
the research work discussed in this paper. It explains is not drinkable, especially in arid and semi-
the major problem and need of the study, research arid regions.
methodology adopted, and findings of the present  The existing studies assessed the major fac-
study. This study meticulously contributes to the tors of groundwater quality deterioration.
limited number of groundwater quality studies in the  The research community believes that both
Bikaner block, which faces water scarcity, and dis- anthropogenic and natural processes affect
cusses its applicability to other similar regions. The groundwater quality.
current study presents a novel approach using multi-  The research community argues that
criteria decision-making tools and hydrogeochemi- groundwater recharge and groundwater con-
cal plotting to understand the interrelationship tamination are two major problems.
among various groundwater quality parameters in a
hyper-arid region of western Rajasthan in order to
support decision-makers in devising a suitable policy
for sustainable groundwater management. This STUDY AREA
study discusses critical issues of groundwater quality
and identifies critical physicochemical parameters Location and Extent
regulating the groundwater quality in the block,
which will hopefully create mass awareness among The Bikaner block is located in the northwest-
the various stakeholders and policymakers as well. ern part of the state of Rajasthan, and it has an
Hence, it is expected to yield direct benefits to international border with Pakistan (Fig. 2). It occu-
society and to create awareness among people in a pies 30,381.75 sq. km and lies between 2711¢ and
groundwater-dependent ecosystem. 2903¢ north latitudes and 7154¢ and 7412¢ east
longitudes.

LITERATURE REVIEW
Climate and Rainfall
Table 1 depicts the major research work carried
out within the knowledge field in which thus study The climate of the Bikaner block ranges from
falls in terms of contribution, location, parameters, arid in the east to extremely arid/hyper-arid in the
methodology, and regional aspects. It is observed west and is characterized by extreme high temper-
from the contemporary literature that a groundwa- ature, erratic rainfall, and high evaporation. Being
ter quality assessment in terms of hydrogeochemical situated on the western side of the Aravalli hill
parameters is a common approach to understand the ranges, the area is characterized as a typical rain
hydrology and status of groundwater. The studies shadow region resulting in low precipitation. The
reviewed by this study are found close to our re- normal annual average rainfall of the block is
search aim, which is toward assessment of ground- 262.11 mm during the last 108 years (1901–2008).
water quality in an arid to hyper-arid region. The The temperature in winter season is fairly low, and
studies reviewed aim to promote research in there is a probability of frost occurrence once in
groundwater quality, which is rapidly deteriorating three years. Wind speeds during winter season are
due to intensified human activities and fresh water low with an average of 4.5 km/h, the main direction
needs (Li et al. 2016). A study by Li et al. (2017) of wind being NE. High temperatures in the block
discussed contemporary research on groundwater start from April onwards, whereas May and June are
quality level and its deterioration due to fast eco- the hottest months of the year.
 Bhakar and Singh

Figure 1. Summary of graphical representation of the present study.

Physiography and Geomorphology particular season of the year. The percentage of

uncultivable land is about 55 percent depending on
The general regional slope of the block is from annual rainfall characteristics, nature of geomor-
SSE to NNW, and regional elevation above MSL is phology, and non-availability of water sources. The
about 152 m in the western part and about 275 m in forest and pasture lands account for 2.59 percent and
the eastern part. The block has no major river. 1.77 percent of the total area of the block, respec-
Alluvium, Tertiary, and Paleozoic sandstone are the tively.
main water-bearing formations in the block. The
depth to water in the block ranges between 5 and
136 m below ground level. Based on historical evo-
lution, slope, erosion and depositional characteris- Geology
tics, size and nature of sediments, drainage system
and salinity hazards, the existing landforms of the The rock formations in the block are mainly
block can be described as flat and gravelly aggraded concealed beneath a thick cover of dune sand.
older alluvial plains. However, a very few isolated rocks are exposed to
the surface. Based on the available literature and
lithology of existing dug wells and tube wells in the
Land Use region, the rock units in the block exist from Pale-
ozoic to Quaternary periods. A generalized geologic
About 35 percent of the total area of the block succession of the rock formations occurring in the
is cultivated. However, the area sown varies up to 45 block along with their lithological characters is given
percent depending upon rainfall occurrence in a in Table 2.
Groundwater Quality Assessment in a Hyper-arid Region

Table 1. Summary of the existing literature on groundwater/surface water quality analysis

