NCCGE 2024 Proceeding Book

7th National Conference on Clean and Green Energy
10th Feb 2024
Editors
Dr. K. Balachander, Dr. M. Siva Ramkumar, Dr. G. Emayavaramban
Book of Proceedings
7th National Conference
on
Clean and Green Energy
Editors
Dr. K. Balachander, Dr. M. Siva Ramkumar, Dr. G. Emayavaramban
Book of Proceedings
10th Feb 2024
Title: Proceedings of 7th National Conference on Clean and Green Energy 2024
Published by: M/s. Karpagam Publications, Coimbatore
Edited by: Dr. K. Balachander, Dr. M. Siva Ramkumar, Dr. G. Emayavaramban

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
Faculty of Engineering, Karpagam Academy of Higher Education,
Coimbatore – 641 021
First Edition: 2024
This book or part of thereof should not be reproduced in any form without written permission
of the authors/editors.
Printing: Online Edition
Price: 250/-
All rights reserved. Authors are responsible for the linguistic and technical accuracy of their
contributions
Administration
Dr. K. Ramasamy,
Chancellor, KAHE
Dr. Dr. B. Venkatachalapathy,
Vice – Chancellor, KAHE
Dr. S. Ravi,
Registrar, KAHE
Dr. A. Amudha,
Dean, Faculty of Engineering, KAHE
Organizing Committee – NCCGE 2024

Chair
Dr. A. Amudha
Convener
Dr. M. Vaigundamoorthi
Organizing Secretaries
Dr. K. Balachander
Dr. M. Siva Ramkumar
Dr. G. Emayavaramban
Executive Members
Ms. P. Nagaveni AP/EEE
Mr. T. Selvaganapathi AP/EEE
Mrs. S. Shobana AP/EEE
Mrs. K. Elavarasi AP/EEE
Mrs. R. Gowrimahesh AP/EEE
Mrs. M. Ponrekha AP/EEE
Ms. ASF. Subhamathi AP/EEE
Table of Contents
About the University ……………………………………………………………………… ii
About the Department …………………………………………………………………..... iii
Previous Conference Details …………………………………………………………… iv
About the Conference …………………………………………………………………….. vi
Keynote Speaker …………………………………………………………………………... vii
Abstracts……………………………………………………………………....................... viii
i
About the University
Karpagam Academy of Higher Education (KAHE) established under Section 3 of UGC Act
1956 is approved by Ministry of Human Resource and Development, Government of India.
Dr. R. Vasanthakumar, the president of the trust a philanthropist, industrialist, entrepreneur
and culture promoter. Contemporary infrastructure, modern teaching methodologies, career-
oriented training, excellent placements and the finest faculty have always been Karpagam’s
hallmark. Besides technical expertise, the Karpagam Academy of Higher Education (KAHE)
has made a mark for itself since its inception by developing communication and soft skills,
ensuring enlightening knowledge, extending holistic education and creating a strong value
system, Today, with a strength of 6000 students and over 750 teaching & non-teaching
staff, the Karpagam Academy of Higher Education (KAHE) is setting new benchmarks inthe
educational sphere.
ii
About the Department
The Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, offers Bachelor of Engineering in
Electrical and Electronics Engineering and Master of Engineering in Power Systems
Engineering and Power Electronics and Drives. Research programmes: Ph.D. in Electrical
and Electronics Engineering. The research specializations of the department are Power
Systems, High Voltage Engineering, Power Electronics and Drives, Control and
Instrumentation, Embedded System Technology, Electric Drives and Embedded Control.
The Department has well equipped Machines, Power Electronics and Power System
Laboratories and a team of dedicated faculty members who have experience in the industry
as well as Academic.
iii
Previous Conference Details
_____________________________________________________________________________________
1st National Conference on Clean and Green Energy 2016
Date: 11th April 2016
Key note by: Alfred Vinod Antony M. Tech.,,
Director,
M/s. Progen Energy Solutions
Coimbatore, India
_____________________________________________________________________________________
2nd National Conference on Clean and Green Energy 2019
Proceedings ISBN: 9789353513252
Date: 9th March 2019
Key note by: Dr. S. S. Sivaraju M.E., Ph.D.
Professor and Head,
R.V.S. College of Engineering and Technology,
Trichy Road, Coimbatore.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
3rd National Conference on Clean and Green Energy 2020
Proceedings ISBN: 978-93-5406-150-9
Date: 29th Feb 2020
Key noteby: Dr. J. Devi Shree M.E., Ph.D.
Associate Professor
Department of Electrical Electronics Engineering
Coimbatore Institute of Technology,
Avinashi Road, Coimbatore.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
4th National Conference on Clean and Green Energy 2021
Date:19thMarch 2021
Key note by: Dr. A. Soundararajan M.E., Ph.D.
Professor, EEE
PSG College of Technology,
Avinashi Road, Peelamedu,
_____________________________________________________________________________________
iv
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Date:18th Feb 2022
Key note by: Dr. P. Vijayarajan M.E., Ph.D.
Associate Professor, EEE
Anna University, BIT Campus
Trichy
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Date: 21st Dec 2022
Key note by: Dr. P. Anbalagan M.E, PhD.
Professor and Head,
Anna University, BIT Campus,
Tiruchirappalli - 620 024.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
v
About the Conference
7th National Conference on Clean and Green Energy 2024 is the premier forum for the
presentation of new advances and research results in the fields of theoretical, experimental,
and applied Clean and Green Energy. The conference will bring together leading
researchers, engineers and scientists in the domain of interest in the National level.
vi
Keynote Speaker
Dr. Ravi Samikannu M.E., PhD.,,

Associate Professor,
Faculty of Engineering and Technology,
Bostwana International University of Science and Technology,
Botswana.
vii
Index
Page
S. No. Name of the Author(s) and Paper
No.
Simulation of Cascade Cockcroft–Walton Voltage Multiplier applied to
1 Transformer-lessHigh Step-up DC–DC Converter 1
S. Senthilkumar
IoT Based Low Cost Smart Irrigation System with Wireless Valve Control
2 8
Ramesh T, Balachander K
Quality issues associated with Transformer manufacturing leads to leads
3 to Power Quality. 19
Santhosh Kumar. K. S
A Comparative Study of Automatic Number Plate Recognition System for
4 Indian Vehicles Using RCNN and YOLO 26
P. Jeevananthan, Dr. M. Vaigundamoorthi, K.Saranya
An Innovative Approach based Cost-Benefit Analysis of Distribution
Companies and the DG Owners by Optimal Sizing and Placement of DGs in
5 31
Radial Distribution Network
N. Vijayalakshmi
Switched Capacitor based Boost Converter for EHV
6 44
Abishake, S. Pragadeesh, M. Sanjay, R.
IoT with Green Energy
7 49
L. Selvaraj, Dr. M. Vaigundamoorthy
Smart Grids–The Future of Power
8 67
Vijayakanth.S, Balachander K
A Comprehensive Survey on Dc-Dc Converters: In Solar PV Applications,
9 and future trends 72
S. Berkmans, Dr. M. Vaigundamoorthi
Power Quality Analysis of AC-DC Controlled Rectifiers Fed DC Separately
10 Exited Motor-drive 75
Harihara
Supra-harmonics Mitigation fromPhotovoltaic using Active Filters
11 87
A.Subramaniya Siva, Dr. S. G. Rameshkumar, Dr.K.Dhayalini, S. Arun
Fast filter Based Noise Removal in Digital Images
12 97
K. Elavarasi,
An IoT Based Deep Learning Model for Betel Leaf Disease Detection
13 104
S.Thilagamani Kavithra T Kayalvizhi D Lavanya R
Charging Station for Electric Vehicles Powered by Solar Power
14 113
D Kavitha Dr. B. Sharmila
viii
Investigation and Performance Analysis ofWind Energy Converters
15 119
S. Sri Ragavi, Dr.G.Emayavaramban
Double Integral Controller Parameters for Simulation Analysis of the Poesllc
16 in Super-lift Luo Converter 130
Suresh Kumaar.G
An Overview of Synchronization Stability Enhancement Methods of Voltage
17 Source Converters 139
Ponrekha M
A Study on Energy Management System of ElectricVehicles
18 148
Jayanthi.G, Balachander K
Wind -Photovoltaic Cogeneration System
19 155
Dr. A. Amudha , Santhana Kumar R , Niyas Ahmed S , Kaviarasan S
Fabrication of E-Bicycle with Security System
20 Dr. M. Sivaramkrishnan, Sivaraj P, Pranesh G, Sree Varshini S, Mohanaprasad 161
R
Solar Wireless Charging System for Electric Vehicle
21 166
Dr. M. Sivaramkrishnan, R. Divyabharathi, C. Naveensuresh, S. Tharanidharan
Design and Fabrication of Electric Brush Cutter with Battery Monitoring
22 System 171
Dr. M. Sivaramkrishnan, B. Arunachalam, A. Karthik, C. Karthik, C. Dhinakar
Automation in Agriculture by Using IOT
23 Dr. M. Sivaramkrishnan, Aadith Krishna S, Antony John Paul A, Samuel Morris T, 177
Valarmathi M
Modular Instruction Driven Vehicle
24 182
A. Anci Manon Mary, T. Dineshkumar, E. Gokularaj, B. Karthick, R.Sathyapriyan
Electric Vehicle Battery Management System by using IOT
25 183
Dr. M.Sivaramkrishnan, Aswath Krishna S, Mega R, Praveen Kumar S, Swetha S
PV Based EV Charging Station for Urban areas
26 189
Kithiyon Manaase S, Mathan S, Raja Mani K J, Dr.M.Siva Ramkumar
Implementing a Solar-Powered Water Pump System Utilizing a Zeta
27 Converter Coupled with a BLDC Motor 199
R. Krishna Kumar, R. Dheepika, G. Nishanth, S. Shafeer Ahamed, S. Selvakumar
IOT based Power flow control in Renewable Energy Resources with Power
28 Factor Improvement 200
M. Nagarajan, Dr. G. Emayavaramban
Self-Automated Borewell Barrier with Child Safeguard using IoT
29 R. Swaranambigai, Anish Ansari M, Madhavan S, Mohan P, Swetha M 206
Use of Ai to Locate the Missing People