S. no. Author Contribution Location Parameters Methodology Region

1 Li et al. To provide a clear picture of status and extent of Hua Coun- SAR and Wilcox and USSL Arid
(2016) groundwater pollution for the purpose of policy ty, Chi- RSC (Statistical and
and decision-makers the groundwater quality na hydrogeochemical
was assessed plotting)
2 Maroufpoor To predict the spatial distribution of groundwater Kerman EC ANN and ANFIS Arid
et al. EC. The study utilized geo-statistic-based Pro-
(2017) Kriging and co-Kriging methods and compared vince,
with data-driven ANN and ANFIS models for Iran
predicting spatial distribution of groundwater
EC
3 Yang et al. To evaluate the hydrogeochemical processes that Ordos ba- Cations Piper trilinear dia- Arid
(2016) probably affect the groundwater quality sin, Chi- and an- gram plotting
na ions
4 Hosseinifard To evaluate the factors regulating groundwater Rafsanjan Major ions, Hydrochemistry dia- Arid
and Ami- quality plain, pH, grams
niyan Iran SAR,
(2015) EC, TDS
5 Patel et al. To evaluate hydrogeochemical parameters Andhra Major ions, Piper trilinear dia- Arid
(2016) Pradesh, TDS gram plotting, PCA
India
6 Marghade To assess the spatial controlling processes of Nagpur, Major ions, PCA Arid/
et al. groundwater contamination using PCA. The India pH, EC, semi-
(2015) PCA helps as a tool to assess the controlling TDS, TH arid
processes of the groundwater quality
7 Bhuiyan and To identify and demarcate zones and levels of Rajasthan, Major ions, GIS Arid
Ray (2017) pollution. The study has revealed that ground- India pH, EC
water in many parts of the region is unsuit-
able either for drinking or for irrigation by using
a comparison of the obtained values with BIS
and WHO
8 Ma et al. To understand the controlling factors of ground- North Chi- Major ions, DA and factor analy- Arid/
(2014) water quality. This work can help to identify the na heavy sis semi-
main controlling factor of groundwater quality metals arid
in North China plain, to make better and more
informed decisions for achieving sustainable
groundwater development
9 Nazzal et al. To map groundwater quality. It is observed that Central Major ions, PCA Arid
(2015) both natural and anthropogenic processes con- Saudi pH, EC
tribute to the groundwater quality, but anthro- Arabia
pogenic impacts are more important and result
in further deterioration of groundwater quality
10 Bencer et al. To highlight the hydro-chemical processes of Eastern Major ions CA and PCA Arid
(2016) groundwater Algeria
11 Singh et al. To study major hydrogeochemical processes and Delhi, In- Major ions, PCA, HCA, and DA Arid/
(2017) to decipher the impact of anthropogenic activi- dia EC semi-
ties using multivariate statistical techniques and arid
conventional graphical plots
12 Jalali (2012) To assess the controlling factors of groundwater Western Major ions PCA, graphical plots, Arid/
chemistry Iran chemical analysis semi-
arid
13 Brandsegg To investigate the structure of variations within Mid-Nor- Wireline Structured PCA –
et al. highly heterogeneous data way well log
(2010) data
 Bhakar and Singh

Table 1. continued

S. no. Author Contribution Location Parameters Methodology Region

14 Praveena et al. To evaluate the groundwater quality East Malaysia Major ions Hydro-chemical –
(2010) of unconfined aquifer analysis
15 Voudouris Assessment of groundwater hydro- Peloponnese, Major ions, pH, Simple and multiple Semiarid
et al. (2000) chemistry, especially in situations Greece EC, TDS, TH regression, factor,
where numerous samples are avail- and trend-surface
able analyses
16 Sheikh et al. To infer hydrogeochemical processes Haryana, In- Major ions Stable isotopes, Arid
(2017) dia GIS, Piper plots
17 Sharma et al. To identify useful pollution indicators Rajasthan, Major ions Factor analysis Arid
(2015) of groundwater India
18 Mondal et al. To identify major impacting physico- Rajasthan, Major ions, pH, Standard hydro- Semiarid
(2016) chemical parameters of groundwa- India EC, TDS, TH chemical analysis
ter quality
19 Ahada and To discuss the hydrochemistry of the Rajasthan, Major ions, pH, Hydro-chemical Arid
Suthar groundwater India EC, TDS, TH analysis, Piper
(2017) plot
20 Tiwari et al. To provide an overview of the spatial Rajasthan, Major ions, pH, Hydro-chemical Arid
(2017) variation of groundwater quality India EC, TDS, TH analysis, Piper
parameters plot, GIS
21 Lapworth et al. To explore the hydrochemistry of the Northwest Major ions, trace Hydro-chemical Arid
(2017) top 160-m aquifer systems India elements analysis
22 Chintalapudi To assess the groundwater quality Jaipur, Ra- Major ions, pH, Hydro-chemical Arid
et al. (2017) contamination threat around indus- jasthan, In- EC, TDS, TH, analysis, Piper
trial cluster at Rajasthan State dia SAR plots, Gibbs plots
Industrial Development and
Investment Corporation (RIICO) in
Jaipur
23 Kumar et al. To understand the effect of canal re- Bikaner, Ra- Major ions, pH, Hydro-chemical Hyper-arid
(2016) charge on groundwater and subsur- jasthan, In- EC analysis
face movement of recharge dia
pathways
24 Singh et al. To evaluate the geochemical mecha- Western In- Major ions Hydro-chemical Arid region
(2017) nism of fluoride enrichment in dia analysis, X-ray
groundwater of western India diffraction, geo-
chemical plots
25 Vasanthavigar To develop a water quality index by South India Cations and an- Hydro-chemical Tropical
et al. (2010) understanding hydrogeochemical ions Na, Mg, analysis, geo- Savanna/
parameters for Thirumanimuttar Ca, K Cl, chemical plots semiarid
sub-basin of Tamilnadu, India HCO3, SO4
26 Tirkey et al. To identify the groundwater quality Northeast In- Cations and an- Hydro-chemical Tropical
(2017) status in peri-urban agglomeration dia ions; heavy analysis, water Savanna
of Ranchi City metals quality index
(WQI)
27 Jain and Vaid Analyzed water quality parameters to Eastern India Cations and an- Hydro-chemical Subtropical
(2018) observe the suitability for drinking ions analysis, SAR, humid
and irrigation purposes in Nalbari USSL diagram, (dry win-
District of Assam GibbÕs scatter ter)
diagram
28 Vijay et al. Assessed and evaluated the deterio- Eastern India Physicochemical Hydro-chemical Tropical
(2011) ration of groundwater quality due and bacterio- analysis, bacterio- Savanna
to anthropogenic activities in the logical logical analysis,
Puri City, India water level fluc-
tuations
Groundwater Quality Assessment in a Hyper-arid Region

Table 1. continued

S. no. Author Contribution Location Parameters Methodology Region

29 Singh and Analyzed the groundwater samples for Northeast Major ions, Multivariate statistical Subtropical
Singh arsenic contamination and also plot- India arsenic analysis, geochemical humid
(2018) ted the observation using Piper dia- contamina- plotting (dry win-
grams for groundwater samples tion ter)
30 Ahamad et al. Analyzed the geochemistry of ground- Northern Cations and Water quality index, Subtropical
(2018) water samples from Varanasi using India anions GibbÕs plot, and Piper humid
various geochemical plots such as plot (dry win-
GibbÕs plot and Piper plots ter)
31 Srivastava To assess the impacts of landfills on Northern Major ions Hydrogeochemical plots, Subtropical
and Rama- groundwater quality using various India and heavy multivariate statistical humid
nathan hydrogeochemical methods and metals techniques (dry win-
(2008) multivariate statistical tools ter)
32 Jasrotia et al. To evaluate the groundwater quality Northern Cations and PiperÕs diagram, Ex- Subtropical
(2018) parameters to assess the geochem- India anions panded Durov dia- humid
istry of the groundwater in the gram, KelleyÕs ratio (dry win-
Western Doon Valley region index, and permeabil- ter)
ity index
33 Chabukdhara Assessed the groundwater quality and Northern Heavy metals Fuzzy comprehensive Subtropical
et al. (2017) health risk associated with it using India and major assessment (FCA) and humid
hydrogeochemical methods and ions PCA (dry win-
multivariate techniques ter)
34 Arumugam To assess the groundwater contamina- South India Major ions PCA analysis Tropical
and Elan- tion due to anthropogenic activities Savanna/
govan using various geochemical plots and semiarid
(2009) various hydrogeochemical methods
for Tirupur Region of Coimbatore
District, Tamil Nadu, India
35 Avtar et al. Conducted a hydro-chemical study in Central In- Major ions PCA analysis, Piper dia- Subtropical
(2013) order to establish the suitability of dia gram , and geochemi- humid
groundwater for drinking, agricul- cal plotting (dry win-
tural and industrial purposes ter)
36 Raju (2007) Estimated SAR, RSC, permeability South India Major ions Chadha rectangular dia- Tropical
index (PI) using Chadha rectangular gram, and geochemical Savana
diagram for geochemical classifica- plotting
tion and hydro-chemical processes
37 Singh et al. To ascertain the presence of heavy Northern Major ions PCA, Piper diagram, and Subtropical
(2011) metals in groundwater samples and India geochemical plotting humid
used Piper and other graphical (dry win-
methods to represent the groundwa- ter)
ter geochemistry
38 Singh (2010) The study explains the feasibility of Northwest Soil moisture Model-based simulation N/A
conjunctive use of surface water and India and salinity of conjunctive water
groundwater for sustainable irriga- use, management of
tion for agricultural crop production saline water
39 Singh (2014) Presented an overview of major issues Widespread Conjunctive Review paper N/A
and methods for the conjunctive use use of wa-
of both groundwater and surface ter
water resources for sustainably irri-
gated agriculture

SAR sodium absorption ratio, RSC residual sodium carbonate, PCA principal component analysis, DA discriminant analysis, ANFIS
adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system, EC electrical conductivity, ANN artificial neural network
 Bhakar and Singh

Figure 2. Location of the study area.

Table 2. Geological succession in the Bikaner block

Group Series Geological Lithological characteristics Water-bearing properties

unit

Quaternary Recent Windblown Very fine to fine, buff to gray sand, well-rounded to Generally lies above the zone of
sand sorted by wind action saturation
Pleistocene Alluvium Unconsolidated to loosely consolidated sand, fine to Yield low to moderate supplies of
medium, silty clays and Kanker with occasional hori- water. Quality varies from
zons of gravel sand and coarse sand. Sodium salt and potable to brackish
gypsum occur at places. Thickness varies from 4 to
70 m
Tertiary Eocene Sandstone Coarse and gritty sandstone usually semi-unconsoli- Supplies moderate to fair quantity of
dated, porous with intercalated clays and gravel. water to wells. Quality varies
FullerÕs earth, bentonite, and lignite also occur in this from fresh to saline
sequence. Its thickness varies from 50 to more than
276 m
Paleozoic Marwar Nagaur Hard, compactly consolidated, reddish sandstone. Yields low to moderate discharge.
Super Sand- Thickness varies from 140 to 250 m. Interbedded with Quality of groundwater is fresh to
Group stone red shales saline
Bilara Limestone, hard, massive. Gray to blackish in color with Yields low to moderate discharge.
Lime- occasional cavities. Thickness varies from 115 to Quality is fresh to saline
stone 225 m

MATERIALS AND METHODS using a global positioning system (GPS) as given in

Table 3.
Data Collection and Standardization Groundwater samples were collected in poly-
ethylene bottles. The samples were filtered through
Groundwater samples were collected from 43 0.45-lm membrane filter and split into two portions:
tube wells located in various villages in the Bikaner one acidified with concentrated HNO3 for dis-
block during the pre- and post-monsoon periods in solved cation estimation and the other for rest of the
the year 2016. Sampling locations were identified estimations. Electrical conductivity, pH, and total
Groundwater Quality Assessment in a Hyper-arid Region

Table 3. GPS coordinates (longitude, latitude) and average mean sea level of villages