30 213
A. Arun, N. Bhuvaneswari, S. Bhuvaneshwari, G. Vinitha, Abinaya Mohan Raj
ix
EV Charging Methods
31 225
Dr. Sharmitha, Dharani S, Lakshmidevi V, Pradeep J
A Novel DC-DC Converter for Telecom Applications Employs a High
32 Frequency Resonant Inverter-Rectifier, And Regulator 231
R. Sethuraman, T. Selvaganapathi
Feasibility of Electric Vehicles in Kerala
33 239
Raimon P Francis, Rinil M R
Examining the Rise of Deep Fake Technology: An Overview
34 246
V Jaswanth, C Anitha
Advancing Sustainability in IoT Ecosystems: An Overviewof Green IoT
35 Technologies and Practices 250
Dr. W. Deva Priya, Virinda Singh V Megana R, Sugavarshini S.
Review On IoT based RenewableEnergy Systems
36 258
Agenya Ramakrishnan, Dr.M.Siva Ramkumar,
Solar based Manhole Surveillance System:Innovating Manhole Management
for Healthier Communities
37 265
D. Kani Jesintha, S. Ramalakshmi, S. Deviyani, A.Vishali, M. Suba Parvathi, A.
Suvetha
Anti-Drone Technology for Safety and Military Application
38 272
Arputha Allwin R, Nagul M, Ramvikesh V
Revolutionizing Two-Wheeler Safety: AnIntegrated Rescue System
39 R.Vijay Prakash, M. Saraswathi, Sam Alaric, M. Aarthy, Sheeba Devashanthi, P. 277
Anisha
x
Proceedings of National Conference on Clean and Green Energy’ 2022, 10th Feb 2024,
ISBN: 978-81-956215-6-9
Simulation of Cascade Cockcroft–Walton Voltage

Multiplier applied to Transformer-lessHigh Step-up DC–
DC Converter
S. Senthilkumar
KARPAGAM ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION
Email :- srihari2304@gmail.com
Abstract— This paper proposes a high step-up dc-dc converter based on the Cockcroft-
Walton (CW) voltage multiplier without a step-up transformer. Providing continuous
input current with low ripple, high voltage ratio, and low voltage stress on the switches,
diodes, and capacitors, the proposed converter is quite suitable for applying to low-
input-level dc generation systems. In this paper, the proposed control strategy employs
two independent frequencies, one of which operates at high frequency to minimize the
size of the inductor while the other one operates at relatively low frequency according
to the desired output voltage ripple.
Key words— Cockcroft–Walton (CW) voltage multiplier, high voltage ratio,
multilevelinverter, step-up dc– dc converter.
1 Introduction:
The CW is a voltage multiplier that converts AC or pulsing DC electrical power
from a low voltage level to a higher DC voltage level. It is made up of a voltage
multiplier ladder network of capacitors and diodes to generate high voltages. Unlike
transformers, this method eliminates the requirement for the heavy core and the bulk of
insulation/potting required. Using only capacitors and diodes, these voltage multipliers
can step up relatively low voltages to extremely high values, while at the same time
being far lighter and cheaper than transformers. The biggest advantage of such
circuits is that the voltage across each stage of the cascade is equal to only twice the
peak input voltage in a half-wave rectifier. In a full-wave rectifier it is three times the
input voltage. It has the advantage of requiring relatively low-cost components and
being easy to insulate. One can also tap the output from any stage, like in a multi-
tapped transformer. In practice, the CW has a number of drawbacks. As the number of
stages is increased, the voltages of the higher stages begin to "sag", primarily due to the
electrical impedance of the capacitors in the lower stages. And, when supplying an
output current, the voltage ripple rapidly increases as the number of stages is
increased. For these reasons, CW
multipliers with large number of stages are used only where relatively low output
current is required. These effects can be partially compensated by increasing the
capacitance in the lower stages, by increasing the frequency of the input power and by
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ISBN: 978-81-956215-6-9
using an AC power source with a square or triangular waveform. By driving the CW

from a high-frequency source, such as an inverter, or a combination of an inverter and
HV transformer, the overall physical size and weight of the CW power supply can be
substantially reduced.
CW multipliers are typically used to develop higher voltages for relatively low-current
applications, such as bias voltages ranging from tens or hundreds of volts to millions of
volts for high-energy physics experiments or lightning safety testing. CW multipliers
are also found, with a higher number of stages, in laser systems, high-voltage power
supplies, X-ray systems, LCD backlighting, traveling-wave tube amplifiers, ion pumps,
electrostatic systems, air ionizers, particle accelerators, copy machines, scientific
instrumentation, oscilloscopes, television sets and cathode ray tubes, electroshock
weapons, bug zappers and many other applications that use high-voltage DC. In the
past few decades, high-voltage dc power supplies have been widely applied to
industries, science, medicine, military, and, particularly, in test equipment, such as X-
ray systems, dust filtering, insulating test, and electrostatic coating.
2 Existing System
The conventional boost dc-dc converter can provide a very high voltage gain by
using an extremely high duty cycle. However, practically, parasitic elements associated
with the inductor, capacitor, switch, and diode cannot be ignored, and their effects
reduce the theoretical voltage gain. Up to now, many step-up dc-dc converters have
been to obtain high voltage ratios without extremely high duty cycle by using isolated
transformers or coupled inductors. Among these high step-up dc-dc converters,
voltage-fed type sustains high input current ripple. Thus, providing low input current
ripple and high voltage ratio, current-fed converters are generally superior to their
counterparts. The conventional Cockcroft-Walton (CW) voltage multiplier is very
popular among high-voltage dc applications. However, the major drawback is that a
high ripple voltage appears at the output when a low-frequency (50or60Hz) utility
source is used.
3 Proposed system
In this paper, a high step-up converter based on the CW voltage multiplier is
proposed. Replacing the step-up transformer with the boost-type structure, the proposed
converter provides higher voltage ratio than that of the conventional CW voltage
multiplier. Thus, the proposed converter is suitable for power conversion applications
where high voltage gains are desired. Moreover, the proposed converter operates in
continuous conduction mode (CCM), so the switch stresses, the switching losses, and
EMI noise can be reduced as well.
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4 CW Multiplier Techniques
The CW is a voltage multiplier that converts AC or pulsing DC electrical power
from a low voltage level to a higher DC voltage level. It is made up of a voltage
multiplier ladder network of capacitors and diodes to generate high voltages. Unlike
transformers, this method eliminates the requirement for the heavy core and the bulk of
insulation/potting required. Using only capacitors and diodes, these voltage multipliers
can step up relatively low voltages to extremely high values, while at the same time
being far lighter and cheaper than transformers. The biggest advantage of such Circuits
is that the voltage across each stage of the cascade is equal to only twice the peak input
voltage in a half-wave rectifier. In a full-wave rectifier it is three times the input
voltage. It has the advantage of requiring relatively low-cost components and being
easy to insulate. One can also tap the output from any stage, like in a multitapped
transformer.
5 Multilevel Inverter Techniques
The cascaded H-bride multi-level inverter is to use capacitors and switches and
requires less number of components in each level. This topology consists of series of
power conversion cells and power can be easily scaled. The combination of capacitors
and switches pair is called an H-bridge and gives the separate input DC voltage for
each H-bridge. It consists of H-bridge cells and each cell can provide the three
different voltages like zero, positive DC and negative DC voltages. One of the
advantages of this type of multi-level inverter is that it needs less number of
components compared with diode clamped and flying capacitor inverters. The price and
weight of the inverter are less than those of the two inverters. Soft-switching is possible
by the some of the new switching methods. Multilevel cascade inverters are used to
eliminate the
bulky transformer required in case of conventional multi-phase inverters, clamping
diodes required in case of diode clamped inverters and flying capacitors required in
case of flying capacitor inverters. But these require large number of isolated voltages to
supply each cell.
a. Common Mode Voltage: The multilevel inverters produce common mode voltage,
reducing the stress of the load and don’t damage the load.
b. Input Current: Multilevel inverters can draw input current with low distortion
c. Switching Frequency: The multilevel inverter can operate at both fundamental
switching frequencies that are higher switching frequency and lower switching
frequency. It should be noted that the lower switching frequency means lower
switching loss and higher efficiency is achieved.
d. Reduced harmonic distortion: Selective harmonic elimination technique along
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ISBN: 978-81-956215-6-9
with the multi-level topology results the total harmonic distortion becomes low in the
output waveform without using any filter circuit.
6 Proposed three stage CW multiplier Diagram
Fig 1 CW Voltage Multiplier Circuit

7 Circuit Operations and Principle
In order to simplify the analysis of circuit operation, the proposed converter
with a three- stage CW voltage multiplier, as shown in Fig. 7, is used. Before
analyzing, some assumptions aremade as follows.
a) All of the circuit elements are ideal, and there is no power loss in the system. b)
When a high- frequency periodic alternating current is fed into the CW circuit and all of
the capacitors in the CW voltage multiplier are sufficiently large, the voltage drop and
ripple of each capacitor voltage can be ignored under a reasonable load condition. Thus,
the voltages across all capacitors
are equal, except the first capacitor whose voltage is one half of the others. c) The
proposed converter is operating in CCM and in the steady-state condition. d) When the
inductor transfers the storage energy to the CW circuit, only one of the diodes in the
CW circuit will be conducted.
e) Some safe commutation states are ignored.
1) State I: Sm1 and Sc1 are turned on, and Sm2, Sc2, and all CW diodes are turned off,
as shown in Fig. 9(a). The boost inductor is charged by the input dc source, the even
group capacitors C6, C4, and C2 supply the load, and the odd -group capacitors C5, C3,
and C1 are floating.
2) State II: Sm2 and Sc1 are turned on, Sm1 and Sc2 are turned off, and the current iγ is
positive. The boost inductor and input dc source transfer energy to the CW voltage
multiplier through different even diodes, state II-A, D6 is conducting; thus, the even-
group capacitors C6, C4, and C2 are charged, and the odd-group capacitors C5, C3, and
C1 are discharged by iγ. State II-B, D4 is conducting. Thus, C4 and C2 are charged, C3
and C1 are discharged by iγ, C6 supplies load current, and C5 is floating. State II-C,
D2 is conducting. Thus, C2 is charged, C1 is discharged by iγ, C6 and C4 supply load
current, and C5 and C3 are floating.
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ISBN: 978-81-956215-6-9
3) State III: Sm2 and Sc2 are turned on, and Sm1, Sc1, and all CW diodes are turned
off. The boost inductor is charged by the input dc source, the even group capacitors C6,
C4, and C2 supply the load, and the odd-group capacitors C5, C3, and C1 are floating.
4) State IV: Sm1 and Sc2 are turned on, Sm2 and Sc1 are turned off, and the current iγ
is negative. The boost inductor and input dc source transfer energy to the CW voltage
multiplier through different odd diodes. State IV-A, D5 is conducting. Thus, the even-
group capacitors, except C6 which supplies load current, are discharged, and the odd-
group capacitors C5, C3, and C1 are charged by iγ.State IV- B, D3 is conducting.
Thus, C2 is discharged, C3 and C1 are charged by iγ, C6 and C4 supplyload current,
and C5 is floating. State IV-C, D1 is conducting. Thus, C1 is charged by iγ, all even
capacitors supply load current, and C5 and C3 are floating.
Table 1 Table 2
8 Capacitance of CW Voltage Multiplier