S. no. Village GPS location Mean sea level (m) S. no. Village GPS location Mean sea level (m)

Longitude Latitude Longitude Latitude

1 Bambloo 73.496 28.033 214 2 Shivbari 73.383 27.887 214

3 Bikaner 73.272 27.903 229 4 Surdhana 73.428 27.816 235
5 Chattargarh 73.143 28.610 266 6 Deli Talai 72.673 28.311 181
7 Deshnoke 73.368 27.694 266 8 Gadwala 73.483 27.867 228
9 Gersar 73.463 28.050 210 10 Gigasar 73.410 27.754 265
11 Himtasar 73.462 28.021 206 12 Kavani 73.115 28.071 180
13 Jaimalsar 73.048 28.039 184 14 Kesardesar 73.504 27.754 269
15 Malasar 73.506 28.143 202 16 Ladera 73.562 28.142 203
17 Molaniya 73.559 28.219 201 18 Lakhusar 73.193 28.285 205
19 Nuarangdesar 73.545 27.984 227 20 Lalamdesar 73.179 27.701 273
21 Ranisar 73.581 28.059 215 22 Naggasar 73.398 27.989 208
23 Runiabada bas 73.635 28.129 212 24 Tejrasar 73.640 27.922 172

dissolved solids were measured in the field using where Zij is the jth value of the standardized vari-
portable meters. The samples were stored at 4 C in able Zi. The value of Zi is called as z-score (Liu et al.
the laboratory, and alkalinity, chloride, phosphate, 2003). For PCA and HCA in this study, the data
nitrate, and sulfate were estimated as per the stan- were first standardized by computing z-scores from
dard methods (Clesceri et al. 1998). the non-normal condition and ascertaining the nor-
The accuracy of estimations was verified by mal distribution of the data. The mean and variance
analyzing standard reference materials. The data of z-score were found to be ÔzeroÕ and Ôone,Õ
thus obtained were first of all tested for charge respectively, for all variables. Standardization of
imbalance error, and only 14 samples were found data enhances the impact of variables having small
suitable for further analysis. As far as PCA is con- variance and decreases the impact of variables with
cerned, BartlettÕs sphericity test and Kaiser–Meyer– large variance. Further, standardization of data
Olkin (KMO) test were conducted to justify the nullifies the impact of units of measurement and
groundwater sample data and their adequacy. The makes the data dimensionless.
BartlettÕs sphericity test carried out on the correla-
tion matrix shows a calculated v2 value of 452.7,
which is greater than the critical value as specified in Principal Component Analysis
the literature, v2 = 146.6 (with PearsonÕs coefficient
(r) = 0.05% and degrees of freedom 91). Thus, In this study, PCA was applied to extract sig-
PCA can be applied to the data to achieve significant nificant principal components (PCs) and the values
reduction in the dimensionality of the original da- thus obtained were subjected to varimax rotation
taset. analysis for generating varifactors (VFs). Principal
The initial step to carry out PCA and HCA is to components are linear combinations of original
standardize the dataset of all physicochemical water variables. The aim of PCA is to dimensionally re-
quality parameters, of all water samples. The hydro- duce the contribution of the variable of less impor-
chemical data were analyzed in the following steps. tance as compared to another variable in the water
If xi,…,xp denotes the P variables, with N number of quality dataset. The variance of data obtained in the
observations, the jth observation of the ith variable analysis helps to identify the most contributing
is Xij, where i = 1, …, P and j = 1, …, N. If S and Xm variable in the dataset (Shrestha and Kazama 2007).
denote the standard deviation and mean, respec- The PCs so obtained lie along the directions of
tively, estimated from N observations of the ith maximum variance. Three principal components
variable, then the jth observation of the ith variable were retained, following the criteria which suggest
is expressed in the standardized forms as: using all the PCs up to and including the first one
Xij  Xm after the break, with eigenvalues more than unity
Zij ¼ ; ð1Þ and describing percent of the variance in the original
Si
 Bhakar and Singh

dataset (Cattell and Jaspers 1967). If the eigenvalue put of PCA reveals that the eigenvalues of the first
of a PC is more than unity, then it provides more three PCs together account for over 87% of the total
useful information about the underlying facts and variability of the combined population for pre-
impact of contribution, thus ensuring the reduction monsoon and over 85% for post-monsoon (Tables 5
in dimensionality (Cattell and Jaspers 1967). Along and 6, respectively).
with obtaining PCs, PCA provides a correlation For the pre-monsoon data, the first principal
matrix that describes the relationship of each component (PC1) after varimax rotation accounts
parameter with one another. for more than 63% of the total variance (Table 7a)
and has very high loadings on TDS, Na+, K+, and
NO3 and significant/high loadings on EC, Mg++,
Hierarchical Cluster Analysis F, SO4, and TH. For the post-monsoon data, the
PC1 has very high loadings on EC, TDS, Na+, Mg++,
In the present study, HCA was applied to Cl, and TH and significant/high loadings on Ca++
identify the relatively homogenous groups of cases and SO4 (Table 7b). For the pre-monsoon data, the
or variables based on their intrinsic properties. In second principal component (PC2) after varimax
HCA, clusters are generated successively starting rotation, which accounts for more than 16% of the
with the most alike pairs of variables and generating total variance, has very high loading on pH and
greater clusters progressively. Cluster analysis is the significant/high loading on Ca++. For the post-mon-
task of combining a set of variables in a way that the soon data, PC2 has significant/high loadings on K.
variables in the group known as cluster show much For the pre-monsoon data, the third principal com-
more similarity with one another than those vari- ponent (PC3) after varimax rotation, which accounts
ables in other clusters. The outcomes of HCA help for more than 7% of the total variance, has signifi-
in understanding the data and designating the pat- cant/high loadings on HCO3, whereas for the post-
terns (Singh et al. 2005a, b). The HCA was applied monsoon data, the PC3 has very high loading on
to the standardized dataset by deploying WardÕs CO3 and significant/high loading on HCO3.
method using Euclidean distance as a degree of The major contributor of Ca++ seems to be
resemblance. gypsum, dolomite, and limestone, which occur in the
sedimentary basin of the area. Water in contact with
gypsum can attain higher calcium contents, and
RESULTS solubility of gypsum increases in saline waters.
Principal sources of Na+ could be the precipitate of
Principal Component Analysis sodium salts impregnating the soil in shallow water
tracts, particularly in arid and semiarid regions.
The PCA was carried out to assess water quality Certain clay minerals and zeolites may contribute to
by evaluating the chemical associations as described the sodium content in groundwater (Karanth 1987).
by principal component loadings and using a dataset The primary source of carbonate and bicarbonates
consisting 14 groundwater samples from Bikaner in the present samples could be due to higher pH
block. The first three PCs were selected by adopting values of the samples ranging in between 4.5 and 8.2
the correlation criteria as described in Table 4, to and above 8.2. The presence of bicarbonate is indi-
represent the prevailing hydrogeochemical phe- cated when pH is between 4.5 and 8.2 and carbonate
nomenon described in Figure 3, which helped in the if pH above 8.2 (Karanth 1987). The important
formation of the present groundwater chemistry contributor of sulfate in present samples seems to be
without losing the information of interest. The out- gypsum and anhydrite found in the sedimentary
rocks of the reason. Local abnormal concentrations
Table 4. Correlation criteria of sulfate may be due to traversing of groundwater
through lignite, coal, and gypsiferous beds. In sedi-
Eigen values Correlation
mentary rocks, dolomite and limestone contain
0–0.29 Negligible magnesium carbonates that seem to be the major
0.3–0.49 Low contributor of magnesium in the water samples
0.5–0.69 Moderate
(Karanth 1987). A solution of halite and other
0.7–0.89 High
0.9–1.00 Very high evaporite deposits in the aquifer material are the
primary sources of chloride in the present case along
Groundwater Quality Assessment in a Hyper-arid Region

Figure 3. Scree plots for (a) pre-monsoon data and (b) post-monsoon data.

Table 5. Total variance explained by the pre-monsoon data

Total variance explained pre-monsoon

Component Initial eigenvalues Extraction sums of squared loadings Rotation sums of squared loadings

Total % of variance Cumulative % Total % of variance Cumulative % Total % of variance Cumulative %

PC 1 8.904 63.596 63.596 8.904 63.596 63.596 7.514 53.673 53.673

PC 2 2.262 16.158 79.755 2.262 16.158 79.755 2.720 19.427 73.100
PC 3 1.035 7.394 87.149 1.035 7.394 87.149 1.967 14.049 87.149

Table 6. Total variance explained by the post-monsoon data

Total variance explained post-monsoon

Component Initial eigenvalues Extraction sums of squared loadings Rotation sums of squared loadings

Total % of variance Cumulative % Total % of variance Cumulative % Total % of variance Cumulative %

PC 1 8.115 57.961 57.961 8.115 57.961 57.961 7.588 54.199 54.199

PC 2 2.311 16.509 74.470 2.311 16.509 74.470 2.367 16.907 71.106
PC 3 1.544 11.026 85.497 1.544 11.026 85.497 2.015 14.391 85.497

with atmospheric sources. Fluoride in the water 2017) may result in higher values of TDS in the
samples seems to be derived from certain amphi- samples.
boles, mica, and complex fluoride-bearing silicates
(Karanth 1987). By far the greatest contribution of
nitrate in groundwater may be from the excessive Hierarchical Cluster Analysis
use of fertilizers and dung of field grazing cattle such
as cow, sheep, and goat in the study area. As the On the basis of similar hydrogeochemical fea-
area is a hyper-arid zone, mineralization and con- tures and sources of natural background, HCA
centration of ions by evaporation (Jalali 2012; effectively reproduced three clusters in pre-mon-
Marghade et al. 2015; Yang et al. 2016; Singh et al. soon water samples and four clusters in post-mon-
 Bhakar and Singh

Table 7. Rotated components for (a) pre-monsoon data and (b) post-monsoon data

Variable PC 1 PC 2 PC 3 Variable PC 1 PC 2 PC 3

(a) Rotated component pre-monsoon (b) Rotated component post-monsoon

NO3 .945  .115  .264 TDS .980 .154  .003
TDS .942 .236 .186 EC .978 .125 .047
K .941  .004  .217 Mg .950 .058  .018
Na .927 .131 .203 Na .945 .053  .029
EC .889 .256 .302 Cl .927 .054  .137
SO4 .875 .391 .122 TH .911 .323  .093
F .794 .178  .114 SO4 .894 .354  .116
Mg .792 .483 .353 Ca .818 .377  .019
TH .700 .592 .381 NO3 .688  .081 .371
Cl .622 .397 .577 K  .055 .865 .350
pH  .120  .917 .172 F .247 .802 .042
Ca .529 .717 .399 pH  .371  .580 .481
CO3 .068  .535  .480 CO3  .104 .029 .947
HCO3 .047 .031  .795 HCO3 .175 .459 .761