A major advantage of the conventional CW voltage multiplier is that the voltage gain is
theoretically proportional to the number of cascaded stages. In the previous section, the
ideal voltage gain (unloaded) is assumed to simplify the Circuit analysis.
Unfortunately, when a load is connected to the load side of the system, the voltage drop
and ripple across each capacitor cannot be ignored. Voltage-fed mode, in which the
input terminal of the CW voltage multiplier was fed by a sinusoidal voltage source, was
used for analyzing voltage drop and ripple for CW multipliers in most literatures, while
only few literatures discussed current fed mode. In this paper, for analyzing the voltage
drop and ripple, an equivalent discontinuous-pulse-type current source is fed into the
CW voltage multiplier. According to the current-fed mode analytical principle
presented in the voltage drop and ripple associated with each capacitor can be found by
the charge–discharge behavior of capacitors under the steady-state condition.
9 Input Inductance
The value of the boost inductor can be calculated by
where KI is the expecting percentage of the maximum peak to-peak current ripple in the
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ISBN: 978-81-956215-6-9
inductor.
Figure 2 simulation diagram
Figure 3 output diagram
10. Simulation and Experimental Results

Mat lab simulink is applied to estimate the mathematic model and control
strategy of the proposed converter. Some selected waveforms of the proposed
converter at Po = 200 W, Vin = 48 V, and Vo = 450 V for both simulation and
experiment are shown in fig. The switching
signals of simulation for the four switches, in which Sc1 and Sc2 are operated at fsc
and Sm1 and Sm2 are operated at fsm. Moreover, the simulation results of the output
voltage vo, the input current iL, the terminal voltage vγ, and current iγ of the CW
voltage multiplier are shown. The experimental waveforms of the switching signals, vo,
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ISBN: 978-81-956215-6-9
iL, vγ, and iγ. Obviously, the simulation results well agree with the experimental
results. In theoretical analysis, the input current ripple frequency (fsc) is ignored due to
the fact that the capacitors are assumed large enough to obtain stable capacitor voltages
with no voltage ripple in the CW voltage multiplier. However, the voltage ripple exists
practically in all capacitors. In other words, the input current and the output voltage
have the same ripple frequency (fsc). The results also influence the terminal voltage vγ
and current iγ of the CW voltage multiplier.
Conclusion
In this paper, a high step-up dc-dc converter based on the CW voltage
multiplier without a line- or high-frequency stepup transformer has been presented to
obtain a high voltage gain. Since the voltage stress on the active switches, diodes, and
capacitors is not affected by the number of cascaded stages, power components with
the same voltage ratings can be selected. The techniques and circuit operation are
considered in this paper. The proposed control strategy employs two independent
frequencies, one of which operates at high frequency to minimize the size of the
inductor while the other one operates at relatively low frequency according to the
desired output voltage ripple. Finally, the simulation and experimental results proved
the validityof theoretical analysis and the feasibility of the proposed converter. In future
work, the influence of loading on the output voltage of the proposed converter will be
Derived for completing the steady-state analysis
Reference
[1]Rectifiers,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 526–534, Jul. 1992. [23]
Y. Berkovich, B. Axelrod, and A. Shenkman, “A novel diode-capacitor voltage
multiplier for increasing the voltage of photovoltaic cells,” in Proc. IEEE COMPEL,
Zurich, Switzerland, Aug.2008, pp. 1–5.
[2]M. Prudente, L. L. Pfitscher, G. Emmendoerfer, E. F. Romaneli, and R. Gules,
“Voltage multiplier cells applied to non-isolated dc-dc converters,” IEEE Trans. Power
Electron., vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 871– 887, Mar. 2008.
[3] M. D. Bellar, E. H. Watanabe, and A. C
Mesquita, “Analysis of the dynamic and steady-state performance of Cockcroft– Walton
cascaderectifiers,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 526–534, Jul. 1992.
[4]F. Hwang, Y. Shen, and S. H. Jayaram, “Low-ripple compact high-voltage dc power
supply,”
IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 42, no. 5, pp. 1139–1145, Sep./Oct. 2006.
[5]I. C. Kobougias and E. C. Tatakis, “Optimal design of a half-wave Cockcroft–
Walton voltage multiplier with minimum total capacitance,” IEEE Trans. Power
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ISBN: 978-81-956215-6-9
IoT Based Low Cost Smart Irrigation System with

Wireless Valve Control
1
Ramesh T, 2Balachander K
1
Research Scholar, Department of EEE, Park College of Engineering and Technology
Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India
2
Department of EEE, Faculty of Engineering, Karpagam Academy of Higher Education, Coimbatore,
Tamilnadu, India
Email: 1man.hole2012@gmail.com, 2 kaybe.ind@gmail.com
Abstract: In this paper presents to optimize the cost of the irrigation system and water
consumption for agricultural crop based on a wireless network, that are Internet of Things (IoT)
radio communications. The system consists of smart mobile phone for surveillance, the motor
controller unit and the field controller unit. The SIM 900 GSM module is available in motor
controller unit (PIC16F877A). Information from the field controller unit such as soil moisture,
land humidity, temperature is sent to the motor controller unit through Radio &
Communication. From motor controller unit the information is sent to the registered mobile
number through GSM module. A Command can be sent from the mobile by GSM message to
control the valves and motor.
Keywords: Irrigation, GSM, Valve Control, Soil Sensor
1. Introduction
Farmers are the backbone of our country. The farmers should be given first priority in all
aspects. India is a country where most of the people are dependent on agricultural activities.
Cultivation and farming are considered as the back bone of the country. Irrigation plays an
important role in agriculture. Farmers are facing many problems during irrigation process. In
many of the states in India, electrical power is not provided properly to the farmers for their
irrigation purpose. Due to this, frequent interruption of power, low voltage profile and water
shortage. To avoid the above such problems, the smart irrigation system will play a vital for
the irrigation purpose.. This project is very useful to control the AC motor used in the
application through wireless communication. By controlling the AC motor from anywhere in
the captured area. ZIGBEE based wireless valve control is also used. The objectives of this
paper were to control the water motor automatically and select the direction of the flow of
water in pipe with the help of soil moisture sensor. Finally, send the information (operation of
the motor and direction of water) of the farm field to the mobile message and g-mail account
of the user.
2. Control Strategies
The main block diagram consists of the Mobile communication, GSM interface circuit,
Solenoid control valve, LCD display, Radio frequency interface, Power supply, Keyboard
interface, Single phase preventer, Driver circuit, Temperature and humidity sensor and Soil
sensor.
2.1.Mobile Communication
GSM is a module to the isolated operation system, RF process, baseband process and the
purpose module providing standard interfaces, which integrated RF chips of GSM, baseband
chips, memory, and amplifier on the same circuit board. Designers make the microcomputer
communicate with GSM module by RS232 serial port and also use the standard AT instructionsto
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control GSM module to realize all kinds of communication, for example, sending messages, and
making telephone and GPRS dial internet. But the function of sending a message is usually
adopted to realize the long- range control just because of the low cost and well real- time.
2.2.
Figure 1. Block diagram.

A GSM modem is a wireless modem that works with a GSM wireless network. A wireless
modem behaves like a dial-up modem. The main difference between them is that a dial-up
modem sends and receives data through a fixed telephone line while a wireless modem sends
and receives data through radio waves.
A GSM modem can be an external device or a PC Card/PCMCIA Card. Typically, an
external GSM modem is connected to a computer through a serial cable or a USB cable. A
GSM modem in the form of a PC Card / PCMCIA Card is designed for use with a laptop
computer. It should be inserted into one of the PC Card / PCMCIA Card slots of a laptop
computer. Like a GSM mobile phone, a GSM modem requires a SIM card from a wireless
carrier in order to operate.
As mentioned in earlier sections of this SMS tutorial, computers use AT commands to
control modems. Both GSM modems and dial-up modems support a common set of standard
AT commands. You can use a GSM modem just like a dial-up modem.
In addition to the standard AT commands, GSM modems support an extended set of AT
commands. These extended AT commands are defined in the GSM standards. With the
extended AT commands, you can do things like:
1. Reading, writing and deleting SMS messages.
2. Sending SMS messages.

3. Monitoring the signal strength.
4. Monitoring the charging status and charge level of the battery.
5. Reading, writing and searching phone book entries.
The number of SMS messages that can be processed by a GSM modem per minute is very
low -- only about six to ten SMS messages per minute.
In this system, the GSM 300/1800 MHz network double band module made in Sim-com
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Company is selected as GSM module. This module is capable to analyze band rate
automatically and improve the performance of electronic public service. This module with
energy save function, embedded TCP/IP and transparent mode belongs to the series of GPRS
in three frequencies (900/1800/1900). The peripheral circuit of SIM300DZ mainly consists of
the communication interfaces of SIM cassette and module, such as SIM-CLK and SIM I/O,
which are the communication wires of module clock and data, SIM-RST and VCC, which are
the reset and the power supply. What’s more, the RXD and TXD are included in the peripheral
circuit of SIM300DZ which connect with the serial port the MCU. It is the AT instructions that
conveyed between the MCU and GSM through the very two channels. In addition, the
GSM module includes voice system channel and MIC channel. These channels are switched by
MCU because of the AT instructions which are mainly applied to the switching between the
voice and microphone in the monitor system. Finally, the transmitting ports IN+ and I are
also included which are with the dual tone multi frequency (DTMF) signals. When the user
communicates with the phone equipped in the car, if the button is pressed, it will produce a
DTMF signal which is sent out to the multi frequency decode chip to analyze and produce Q
signal through IN+ and IN-At this moment, the MCU decides how to operate according to the
Q signal.
2.3. Solenoid Control Valve

A solenoid valve is an electromechanical valve for use with liquid or gas controlled by
running or stopping an electrical current through a solenoid, which is a coil of wire, thus
changing the state of the valve. The operation of a solenoid valve is similar to that of a light
switch, but typically controls the flow of air or water, whereas a light switch typically controls
the flow of electricity. Solenoid valves may have two or more ports. In the case of a two-port
valve the flow is switched on or off; in the case of a three- port valve, the outflow is switched
between the two outlet ports. Multiple solenoid valves can be placed together on a manifold
Solenoid valves are the most frequently used control elements in fluidics. Their tasks are to
shut off, release, dose, distribute or mix fluids. They are found in many application areas.
Solenoids offer fast and safe switching, high reliability, long service life, good medium
compatibility of the materials used, low control power and compact design. Besides the
plunger-type actuator which is used most frequently, pivoted-armature actuators and rocker
actuators are also used.
2.4. LCD Display