Table 8. Distribution of groundwater sample sites in different cluster

Pre-monsoon Post-monsoon

Cluster Sites Cluster Sites

1 Bikaner, Malasar, Molaniya, Shivbari, Gersar, Ranisar, 1 Chattargarh, Kavani

Runia Bas, Surdhana, Bambloo, Deshnoke, Nau-
rangdesar
2 Chattargarh 2 Tejrasar, Gigasar, Gadwala, Kesar Desar Jatan, Bambloo,
Molaniya, Deshnoke, Ladera, Deli Talai, Lalamdesar
3 Himtasar, Jaimalsar 3 Jaimalsar
4 Lakhusar, Naggasar

soon water samples. The details of the produced Shivbari, Gersar, Ranisar, Runia Bas, Surdhana,
clusters are given in Table 8. The nearby locations of Bambloo, Deshnoke, and Naurangdesar villages are
the water sample sites primarily fall in the same very similar, whereas in another cluster, samples
cluster due to the orderly and appropriate involve- from Himtasar and Jaimalsar villages are very sim-
ment of sampling sites in the development of cluster. ilar. Further, we can extract sub-clusters from the
The clustering of water samples in both pre- and picture shown in Figure 4. From the dendrogram for
post-monsoon shows that groundwater quality varies post-monsoon, it is very clear that samples from
smoothly with a few gradual changes over the entire Chattargarh and Kavani villages are very similar,
block. This variation may be due to the equally whereas in another cluster samples from Tejrasar,
prevailing hydrogeological environment in the area. Gigasar, Gadwala, Kesardesar Jatan, Bambloo,
The dendrograms for both pre- and post-monsoon Molaniya, Deshnoke, Ladera, Deli Talai, and
(Figs. 4 and 5, respectively) show a clear picture of Lalamdesar villages are very similar. Further, we can
the spatial similarity occurring among the water extract sub-clusters from the picture shown in Fig-
samples in the area under consideration. ure 5. To develop an effective groundwater quality
The branching-type nature of the dendrograms monitoring system in the block, HCA offers a reli-
allows to trace backward or forward to any indi- able classification of groundwater by selecting rep-
vidual case or cluster at any level. In our case, if we resentative wells within a cluster that will help in
examine the dendrogram for pre-monsoon, it is very formulating well-suited policy to spatially monitor
clear that samples from Bikaner, Malasar, Molaniya, groundwater quality. This will also help to signifi-
Groundwater Quality Assessment in a Hyper-arid Region

Dendrogram poses; groundwater quality of the block has also

120
been evaluated by the use of geochemical plots, such
as Piper diagram (Piper 1944) and Wilcox plot
100 (Wilcox 1955). These graphical representations of
groundwater quality data help to visualize the status
80 of the prevailing groundwater quality in the block. A
Piper diagram basically helps to make several con-
Dissimilarity

60
clusions about water type, precipitation or solution,
mixing, and ion exchange. This diagram developed
by Piper (1944) is a combination of anion and cation
40
triangles with an intervening diamond. In the lower
left triangle, values of three cations (Ca++, Mg++,
20 Na+) are plotted, whereas in the lower right triangle
three anions (HCO3, SO4, Cl) are plotted, and
0 the central diamond is used to show the overall
Naurangdesar

Chattargarh

chemical character of water. On the basis of place-

Gersar
Malasar

Molaniya

Shivbari
Bikaner

Ranisar

Bambaloo
Runia Bas

Surdhana

Deshnoke

Jaimalsar
Himtasar

ment of samples near the four corners of the dia-

mond, water can be classified into four basic
Figure 4. Dendrogram using WardÕs method for pre-monsoon categories. Water samples that plot near the top of
data.
the diamond are high in Ca++ + Mg++ and Cl +
SO4 and are characterized by permanent hardness.
Water samples that plot near the left corner are rich
100
Dendrogram in Ca++ + Mg++ and HCO3 and are characterized
90
by temporary hardness. In the lower corner, water
samples are basically comprised of alkali carbonates
80 (Na+ + K+ and HCO3– + CO3–), whereas in the
70 right side of the diamond, water samples are cate-
gorized as saline water types (Na+ + K+ and Cl +
60
SO4).
Dissimilarity

50 The prime use of Wilcox plots is to categorize

40 water samples for irrigational use and to classify
water quality, so that the seasonal effects on water
30
quality could be visualized. The Wilcox diagram is
20 plotted with EC as abscissa and sodium absorption
10
ratio (SAR) as ordinate. The Wilcox diagram
explicitly depicts the two important aspects of water
Kesardesar Jatan

0
quality named as salinity hazard and sodium (alkali)
Chattargarh

Lalamdesar
Jaimalsar
Kawani

Deli Talai
Gigasar

Naggasar
Bambaloo
Tejrasar

Gadwala

Molaniya

Ladera
Deshnoke

Lakhusar

hazard. The diagram in terms of salinity deduces the

water samples as low-salinity (C1), medium-salinity
(C2), high-salinity (C3), and very-high-salinity water
Figure 5. Dendrogram using WardÕs method for post- (C4). In terms of alkali hazard, the water samples
monsoon data.
can be deduced as low-sodium (S1), medium-sodium
(S2), high-sodium (S3), and very-high-sodium water
(S4).
cantly reduce number of sampling sites as well as According to Wilcox (1955), water sample with
monitoring cost. SAR value up to 10 and EC up to 250 can be con-
sidered as S1 water. If the SAR value lies between
10 and 18 and EC value lies between 250 and 750,
Hydrogeochemical Plotting of Water Samples then it is considered as S2 water. Further, a SAR
value up to 26 and EC value up to 2250 defines S3
The Bikaner blockÕs groundwater is the only water. Water with more than 26 SAR and more than
source of water for domestic and agricultural pur- 2600 EC can be defined as an S4 type. The various
 Bhakar and Singh

Wilcox Plot Wilcox Plot

C1 C2 C3 C4
(a) 250 750 2250
(b) C1 250 C2 750 C3 2250 C4

Bambaloo Bambaloo

30 Bikaner Chattargarh
30
Chattargarh Deli Talai

Deshnoke Deshnoke

Gersar Gadwala

Himtasar Gigasar

Jaimalsar Jaimalsar

Malasar Kavani
Sodium Hazard (SAR)

Sodium Hazard (SAR)

Molaniya Kesar Desar

Naurangdesar Ladera

Ranisar Lakhusar
20 S4
Runia Bada Bas
20 S4
Lalamdesar

Shivbari Molania

Surdhana Naggasar

Tejrasar

Sodium (Alkali) hazard:

S1: Low
S2: Medium Sodium (Alkali) hazard:
S3: High S1: Low
S4: Very high S2: Medium
S3: High
Salinity hazard: S4: Very high
C1: Low
C2: Medium Salinity hazard:
C3: High C1: Low
10 C4: Very high
10 C2: Medium
C3: High
S3 S3
C4: Very high

S2 S2

S1 S1

0 0
100 1000 100 1000
Salinity Hazard (Cond) Salinity Hazard (Cond)

Figure 6. Wilcox plots for (a) pre-monsoon data and (b) post-monsoon data water samples.

(a) Surdhana (b) Bambaloo

Chattargarh
Shivbari
Runia Bada Bas Deli Talai
80 80 80 80
Ranisar Deshnoke

Naurangdesar Gadwala

Molaniya Gigasar

=>
>

60 60 60 60
=

O4
O4

Malasar Jaimalsar

<=
<=

+S
+S

Ca
Kavani
Ca

Jaimalsar
Cl
Cl

+M
+M

Himtasar Kesar Desar

40 40 40 40

g
g

Gersar Ladera

Deshnoke Lakhusar

20 20 Chattargarh 20 20 Lalamdesar

Bikaner Molania

Bambaloo Naggasar
Tejrasar

Mg SO4 Mg SO4

80 80 80 80

60 60 60 60

40 40 40 40

20 20 20 20
20

40

60

80
80

60

40

20
20

40

60

80
80

60

40

20

Ca Na+K HCO3+CO3 Cl Ca Na+K HCO3+CO3 Cl

Figure 7. Piper plots for (a) pre-monsoon data and (b) post-monsoon data water samples.

physicochemical parameters analyzed in this study under high alkali hazard, 38% medium alkali haz-
were plotted in a Wilcox (Fig. 6) and Piper (Fig. 7) ard, and the rest low alkali hazard.
diagrams, and the results are tabulated in Table 9. Considering the Piper diagram, Na+ and Mg++
The Wilcox plot clearly shows high salinity hazard in are the dominant cations, whereas Cl and SO4 are
the block and medium-to-high alkali hazard in the the dominant anions in the respective left and right
majority of the block. Approximately 42% of the triangles of the diagram. This indicates that majority
samples are under very high salinity hazard, 46% of the water samples falls under the category of
high salinity hazard, and rest moderate salinity saline water. Majority (37.5%) of groundwater
hazard. In the same manner, 33% of the samples are samples are Na+–Cl water type and  33% of the
Groundwater Quality Assessment in a Hyper-arid Region

Table 9. Water quality status of the study area

S. no. Village Hazard Water type S. no. Village Hazard Water type

Salinity Alkali Salinity Alkali

1 Bambloo Very high High Na–Cl 13 Shivbari High High Na–Cl

2 Bikaner High Medium Na–Cl 14 Surdhana Medium Low Na–Cl–CO3
3 Chattargarh Very high High Na–Cl–NO3–SO4 15 Deli Talai High Low Ca–Mg–Na–SO4–
Cl
4 Deshnoke High Medium Na–Cl 16 Gadwala High Medium Na–Cl
5 Gersar High Low Na–Mg–Cl–SO4 17 Gigasar High Low Na–Ca–Cl–HCO3
6 Himtasar Very high High Na–Mg–Cl 18 Kavani Very high Medium Na–Cl–SO4
7 Jaimalsar Very high Medium Na–Mg–Ca–Cl– 19 Kesardesar Medium Low Na–Mg–Cl–HCO3
SO4
8 Malasar High High Na–Cl 20 Ladera Very high Medium Na–Cl
9 Molaniya Very high High Na–Cl–NO3 21 Lakhusar Very high Medium Na–Mg–Cl–SO4
10 Nuarangdesar Very high High Na–Cl 22 Lalamdesar High Medium Na–Mg–Cl
11 Ranisar High Medium Na–Cl–HCO3 23 Naggasar Very high Very high Na–Cl
12 Runiabada bas Low High Na–Cl–HCO3 24 Tejrasar High Low Na–Cl–HCO3

samples represent alkali carbonates and remaining only 25% is used for drinking purpose (Bhakar et al.
29% are a mixed type (Table 9) for both pre- and 2016). This makes fewer choices available to the end
post-monsoon samples. users for satisfying their daily needs of livelihood.
Singh (2014) claimed that the conjunctive use of
surface water and groundwater can be a better op-
DISCUSSION tion for sustainable irrigation system. When it comes
to hyper-arid regions where groundwater availability
The methodology described in this study can is much lower, groundwater quality assessment of
assist the research community to include the aquifer systems can support decision-making for
hydrogeochemical information from the analysis of developing sustainable groundwater policies. The
semiarid and arid region aquifer systems. The use of remote sensing in combination with multi-
methodology used in this study allows the successful variate statistical tools or artificial intelligence
outcomes of each method accommodating all infor- techniques can provide better possibilities to assess
mation to generate a robust interpretation by and monitor the quality of large samples of water.
incorporating the strength of various geochemical, Such methodology can also work to remove uncer-
statistical, and spatial grouping tools. Therefore, tainties in the analysis of data (Swain and Sahoo
optimal groundwater extraction, integrated ground- 2017).
water management, and checked use of fertilizer and
pesticides for crops are desired to ensure accept-
able groundwater quality in the study area. The race CONCLUSIONS
toward livelihood resilience can explain why
groundwater is overexploited by end users. In the The various physicochemical parameters in the
last few decades, several problems have arisen from hydro-chemical datasets from the study area were
the evolution of groundwater for irrigation purposes analyzed using multivariate statistical methods to
in developing nations of Asia and Africa (Shah identify contributing variables and spatial similarity
2005). The contamination of groundwater and its between the groundwater samples. By PCA, three
quality degradation affect the farmers in terms of significant principal components were extracted
crop choice and availability of potable drinking explaining 87% of the total variability of the com-
water (Ranjan 2012). This calls for identification of bined population for pre-monsoon data and 85% for
alternate solutions for drinking water in problem post-monsoon data. The major variations in the da-
areas. In addition, the filtration system commonly tasets are due to the solubility of gypsum, a precip-
used in households of India is not efficient. They itate of sodium salts impregnating the soil, higher
discard 75% of water supplied for purification and pH values, excessive use of fertilizers, dung of field
 Bhakar and Singh