Liquid crystal displays (LCD’s) have materials, which combine the properties of both liquids
and crystals. Rather than having a melting point, they have a temperature range within which
the molecules are almost as mobile as they would be in a liquid, but are grouped together in an
ordered form similar to a crystal.
An LCD contains of two glass panels, with the liquid crystal material, sand witched in
between them. The inner surface of the glass plates is coated with transparent electrodes which
define the character, symbols or patterns to be displayed polymeric layers are present in
between the electrodes and the liquid crystal, which makes the liquid crystal molecules to
maintain a defined orientation angle.
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One each polarizes are pasted outside the two glass panels. These polarizes would rotate the
light rays passing through them to a definite angle, in a particular direction. When the LCD is
in the off state, light rays are rotated by the two polarizes and the liquid crystal, such that the
light rays come out of the LCD without any orientation, and hence the LCD appears
transparent.
When satisfactory voltage is realistic to the electrodes, the liquid crystal molecules would be
aligned in a specific direction. The light rays passing through the LCD would be rotated by the
polarizes, which would result in activating / highlighting the desired characters. The LCD’s
are lightweight with only a few millimeters thickness. Since the LCD’s consume less power,
they are compatible with low power electronic circuits, and can be powered for long durations.
The LCD does not generate light and so light is needed to read the display. By using
backlighting, reading is possible in the dark. The LCD’s have long life and a wide operating
temperature range. Changing the display size or the layout size is relatively simple which
makes the LCD’s more customers friendly.
The LCDs used exclusively in watches, calculators and measuring instruments are the simple
seven-segment displays, having a limited amount of numeric data. The recent advances in
technology have resulted in better legibility, more information displaying capability and a
wider temperature range. These have resulted in the LCDs being comprehensively used in
telecommunications and entertainment electronics. The LCDs have even started changing the
cathode ray tubes (CRTs) used for the display of text and graphics, and also in small TV
applications.
Crystalloids dot–matrix (alphanumeric) liquid crystal displays are available in TN, STN
types, with or without backlight. The use of C-MOS LCD controller and driver ICs result in
low power consumption. These modules can be interfaced with a 4-bit or 8-bit microprocessor
/Micro controller. LCDs are used in similar applications where LEDs are used. These
applications are displayed of numeric and alphanumeric characters in dot matrix and segment
displays.
2.5. RF Transmitter and Receiver

Radio frequency, or RF, is a frequency or rate of oscillation within the range of about 3 Hz
and 300 GHz. This range corresponds to frequency of alternating current electrical signals used
to produce and detect radio waves. Since most of this range is beyond the vibration rate that
most mechanical systems can respond to, RF usually refers to oscillations in electrical circuits.
The Electrical currents that oscillate at RF have special properties not shared by direct current
signals. One such property is the ease with which it can ionize air to create a conductive path
through the air. This property is exploited by 'high frequency' units used in electric arc welding.
Another special property is an electromagnetic force that drives the RF current to the surface
of conductors, known as the skin effect. Another property is the ability to appear to flow
through paths that contain insulating material, like the dielectric insulator of a capacitor. The
degree of the effect of these properties depends on the frequency of the signals.
RF transmitter and receiver are available for operation in the 868-870MHz band in Europe
and the 902–928MHz band in North America, both modules combine full screening with
internal filtering to ensure EMC compliance by minimizing spurious radiation and
susceptibility. These RF transmitter & receiver will suit one-to-one and multi-node wireless
links in such applications as car and building security, EPOS and inventory tracking, remote
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industrial process monitoring and data networks. Because of their small size and low power
requirements, both Modules are ideal for use in portable, battery-powered applications such as
handheld terminals.
2.6. Encoder
In this circuit HT 640 is used as an encoder. The 318 encoders are a series of CMOS LSIs for
remote control system application. They are capable of encoding 18 bits of information which
consists of N address bit and 18-N data bits. Each address/data input is externally trinary
programmable if bonded out. It is otherwise set floating internally. Various packages of the 318
encoders offer a flexible combination of programmable address/data is transmitted together
with the header bits via an RF or an infrared transmission medium upon receipt of a trigger
signal. The capability to select a TE trigger type further enhances the application flexibility
of the 318 series of encoders. In this circuit the input signal to be encoded is given to AD7-AD0
input pins of the encoder. Here the input signal may be from keyboard, parallel port,
microcontroller or any interfacing device. The encoder output address pins are shorted so the
output encoded signal is the combination of (A0-A9) address signal and (D0-D7) data signal.
The output encoded signal is taken from 8th which is connected to an RF transmitter section.
2.7. RF Transmitter
Whenever a high output pulse is given to the base of the transistor BF 494, the transistor is
conducting so tank circuit is oscillating. The tank circuit consists of L2 and C4 generating
35MHz carrier signal. Then the modulated signal is given LC filter section. After the filtration
the RF modulated signal is transmitted through an antenna.
2.8. RF Receiver
The RF receiver is used to receive the encoded data which is transmitted by the RF
transmitter. Then the received data are given to a transistor, which acts as an amplifier. Then
the amplified signal is given to carrier demodulator section in which transistor Q1 is turned on
and turn off conducting depends on the signal. Due to this the capacitor C14 is charged and
discharged so carrier signal is removed and saw tooth signal is appearing across the capacitor.
Then this saw tooth signal is given to the comparator. The comparator circuit is constructed by
LM558. The comparator is used to convert the saw tooth signal to exact square pulse. Then
the encoded signal is given to decoder in order to get the decoded original signal.
2.9. Decoder
In this circuit HT648 is used as a decoder. The 318 decoder a series of CMOS LSIs for remote
control system application. They are paired with 318 series of encoders. For proper operation
a pair of encoder/decoder pair with the same number of address and data format should be
selected. The 318 series of decoder receives the serial address and data from that series of
encoders that are transmitted by a carrier using an RF or an IR transmission medium. It then
compares the serial input data twice continuously with its local address. If no errors or
unmatched codes are encountered, the input data codes are decoded and then transferred to the
output pins. The VT pin also goes high to indicate a valid transmission.
The 318 decoders are capable of decoding 18 bits of information that consists of N bits of
address and 18-N bits of data. To meet various applications, they are arranged to provide a
number of data pins whose range is from 0 to 8 and an address pin whose range is from 8 to
18. In addition, the 318 decoders provide various combinations of address/ data numbering
different package.
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In this circuit the received encoded signal is 9th pin of the decoder. Now the decoder
separates the address (A0-A9) and data signal (D0-D7). Then the output data signal is given to
a microcontroller or any other interfacing device.
2.10. Power Supply Block

The present chapter introduces the operation of power supply circuits built using filters,
rectifiers and then voltage regulators. Starting with an AC voltage, a steady DC voltage is
obtained by rectifying the AC voltage, then filtering to a DC level, and finally regulating to
obtain a desired fixed DC voltage. The regulation is usually obtained from an IC voltage
regulator unit, which remain the same if the input DC voltage varies or the output load
connected to DC voltage changes. A block diagram containing the parts of a typical power
supply and the voltage at various points in the unit is shown in the Figure 2.
The AC voltage, typically 120 V rms, is connected to a transformer, which steps that AC
voltage down to the level for the desired DC output. A diode rectifier that provides a full-wave
rectified voltage that is initially filtered by a simple capacitor filter to produce a DC voltage.
This resulting DC voltage usually as some ripple or AC voltage variation. A regulated circuit
can use this DC inputs to provide a DC voltage that not only has much less ripple voltage but
also remains the same DC value even if the input DC voltage varies somewhat, or the load
connected to the output DC voltage changes this voltage regulation is usually obtained using
one of a number of popular voltage regulation IC unit. The Power supply unit consists of the
following units.
1. Step down transformer
2. Rectifier unit
3. Input filter
4. Regulator unit
5. Output filter
Figure 2. Power supply circuit diagram.

2.11. Three-Terminal Voltage Regulator
The Figure 3 shows the basic connection of a three terminal voltage regulator IC to a load.
The fixed voltage regulator has an unregulated DC input voltage, from a second terminal, with
a third terminal connected to ground. For a selected regulator, IC device specification lists a
voltage range over which the input voltage can vary to maintain a regulated output voltage
over a range of load current. The specification also lists the amount of output voltage change
resulting from a change in load current (load regulation) or in input voltage (line regulation).
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2.12. Keyboard Interface
Figure 3. Three terminal voltage regulator.

to unbalance supply or single phasing. Phase failure occurs in case of fuse blown-off, loose
connections or loss of phase
The keyboard which is used in project to register the
mobile number for sending the motor, valve open and close condition and soil dry and wet
condition information via GSM module.
2.13. Single Phase Preventer

Protection of induction motors against single phasing or reverse phase or unbalance supply
is one of the major problems in electrical systems. For safe running of 3-phase motors, special
protections that keep a continuous watch on supply conditions are very essentials. The major
cause of maximum motors burn-out is overloading which occurs due from the supply itself.
2.14. Driver Circuit

Driver circuits are most commonly used to amplify signals from controllers or
microcontrollers in order to control power switches in semiconductor devices. Driver circuits
often take on additional functions which include isolating the control circuit and the power
circuit, detecting malfunctions, storing and reporting failures in the control system, serving as
a precaution against failure, analyzing sensor signals, and creating auxiliary voltages.
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Figure 4. Bock diagram of driver circuit.
2.15. Temperature and Humidity Sensor

reports the relative humidity in the air. It measures both moisture and air temperature.
Relative humidity is the ratio
A humidity sensor (or hygrometer) senses, measures and of actual moisture in the air to
the highest amount of moisture that can be held at that air temperature. The warmer the air
temperature is, the more moisture it can hold. Humidity / dew sensors use capacitive
measurement, which relies on electrical capacitance. Electrical capacity is the ability of two
nearby electrical conductors to create an electrical field between them. The sensor is composed
of two
2.16. Soil Sensor
Metal plates and contains a non-conductive polymer film between them. This film collects
moisture from the air, which causes the voltage between the two plates to change. These
voltage changes are converted into digital readings showing the level of moisture in the air.
The use of sensors can afford quantitative information to help guide and automate the
decision-making process for irrigation. Such sensors include those that are generally used for
weather stations as well as sensors to monitor the water status of the soil or substrate, and
sensors that can be used to monitor and troubleshoot irrigation systems. Although collecting
data with sensors is relatively easy, data are only useful if the sensors are used correctly and
the limitations of sensors are understood.
Figure 5. Circuit diagram of soil sensor.
Optimizing the value of the collected data requires selecting the best sensor (s) for a particular
purpose, determining the optimal number of sensorsto be deployed, and assuring that collected
data are as accurate and precise as possible. We designate general sensing principles and how
these principles can be applied to a variety of sensors. Based on our experience, proper use of
sensors can result in large increases in irrigation efficiency and improve the profitability of
ornamental production in greenhouses andnurseries.
Simulation Circuit Diagram

This simulation diagram shows the simulation circuit diagram for our project. This circuit is
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constructed in proteus software. To control both motor pump and solenoid valve. During the
normal condition period the motor is in off condition and the valve 1 & valve 2 are in closed
position. And the sensor will sense the temperature of the soil condition and send information
to the registered mobile via through GSM module. If any 1 of the land is in dry condition the
information will be passed to the number and we are controlled the valve for to open. After the
land gets wet condition and motor are turned off and valve are closed. In the display unit the
information is displayed like the land conditions, valve conditions and the message received
condition. In this software we constructed the circuits and checked all the running conditions.
Figure 6. Simulation diagram.

3. Hardware Circuit Diagram
Figure 7. Main circuit diagram.
Block Diagram-Well Side
Figure 8. Block diagram of well side.
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3.1. Block Diagram-Land Side
Figure 9. Block diagram of land side.
Project to identify the phone call which is coming through the GSM modem. In that
time the PIC microcontroller reduces the speed of the motor and inform the user that the arrival
of a call by using an LCD. The 16x2 LCD is used as a display unit which is used for alerting
the user, two PORTS are allocated for LCD connections.
The regulated 5V supply is connected to the GSM modem and all peripherals. IC MAX232
is used to communicate between the PIC microcontroller and the GSM modem. The LCD16x2
is used as a display unit which is used for alerting the user, two PORTS are allocated for LCD
connections. The soil sensor will sense the land condition, whether the land is wet or dry. And
send the information through SMS to the registered mobile number via GSM module. After
this information is received, the motor and the valves are controlled by sending SMS to the
GSM circuit. If the land is dry condition, first the corresponding valve gets opened the motor
is turned ON by the control of registered number. During the running period, the land changed
from dry condition to wet condition the motor is automatically turned OFF and the valve gets
closed.
When the power supply is given to the circuit, the display will show the title of the project.
After the power supply is The AC voltage 220V is connected to a transformer, which steps that
AC voltage down to the level of the 5V desired AC output. A rectifier provides a full-wave
rectified voltage that is initially filtered by a simple capacitor filter to produce a DC voltage.
This resulting DC voltage, usually has some ripple or AC voltage variation. A regulator circuit
removes the ripples and also remains the same DC value even if the input DC voltage varies,
or the load connected to the output DC voltage changes.
The display shows the land condition, motor condition and temperature of the soil. The
display show the information about land condition, soil condition and water level in well. And
the information is passed to the registered mobile number via GSM module. The SMS is sent
by registered number to the GSM module, it check and operates according to the command.
The SMS are send to the GSM module, if it received it shows in the display. The wrong
command are send to the GSM module, the display shows that as invalid format. The command
is correct to turn ON the motor, it will be displayed in display unit.
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Figure 10. Hardware model.
4. Conclusion
IoT is brought forwards to use in automatic irrigation. Thus the project of the irrigation
system and water consumption for agricultural crop based on wireless network that are IoT
and radio communications. The photovoltaic power supply to the field unit. Any cell phone
can send command to the controllers or collect information from the controller. Only during
day time a valves can be controlled because of solar photovoltaic. GSM and radio frequency
provides credible communication for the device.
References
[1] Joaquín Gutiérrez, Juan Francisco Villa-Medina, Alejandra Nieto-Garibay, Miguel Ángel
Porta-Gándara, Automated Irrigation System Using a Wireless Sensor Network and GPRS
Module, IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, Vol. 63, No. 1, pp. 166-
176, 2013.
[2] Xiaohong Peng, Guodong Liu, Intelligent Water-Saving Irrigation System Based on Fuzzy
Control and Wireless Sensor Network”, In Proceedings of International Conference on Digital
Home, pp 252-256, 2012.
[3] Vandana Dubey, Nilesh Dubey, Shailesh Singh Chouhan, Wireless Sensor Network based
Remote Irrigation Control System and Automation using DTMF code, In Proceedings of
International Conference on Communication Systems and Network Technologies, pp. 34-37,
2011.
[4] Rajeev G. Vishwakarma, Vijay Choudhary, Wireless Solution for Irrigation in Agriculture, In
proceedings of International Conference on Signal Processing, Communication, Computing
and Networking Technologies, pp. 61-63, 2011.
[5] Liang Zhao, Liyuan He, Xing Jin, Wenjun Yu, Design of Wireless Sensor Network
Middleware for Agricultural Applications, Daoliang Li, Yingyi Chen eds. Computer and
Computing Technologies in Agriculture IV, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp 270-279, 2012.
[6] Shaikh, Bhawani Shankar Chowdhry, Habib M. Ammari, Muhammad Aslam Uqaili,
Assadullah Shah eds. Wireless Sensor Networks for Developing Countries, Springer Berlin
Heidelberg, pp. 1-13, 2013.
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Quality issues associated with Transformer

manufacturing leads to Power Quality.
Santhosh Kumar. K. S
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Karpagam Academy of Higher Education.
Coimbatore, India. 28febsant@gmail.com.
Abstract— Review article, Fire risks in the electrical installation: the review concluded with
lapses in the quality of electrical equipment and failure in the installation practices. [1].
Lapses are noticed because of the negligence in the physical verification towards compliance
with respect to the codes and standards. Where codes and standards are mandatory for
regulatory compliance to ensure safety. [2].
It is important to ensure that the right equipment is delivered to the site prior to installation.
[3]. Equipment test reports are to be reviewed prior to installation to ensure equipment
conformity to the relevant standard. Power quality issues are the result of the inferior quality
of electrical equipment. [4]. A review of fire risks established that power quality issues are
one of the reasons for the fire[1].. This article intends to analyze the power quality issues are
related to primary sources of power supply. So, it is important to analyze the quality problems
associated with different ratings of transformers. [5].
This article intends to amylase the whether any quality issues are associated with the
transformer on the basis of test results collected from various transformer manufacturers and
data collected from the customer. This case study analysis intends to find out any issues are
really in existence to affect the power quality of source with available references and research
documents. [6]. This will help us to find out solutions if any issues are really in existence.
Keywords—power quality, equipment, manufacture test data, hysteresis losses,

impedance.
I. INTRODUCTION
During the transformer design, always consider the energy efficiency factor and sufficient
cooling gradient to withstand thermal overload during peak demand as per codes and
Standards. In order to meet the above it is important to limit the maximum losses. [7].
Controlling the losses will improve the loading factor and make power system more
profitable. It also helps to withstand overload without insulation failure during the peak
demand. [8].
High-efficiency transformers make financial benefits for the society by reducing
transmission and distribution losses. [9]. Other than diminished greenhouse gas emanations,
they progress reliability and deliver possibly longer benefit life by bringing down temperature
rises through energy-efficiency advancements. [5]. India has, by present, received the
universal IEC standards as well as presented star naming for chosen categories of transformers.
[6]. Most power losses happen within the transformer core made up of magnetic steel or within
the electrical coils or windings of either aluminum or copper. . Copper diminishes load loss
since it could be a more proficient conductor. . By reducing the losses entire systems become
energy efficient and reduce impact to the environment too. [7].
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Power Transformers Energy Efficiency proposes 2 methods of defining energy efficiency
index and three methods for evaluating the energy performance of a transformer. These are
based on the practices followed in different countries of the world. The main need of this
standard to save energy and reduce the emission of greenhouse gases. This standard aim to
promote a higher average of the energy performance of transformers. [7].
Energy efficiency is not the sole basis for choosing a transformer. The total capital and
estimated lifetime operating and maintenance cost is also an important consideration while
selecting the most suitable transformer for the designated application. [7]. The use of a
minimum value of Peak Efficiency Index sets a floor for transformer energyperformance, but
the use of total cost ownership to evaluation for purchasing transformer is important to select
a transformer with maximum economically justified efficiency. [9].
The Peak Efficiency Index (PEI) should be used in conjunction with either a total cost of
ownership (TCO) approach or any other means of specifying the load factor. [10]. The
quality of core laminations and coils is influencing transformer losses and influencing the
marketing value of transformer. [11].The efficiency at a defined power factor and particular
load factor (typically at 50 %) .
Excess loads beyond the Transformer nameplate rating involve always a risk. Transformers
are having efficiency below declared value due to the wrong losses data due to inferior quality
of core laminations and the grade of conductors are adding more risks in loading transformed
beyond nameplate rating. evolution of free gases from insulation and lead conductors due to
excess heat and eddy currents destroy the die electric integrity of and dielectric strength. [12].
Higher losses deliver excess heating which reduces the mechanical strength of conductor and
insulation. Thermal expansion due to excess heat leads to permanent deformation and damage.
[13].
II. EVALUATION OF TRANSFORMER LOSSES
Case study 1.
Evaluation of the measurement of losses submitted by a manufacturer along with delivery of a
1000KVA, 11KV/433V, 3 Phase Energy Efficient level 2 transformers with actual measured
results at the customer laboratory.
Guaranteed Losses:
Max. Total Losses at 50% load at 750C 2790 Watts

Test Results submitted by the manufacturer:
Losses submitted by manufacturer.
Table : 1
Total losses
No-load loss Load loss at 75 (Watts)
Test particulars (Watts) 0C (Watts)
Max. Total losses at
1175.4 1579.6 2755.0
50% load
100% load 1175.4 6294.1 7469.5
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As per Transformer manufacturer data, we can calculate the efficiency at unity power factor.
@50%load= 500/500+(0.25x1.5796+1.1754) X100 = 99.68%
@100%load = 1000/1007.469=99.25%
While measuring the losses at the customer laboratory below values are observed:
Table : 2
Total losses
No-load loss Load loss at 75 (Watts)
Test particulars (Watts) 0C (Watts)