grazing cattle, concentration of ions by evaporation, Ahamad, A., Madhav, S., Singh, P., Pandey, J., & Khan, A. H.
(2018). Assessment of groundwater quality with special
and weathering of the rocks. On the other hand, emphasis on nitrate contamination in parts of Varanasi City,
HCA played a key role in identifying the spatial Uttar Pradesh, India. Applied Water Science, 8(4), 115. http
similarity between the groundwater samples from s://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-018-0759-x.
Arumugam, K., & Elangovan, K. (2009). Hydrochemical charac-
the study area. The clusters generated can be uti- teristics and groundwater quality assessment in Krishnagiri
lized in order to select a representative well from district, Tamilnadu, India. Environmental Geology, 58(7),
spatially similar clusters to achieve effective 1509–1520. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00254-008-1652-y.
Avtar, R., Kumar, P., Singh, C. K., Sahu, N., Verma, R. L.,
groundwater quality monitoring in the area under Thakur, J. K., et al. (2013). Hydrogeochemical assessment of
consideration. It can be concluded from the graphi- groundwater quality of Bundelkhand, India using statistical
cal plots of groundwater quality data that ground- approach. Water Quality, Exposure and Health, 5(3), 105–
115. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-013-0094-2.
water sources in the Bikaner block are affected by Bhakar, V., Kumar, D. N. S. H., Sai, N. K., Sangwan, K. S., &
alkali hazards and salinity, and therefore are not Raghuvanshi, S. (2016). Life cycle assessment of filtration
suitable for drinking and irrigation purposes. The systems of reverse osmosis units: A case study of a University
Campus. Procedia CIRP, 40, 268–273.
outcomes of the present study can be used by Bhakar, P., & Singh, A. P. (2018). Life cycle assessment of
practitioners and policymakers for development and groundwater supply system in a hyper-arid region of India.
implementation of strict groundwater management Procedia CIRP, 69(May), 603–608. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
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policies for sustainable management of this natural Bhuiyan, C., & Ray, P. K. C. (2017). Groundwater quality zoning
resource. The study is limited to a small area for in the perspective of health hazards. Water Resources Man-
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Bencer, S., Boudoukha, A., & Mouni, L. (2016). Multivariate
used for the assessment have capabilities to assess statistical analysis of the groundwater of Ain Djacer area
large regions/areas as well. In future, time series (Eastern of Algeria). Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 9(4),
analysis of data can be carried out to have a wider 248. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-015-2277-6.
Brandsegg, K. B., Hammer, E., & Sinding-Larsen, R. (2010). A
picture of groundwater quality. Along with multi- comparison of unstructured and structured principal com-
variate statistical tools, remote sensing technique ponent analyses and their interpretation. Natural Resources
can also play a vital role in managing groundwater Research, 19(1), 45–62. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11053-010-91
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resources. Using remote sensing for assessment of Cattell, R. B., & Jaspers, J. (1967). A general plasmode (No. 30-
groundwater quality can be a future scope of this 10-5-2) for factor analytic exercises and research. Multivariate
study in the Bikaner block. Behavioral Research Monographs.
Chabukdhara, M., Gupta, S. K., Kotecha, Y., & Nema, A. K.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Chintalapudi, P., Pujari, P., Khadse, G., Sanam, R., & Labhaset-
war, P. (2017). Groundwater quality assessment in emerging
The authors express their gratitude to the State industrial cluster of alluvial aquifer near Jaipur, India. En-
vironmental Earth Sciences, 76(1), 1–14. https://doi.org/10.10
Ground Water Board, Government of Rajasthan, 07/s12665-016-6300-3.
for providing valuable inputs and support to carry Clesceri, L., Greenberg, A. E., & Eaton, A. D. (1998). Standard
out the study. Authors are extremely thankful to the methods for the examination of water and wastewater. APHA,
AWWA, WEF, (twentietht.). Washington DC.
Editor-in-Chief, anonymous reviewers, and produc- Das, M., Kumar, A., Mohapatra, M., & Muduli, S. D. (2010).
tion team, for excellent support from receipt of Evaluation of drinking quality of groundwater through mul-
manuscript till final publication. We are greatly tivariate techniques in urban area. Environmental Monitoring
and Assessment, 166(1–4), 149–157. https://doi.org/10.1007/s
thankful to the reviewers for providing valuable and 10661-009-0991-9.
timely input, which helped us to improve the quality Gautam, S. K., Maharana, C., Sharma, D., Singh, A. K., Tripathi,
of paper significantly. J. K., & Singh, S. K. (2015). Evaluation of groundwater
quality in the Chotanagpur plateau region of the Sub-
arnarekha river basin, Jharkhand State, India. Sustainability
of Water Quality and Ecology (Vol. 6). https://doi.org/10.10
16/j.swaqe.2015.06.001.
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