1739 1829.2 3568.2
50% load
100% load 1739 6482.6 8221.6
As per losses measured at the customer laboratory, we can calculate the efficiency at the unity
power factor.
@50%load= 500/500+(0.25x1.829+1.739) X100 = 99.56%
@100%load = 1000/1008.2216=99.18%
Asper above measurement Total losses @50% = 3568.2W
Guaranteed losses @50%load = 2 790 W
Deviation from manufacturer measurement = 778.2W
Hence it is observed that Transformer is not meeting losses as per energy efficient level 2. [8].
During the detailed evaluation, it is observed that no load losses were declared by the
manufacturer at 4.39A and rated voltage of 433V.
But at the Customer laboratory, when they apply 433V and ammeter shows 6.57A.
The quality of the magnetic core material and the orientation of steel grains reduces
reluctance in the magnetizing circuit. [14]. Reluctance in the magnetizing circuit causes excess
heat due to higher hysteresis loss. Good quality magnetic core laminations ensure good BH
properties and reduce hysteresis losses and increase the transformer efficiency and make the
customer profitable. [15].
The hysteresis coefficient depends on the magnetic property of the core laminations
used. The hysteresis loop always illustrated by the BH curve shows the effect of magnetic flux
density on magnetic field strength.
Figure 1
Here magnet flux is influenced by the voltage applied in the coil and the magnetic
field is influenced by the current produced. In the BH curve, we can
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find a region where both flux and density are linear and proportional. Thereafter a magnetic
intensity gets a sharp increment up at a small increase in magnetic flux and in these regions
normally transformer operates at a rated voltage. Above these levels are always risky and take
the transformer core to magnetic saturation level where flux density remains [16]. constant.
Good quality Core lamination will ensure good magnetic properties and ensure
normal operation of the transformer at a rated voltage level. This will ensure a good operating
region within safe core temperature limit. Also, ensure a safer distance from magnetic
saturation. [17].
Low-grade CRGO lamination adversely affects the magnetic properties.
Inferior quality of laminations results in magnetic saturation of the core at a very low level.
This will affect the transformer’s normal function and contribute a high level of no-load losses
to function at as every transform at the rated voltage level and nay voltage variation will lead
to magnetic saturation at a low level. So the transformer operates below rated voltage
continuously and which leads to voltage variations in the secondary circuit[18].
Figure 1 shows the hysteresis loop curve ( B-H). magnetic flux with respect to the
voltage applied due to the field density influenced by the current in the coil. At a certain level,
current and voltage are linear and when voltage increases then current sharply increases and
attains magnetic saturation. [19].
So it is understood from here that no load losses data submitted by the
manufacturer was not correct and measured at a voltage below the rated voltage of the
transformer. So magnetic saturation is possible at a lower level. The losses guaranteed are
influenced by the quality of the raw material used. The flux density depends on the amount
and quality of CRGO laminations used. Apparent power depends upon the tan delta value
guaranteed. Real power depends on current and power factors.[21].
Manufacturers must ensure the thickness of lamination to reduce the eddy current losses and
the quality and amount of CRGO laminations to ensure the hysteresis coefficient in order to
meet the guaranteed steel losses. This will help to retain the core temperature under a safe
limit.[22].
Case study 2.
Evaluation of the measurement of losses submitted by a manufacturer along with delivery
of a 10MVA, 33KV/11KV, 3 Phase Power transformer with actual measured results at the
customer laboratory.
Guaranteed Losses:
Table : 3
No- load Load loss at 75
loss 0C Total losses
Test (Watts)
(Watts)
particulars (Watts)
Max. Total
losses at 100% 5156.0
33752 38908.04
load 4
Efficiency = 10000KW/10038.9 X100=99.6%

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While measuring the losses at the customer laboratory below values are observed:
Table : 4
No-loadloss Load loss at
(Watts) 75 C(Watts) Total losses
0
Test (Watts)
particulars
Max. Total losses 6256 41309 7565
at 100%load
Efficiency as per customer laboratory test results:
Efficiency =10000KW/10047.5x100=99.52%
Max total losses guaranteed @75 deg = 42.4KW
Actually measured by Customer laboratory= 47.5KW
Deviation= 47.5KW-42.4KW=5.1KW. [13].
The constant losses contribute to several factors including the hysteresis coefficient,
and thickness of CRGO laminations used. Technical parameters such as the direction of flux
are influenced by the steel grain. Other technological factors like losses per kilogram, peak
flux density, and a designer choice of frequency decided are also influencing constant losses.
[8].
Old and re-cycled laminations adversely affect the quality and lead to magnetic saturation at
an early stage. Low quality of lamination influences and at a well, below-rated voltage level
current will shoot up and lead to saturation immediately. [9].
III. EVALUATION OF PERCENTAGE IMPEDANCE.
Percentage Impedance of 10MVA, 33KV/11KV, 3 Phase Power transformer

Guaranteed is 8.35 for without negative tolerance. But actually measured at customer
Laboratory = 7.9%.
Low percentage impedance low inductive reactance and the circuit become purely
resistive and allowed to flow very high current during normal operating conditions. High
current will reduce the life of the coil and result in coil burnout. The induced voltage and source
is always 180 Deg out of phase. The difference of voltage between the induced voltage and the
source voltage dropped across the coil and the generated voltage will excite the coil. So
Transformer impedance is keeping the circuit inductive to protect the coil from burnout by
providing enough back emf to protect the winding. [4]. Transformer impedance is expressed
in the unit of percentage and calculated from the impedance voltage measured during the short
circuit test with respect to the full load current.
Normally design Engineer will not allow negative tolerance of Percentage impedance.
Low value affects the transformer’s capacity to withstand any sort of stress during abnormal
conditions and transient loads. The normal value of a medium-sized power transformer is
about 9 or 10 % with respect to the amount of copper required and also depends on the
guaranteed value of current density.[3].
IV. EVALUATION OF WINDING TEMPERATURE RISE

The winding temperature rise observed is above the guaranteed limit. The guaranteed value of
winding temperature rise is 50Deg. Actually observed value was 62Deg.
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Figure 2
The Heat Run check is considered a proto-type test to confirm the rating of the Transformer.
[5].
During this check, heat is produced and recorded as per the desired value concerning
the transformer's total losses giving confidence to the customer that the equipment will
withstand transient and emergency loading cycles. [6].
The design Engineer will select the insulation class as per regular rating and emergency
service conditions concerning the heat limit. [4].
During the heat run check, heat measured beyond the specified limit proved that the
cooling gradient factor concerning the volume of oil, natural, and forced air is insufficient to
control the heat produced to the total losses and presumed that the transformer is below rated.
So it is affecting the full load capacity of the transformer for functioning in normal and transient
load under the emergency loading cycle. [23].
The total operating temperature produced by the transformer is to be taken care of by
various factors like oil viscosity, air density, nature of forced air, and surface area of radiators.
The sufficient cooling gradient will ensure the operation of the transformer in a safe mode and
as well as capable to take transient loads under emergency requirements. Also, protect the
insulation from thermal aging and helps to enhance the life of the transformer. [24].
If the heat limit is beyond the specified value then the transformer needs to be re-rated
and the consumer should be cautious about the loading cycle. [25]. Another option is to check
the provision for increasing the volume of the transformer oil, the surface area of radiators, or
the volume of forced air. [26].
The customer should be compensated concerning the excess cost and effect of the
additional commercial losses by the manufacturer. [27].
If a heat run check is not performed before dispatch then necessary corrective measures
cannot be undertaken. Adversely affects the loading cycle substantially resulting in power
quality due to voltage fluctuation due to bad performance of the equipment [5].
V . Conclusions:
The latest Grain-oriented steel manufacturing process helps to reduce the hysteresis
and eddy current losses from the old manufacturing process.
Advanced quality reformation substantially increases the demand for a new grade of
CRGO steel and it is independent of the pricing factor comparatively by the other steel
commodities in the international market. CRGO lamination is a rare commodity and only a
few producers are available globally. So robust demand in the international market with a
robust price. So they have kept the reserved price strategy which was by demand and firm.
Due to unhealthy competition in the transformer manufacturing industry, it is very
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difficult to ensure price with respect to the good quality raw material cost. So it is very difficult
for them to ensure quality products to customers with respect to the price because of bad
competition. It is always considered the lowest price bid with a given technical specification.
It is a tough and fight situation for manufacturers to ensure supply as per guaranteed
specifications. So they will have low-quality CRGO laminations and low-grade raw materials.
So there will be always a deviation in the measured record data with data submitted along with
the delivery of the transformer. So due to unhealthy pricing factor manufacturer did not ensure
the delivery of the right equipment as per the guaranteed technical specification outlined in the
bidding document. The unhealthy practices affect the performance of the equipment and
influence the quality of power distributed.
The factors influencing transformer temperature beyond guaranteed value adversely affect
the capacity of the transformer under normal working conditions. The reduction of the overall
dimension of the transformer tank reduces the manufacturing cost without considering the
required cooling gradient to absorb the heat produced with respect to the designed capacity of
the transformer.
The above-mentioned issues are affecting the normal quality of power at the secondary side
of the load connected as the transformer will not be in a position to deliver constant voltage.
Which result into voltage variations beyond the tolerance limit resulting into unexpected
harmonics in the system. Harmonics will cause to raise the potential between neutral to earth.
Such situation harm the precise equipment normal functioning and leads into un expected
abnormal situation may cause short-circuits Power quality due to abnormal situations impacts
and influences the life of the equipment leading to severe damage because of voltage
fluctuations.
REFERENCES
[1] Fire risks in electrical installations: The review
[2] IS 2026 (Part 1) Power Transformer Part 1 General
[3] Mr Kumran Dawood ,Faith ISIK , Guven Komurgoz , transaction on Analysis and
Optimization of leakage impedence in a transformer with additional winding:A numerical
experiment study, Alexandria Engineering journal 61(2022) 11291-11300.
[4] Mr. M.Popov transaction on General approach for accurate reasonance analysis in Transformer
winding, Electric Power research journal 161(2018)45-51 .
[5] Heat run test on Three phase transformer, Index no. M-263 Rajat Technical manual
[6] Mr.Yalisho Girma Loaena, transaction on Evaluation of harmonics and its effect on
Transformer load losses, Journal of Energy technologies -ISSN-2224-3232
[7] .Ayman Agha, Hani Attar,Ashish Kr. Luhach transaction on optimized economic loading of
distribution transformer using minimum energy loss computing , Hindawi Mathematical
Problems in Engineering Volume 2021, Article ID 8081212.
[8] Vitor Martins Barbosa, Regis Pinheiro Landim tansaction on estimation of the measurement
uncertainity in the test of electric distribution transformer filled with liquid-noload losses and
in load losses, Journal of Physics: Conference Series 1826 (2021) 012094
[9] Stjepan Frljić , Bojan Trkulja and Igor Žiger , Article on calculation of eddy current losses
in a laminated open type transformer Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 11543.
[10] Pavel Zvada, Evgenii Zelenskii, Yuri Kononov, Svetlana Kostyukova, and Evgeny Dernin
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A Comparative Study of Automatic Number Plate Recognition

System for Indian Vehicles Using RCNN and YOLO
P. Jeevananthan1, Dr. M. Vaigundamoorthi1, K.Saranya3
1,2
Department of EEE, Karpagam College of Engineering, Coimbatore, India
3
Department of CSE, Sri Ramakrishna Institute ofTechnology, Coimbatore, India
Abstract
Region-based Convolutional Neural Networks (R-CNNs) have emerged as a powerful

paradigm in computer vision, significantly advancing object detection and image
understanding. This proposal delves into the comparative analysis and advancement of two
influential object detection technologies: Region-based Convolutional Neural Networks (R-
CNNs) and You Only Look Once (YOLO). Both technologies have significantly impacted
computer vision applications, offering distinct approaches to real-time object detection in
images and video streams. R-CNNs employ a two-stage process involving region proposals
and subsequent classification, excelling in accuracy but at the cost of computational efficiency.
On the other hand, YOLO adopts a one-stage, unified approach that simultaneously predicts
bounding boxes and class probabilities, emphasizing real-time performance. The proposed
work aims to advance the strengths of both paradigms, seeking a synthesis that leverages the
high precision of R-CNNs with the efficiency of YOLO through its classification accuracy
using MATLAB. The outcomes of this research show that the RCNN outperforms the YOLO
with a precision of 95% and a recall of 98% whereas the YOLO attained a precision of 92%
and a recall of 97% respectively.
Keywords: Region-based Convolutional Neural Networks (R-CNNs), You Only Look Once
(YOLO), computer vision.
Introduction
In the realm of computer vision, the quest for efficient and accurate object detection
techniques has led to the development of various methodologies. This research focuses on
comparing two influential approaches, Region-based Convolutional Neural Networks (R-
CNNs) and You Only Look Once (YOLO), with a specific application in mind: the detection
of Indian vehicle number plates using MATLAB. The goal is to assess the performance of
these techniques in the context of a dataset comprising 4500 images of Indian vehicles.R-
CNNs and YOLO present distinctive strategies for object detection. R-CNNs leverage a two-
stage process involving region proposals and subsequent classification, excelling in accuracy
but often criticized for computational demands. On the other hand, YOLO adopts a
streamlined one-stage approach, prioritizing real-time performance by predicting bounding
boxes and class probabilities simultaneously.
This study aims to explore the effectiveness of R-CNN and YOLO in the specific task
of Indian vehicle number plate detection. Leveraging MATLAB's capabilities, we implement
both techniques on a dataset of 4500 images, carefully curated to represent the diversity of
Indian vehicles and license plate variations. Our objective is to not only compare the accuracy
and speed of the two methods but also to propose enhancements that optimize their
performance in the context of Indian license plate detection. Preliminary evaluations suggest
that R-CNN exhibits superior performance concerning accuracy within our dataset. This
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observation opens avenues for further exploration into the nuances of Indian license plate
characteristics and potential modifications to the existing R-CNN architecture to enhance its
efficiency. The outcomes of this research contribute to the refinement of object detection
technologies tailored for specific regional contexts, addressing the intricacies of Indian vehicle
number plate detection and fostering advancements in computer vision applications.
Related Works
Zhang et al (2023) introduced an adaptive framework for multi-model LP recognition

through adapting a novel gravitational genetic searching algorithm that aims to consider
several aspects like time taken for detection, power utilization, image quality, and
accurateness. QoS enhancement has been the primary objective of the proposed technique
which has been designed to work in cloud and edge computing environments where balance
between energy efficiency and computational accuracy is acquired through designing an
offloading framework that can generate optimal decisions based on minimum weighted sum
of time and energy use. Gupta et al (2023) proposed a model that can identify the overloaded
vehicles through their number plates by using a deep NN model known as YOLO-v4. Along
with Tesseract, this model has been designed to recognize characters using LSTM.
Kaur et al (2022) presented a CNN based ALPR system which works on the given
input image by categorising the features extracted based on their significance which helps in
differentiating them from other images. CNNs are the most widely used DL technique for LP
character recognition applications. The proposed makes use of CNN along with other pre-
processing and morphological processes to enhance the quality of input images and overall
efficiency of ALPR system. The system aims to recognize variety of number plates that may
contain multiple lines, distorted, and multiple font usage. It also assures accuracy in night
vision and can be employed to identify different vehicle kinds.
Pattanaik et al (2022) put forward a novel scheme for accurately recognising LPs based
on DL. This method deep works on the principle of bounding rectangle (BR) for carrying out
segmentation along with CNN .This BR-CNN model utilises 3 major steps to recognize the
licence plate number namely- LP detection through connected component analysis, BR
segmentation, and CNN based LP recognition. Another CNN based method was proposed by
Nikita et al (2022) which makes use of localization and detection based on updated Bernsen
Algorithm and Connected Component Analysis (CCA) models. Optimal Kmeans clustering is
performed with CNN to implement the actual recognition process.
Laroca et al (2021) had put forward an autonomous ALPR system which is
layoutindependent and based on YOLO object detector. This scheme promises to be an
integrated approach for LP detection along with layout classification which can substantially
augment the detection results by employing certain post-processing conditions. Designing the
framework is done through validation and optimization of various techniques, to achieve the
optimal speed as well as required accuracy during each phase of operation. Training the
network using images from various datasets together with necessary analysis ensures the
reliability of system under critical conditions.
Denny et al (2020) presented an automatic identification process of LPs which included
Faster R-CNN and image processing technologies. The detection of vehicles is done using
Faster R-CNN followed by validation of authenticity of LPs using a dedicated module that
checks its authenticity. The outcomes of proposed model have been tested on various images
under varying climatic conditions and its accuracy has been compared with other existing
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ISBN: 978-81-956215-6-9
models.
Experimental procedure
The experimental procedure is the step-by-step process for experimenting using the
predefined dataset. Figure 1 shows the step-by-step procedure for experimenting using the
input dataset to final evaluation.
Figure 1. Experimental procedure for the ANPR using Machine learning techniques
Data Collection and preprocessing
A diverse dataset of 4500 images containing Indian vehicles with license plates has
been acquired from google images and ensured the variations in lighting conditions, plate
designs, and vehicle types to create a representative dataset. The dataset was Standardized by
resizing images to a consistent resolution. Each image was annotated with bounding boxes
around license plates to create ground truth labels for evaluation.
Implementation of R-CNN and YOLO: MATLAB's Computer Vision Toolbox was utilized
to implement both R-CNN and YOLO for license plate detection. The networks based on
existing architectures were configured, considering the specifics of license plate
characteristics. The dataset was split into training and validation sets (e.g., 80% for training,
20% for validation). The R-CNN model was trained on the training set, and fine-tuning on the
specific task of Indian license plate detection was done. Similarly, the YOLO model was
trained on the same dataset, optimizing for real-time performance.
Model Evaluation:
The performance of both models was evaluated on the validation set using appropriate
metrics (e.g., precision, recall, F1 score). The accuracy was assessed efficiency of each model,
considering the trade-offs between R-CNN's accuracy and YOLO's real-time capabilities. A
comparative analysis of RCNN and YOLO in terms of accuracy, speed, and robustness for
Indian license plate detection was finally analysed using false positives and false negatives to
understand specific challenges faced by each model.
Results and discussions
The proposed ALPR has been trained and evaluated with a Linux operating system
equipped with an Intel i7 CPU, 32 GB of RAM, and an Nvidia GTX960. The model has been
developed based on the TensorFlow deep learning framework with CUDA for GPU
acceleration library. The open CV library has been utilized to carry out loading, resizing, and
displaying the images. For training and testing purposes, the images have been resized to 1000
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× 800. R-CNN hyperparameters have been provided in Table 1.
Table 1: R-CNN hyperparameters
Hyper-Parameters Values
Backbone CNN Inception v3
Learning rate 0.010
Decay rate 0.002
Batch size 5
Momentum 0.8
Number of iterations 10000
Optimizer Gradient Descent
For accurate recognition purposes, data augmentation approaches like scaling,

brightness, mirroring, translation, rotation, flipping was employed. The evaluation metrics
used to validate our model are accuracy, precision, recall and Mean Average Precision (mAP)
which is the most commonly measures in object detection models. Intersection over Union
(IoU), as 0.4 for all cases. The base CNN which is Inception v3 for RCNN is the advanced
and optimized version of inception V1 model. The Inception V3 model makes use of several
techniques for carrying out optimization that helps the network for better adaptation. Owing
to its higher efficiency, speed and less computationally expensive features it also employs
auxiliary classifiers whose parameters are presented below.
To train the proposed R-CNN based ALPR system, we have chosen a batch size of 5
images and were trained for 10000 iterations on the GPU. The proposed model was trained
with gradient descent with momentum of 0.8. The training process successfully concluded by
reducing the loss function from 0.7517 to 0.2647. The model achieved a training accuracy of
98.46 % for the detection task and 98.23 % for the recognition task whose outputs are
presented below.
The prediction results are provided below in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Prediction results for tilted blurred images
To evaluate the performance of the model, precision, recall and mAP were used as
evaluation metrics. The precision corresponds to accurate results and the recall settles on the
percentage of accurate results that are correctly predicted by the proposed model which can be
computed as below. The proposed model’s evaluation metrics were compared with other
conventional LP detectionsystems in license plate detection.
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Table 2: Evaluation of our proposed model with existing approaches
Methods Precision Recall mAP(%)
(%) (%)
RCNN 95.3 97.8 98.05
YOLO 93.1 96.3 95.7
Table 2 provides the evaluation metrics of both the model YOLO and RCNN. The table shows
that RCNN outbreaks the result of YOLO in Indian Number plate recognition system.
Conclusion
In this study, a comparative analysis of two prominent object detection models was
conducted, R-CNN and YOLO, for the task of detecting Indian vehicle number plates. The
models were evaluated on a dataset of 4500 images, and performance metrics, including
precision, recall, and accuracy, were used to assess their effectiveness. The results indicate
that R-CNN outperformed YOLO in terms of precision, recall, and overall accuracy. R-CNN
demonstrated a higher ability to correctly identify Indian vehicle number plates, showcasing
its effectiveness for this specific task. The precision of R-CNN was notably higher, indicating
a lower rate of false positives, while its recall demonstrated a better ability to capture a larger
proportion of true positives. This study contributes valuable insights into the comparative
performance of R-CNN and YOLO for Indian license plate detection, emphasizing the
importance of choosing the right model for specific tasks and datasets. However, it's crucial
to note that the performance of these models may vary based on factors such as dataset
characteristics, model configurations, and training strategies.
References
[1] Mufti, N., & Shah, S. A. A. (2021). Automatic number plate Recognition: A detailed survey
of relevant algorithms. Sensors, 21(9), 3028.
[2] Zhang, H., Wang, P., Zhang, S., & Wu, Z. (2023). An adaptive offloading framework for
license plate detection in collaborative edge and cloud computing. Mathematical Biosciences
and Engineering, 20(2), 2793-2814.
[3] Gupta, P., Rajkumar, R., Santhanalakshmi, S., & Amudha, J. (2023). Hybrid Approach for
Detecting the Traffic Violations Based on Deep Learning Using the Real-Time Data. In
Computer Networks and Inventive Communication Technologies (pp. 887-901). Springer,
Singapore.
[4] Kaur, P., Kumar, Y., Ahmed, S., Alhumam, A., Singla, R., & Ijaz, M. F. (2022). Automatic
license plate recognition system for vehicles using a CNN. CMC-Computers, Materials &
Continua, 71(1), 3550.
[5] Pattanaik, A., & Balabantaray, R. C. (2022). Licence Plate Recognition System for
Intelligence Transportation Using BR-CNN. In Advances in Data Computing, Communication
and Security (pp. 659668). Springer, Singapore.
[6] Nikita, M. C., & Harshpooja, M. G. Automatic Vehicle Number Plate Recognition Using
Optimal K-Means With Cnn For Intelligent Transportation System.
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An Innovative Approach based Cost-Benefit

Analysis of Distribution Companies and the DG
Owners by Optimal Sizing and Placement of DGs
in Radial Distribution Network
N. Vijayalakshmi
Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering,
Annamalai Univessity, Chidambaram, India
Abstract— The Distribution Companies (DisCOs) are continually trying to supply reliable
and economical electric power to consumers. The design, operation and maintenance of The
DisCOs are framed on the lowest cost and for the highest benefit. The voltage profile
enhancement and power loss reduction are two important tasks in the DisCOs for achieving
maximum profit .Many technical ideas and creative programs are being developed by the
DisCOs any how to improve the performance. In this paper, an innovative approach of
AntLion Optimizer (ALO) is projected for maximizing the DG owner’s profit and
minimizing the Distribution Company’s cost. The proposed soft computing method is
efficiently optimizing the size and optimal location of DG with standard operating constraints
to increase the voltage profile and reduce the network loss of DisCOs. The uncertainty of
load demand, power generation, electricity price and reliability are considered in this work.
The validation of this method is tested on standard IEEE 33 node system to illustrate the
Superior performance of ALO algorithm. The simulation results of voltage profile, power
loss, location and size of DG, cost-benefit of DisCOs and DG owners are numerically and
graphically presented in this work. The comparative study also has been made to prove
success of the devised method.
Keywords-Radial distribution system, Deregulated environment, Optimal location and size of
DG, Power loss minimization, Voltage stability improvement, DG owner’s profit,
Distribution Company’s cost Multi objective Antlion optimizer
I. INTRODUCTION
In the regulated power industry power distribution networks commonly employ with
radial structure. Due to inappropriate design and planning of distribution networks the power
system would face some problems. It includes decreasing reliability, increasing power loss,
reducing voltage stability and others a fety issue [1-5]. Among these problems the power loss
minimization has been important concern for distribution system operators for long time ago.
The capacitor placement [1], applying DGs [2, 3], using FACTS devices [4] and Distribution
Network Reconfiguration (DNR) [5] are used to solve this problem. Since the latter requires
no additional components, it is economically more attractive. In the deregulated markets, the
DG owners and the Distribution Companies (DISCOs) economic objectives are mainly
considered.
Generally, cost minimization and technical improvisation of the network are the main
goals of the DisCo. Primary aim of the DG owners is to maximize their own revenue as much
as possible by selling electricity to the distribution network [6-13].The methodological
revolution in the energy market imposes the need for renewed formulation which does not
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any algorithm-specific parameters. So,to avoid this complexity, optimization method,

Ant Line optimizer (ALO) algorithm [14] a parameter free algorithm has been introduced to
solve complex optimization problem of voltage scalability. In this article, multi-objective
optimization problem of optimal location and appropriatesizing of DGs in the distribution
network are being (examined)(analyzed) under deregulated environment. An intelligent soft
computing technique of ALO algorithm is applied to solve this problem. The searching
operators of proposed method are have more ability to determine a global solution for this
problem. It effectively and simultaneously optimizes the cost of DISCOs and benefit of DG
owners satisfying the standard operating constraints of radial distribution network in
electricity market. The IEEE33 node test system is taken to check the validity of ALO
method.
II. RECENT LITERATURE SURVEY FOR PROPOSED WORK
The researchers have developed various mathematical and meta-heuristic approaches
for DG placement, size of DG, Power Loss limitation and Voltage Level improvement of DN
in the DISCOs. Lagrangian relaxation [6] method is being applied for optimal placement of
DGs in the wholesale electricity market. This problem is formulated to achieve two different
objectives such as social welfare maximization and profit maximization.
The same problem has been solved using linear programming technique [7] to
improve the Voltage Stability Margin (VSM).. GA with straight forward sub-algorithm has
been proposed [8]to solve the distribution reconfiguration problem under deregulated
environme nt. This work minimize the cost of electricity purchased form wholesale market
depending hourly locational marginal prices (LMPS), in all power distribution layers from
distribution to power transmission systems and in bilateral agreements with DGs.
Amiramali et.al [9] using multi objective practical Swam Optimization method, the
voltage profile maximization and power minimization have been achieved with the help of
sizing as well as placement of DG. Also reliability improvement has been included as
additional constrains in this work. Moreover, economic status of distribution companies and
DG owners has been analyzed. The performance of this method was analyzed using IEEE 33
bus radial test system.
PSO algorithm [10] can be used to enhance the voltage stability of distribution
networks in the restructured power system by placement of appropriate size capacitors. In
this work, to maximize the benefit of DISCOs through the distribution network managements
view point is analyzed. In addition, active power loss cost and cost of capacitor placement
are considered for maximizing the benefit of distributors.
The deregulated power system faces a power loss in the distribution practices. In
order to minimize the actual power loss in the total distribution system multi objective
Differential Evolution algorithm [11] has been applied to decide the optimal size and
appropriate location of DG units. The algorithm is verified in IEEE 123 bus system;
simultaneously the impacts and instances of distinct factors are studied.
A combined Evolutionary Algorithm and Game Theory approach [12] has been
proposed to notice synchronously the optimal location and functioning of DGs. This
technique is developed in two different phases. In the first phase, paying attention on active
power loss reduction, voltage profile improvement, and voltage regulations as the objectives
the appropriate location of DGs are determined using a multi-objective optimization problem.
In the second phase, the optimal income of the DGs owners beside the most desirable total
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payment of the distribution corporation by adopting bi-level optimization technique with two
agents are governed and Game theory is engaged to assist in noticing optimal contract prices.
An improved PSO with adaptive inertia weight (W) based an good result rate [13] has
been utilized to find the optimal allocation of DG and DSTATCM in a restructured power
system. The problem mainly considered security limits but optimal sizing and installing of
the device, economic and social objectives, logical and innovative indexes that are voltage
profile improvement index, technological factors, benefit cost ratio and emission cost benefit
index are also calculated with care.
III. PROBLEM FORMULATION
This section introduces the proposed approach for the DG planning problem.
The optimization problem is based on maximizing the DG owner’s profit and
minimizing the DisCo‟s cost simultaneously. In addition to modeling cost and profit
functions ,multi objective optimization methods must be applied to find the optimum value of
the planning parameters which are the DG‟s size, location, and the electricity contract price
between the DG owne rand the DisCo.
According to the above formulations for the DG owner’s and the DisCo’s costs and
profits, the objective functions for finding the appropriate locations, sizes, and contract price,
which simultaneously maximize the DG owner’s profit and minimize the DisCo’s cost,
results in the following equations. In these equations, F1 is the difference between the DG
owner‟s profits and cost functions which are introduced in SectionsII-A-1 to A-4.
Furthermore, F2 is the summation of the DisCo‟s costs which are introduced in Sections II-
B-1–B-3.
A. Constraints and Limitations:

This optimization problem is subjected to various constraints as follows.
a) Bus Voltages and Branch Currents Limits:
I  I max (10)
b,t , j b
V min  V n,t , j  V max (11)
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DG Capacity Limit: It should be assumed that the active and reactive capacity of each DG is
limited to a specific interval as follows:
min
PDG,i  PDG,i  PDG,i
max
(12)
min
QDG,i  QDG,i  Q DG,i
max
(13)
b) Contract Price Limits:
CP min  CP  CP max (14)

DG DG DG
(15)
c) Power-Flow Constraints: (16)
Pn  Vn  Vm g mn Cos  mn   bmn sin  mn 

mN
Qn  Vn  Vm g mn sin  mn   bmn cos mn 

mN
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IV. PROPOSED METHOD FOR SOLVING THE PROBLEM
A. Ant Lion Optimizer (ALO)
The ant line optimizer is a meta-heuristic population based search optimization

algorithm. This algorithm recently developed by Seyedali Mirjalili [14] in 2014 and used to
solve the several Engineering constrained and Non-constrained optimizations problems. The
ALO is a trouble-free control parameters algorithm and has colony size, maximum Cycle
number and less parameter to tune and getting the global optimal solution. It is inspired by
lifecycle of Antlions (doodlebugs), which belong to the Myrmeleontidae family and
Neuropteraorder (net winged insects).
The mathematical functions and characteristics of proposed ALO approach has been
adopted from reference [14]
V. CASESTUDY, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
B. Case Study
The proposed ALO algorithm can be simply extended to calculate the optimal
solution for DG owner‟s profit and the DisCo‟s costs. The simulation is carried out for three
DG placements. The data and one line diagram of 33-bus test system is shown in Table 1 and
fig.2 respectively. It is a 33-bus system, 12.66 KV with a total load of 3.72 MW and 2.3
MVAR. The optimization has been carried out in MATLAB version R2014a environment on
an Intel core i3 PC with 2.10 GHz speed and 4GB RAM. peak load for the 24 hours of a day
is similar to fig.3 with an increasing rate of 2% per year. Table Type Styles
Fig.3. The 24-h variation curve of each bus load based on the peak value.
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Fig.4. Load of each bus in a peak hour of the first year.
The load at each bus of the peak hour in the first year of the planning period is shown
in fig 4. The market electricity price is different amount of power from supplied by the
substation during the day. Moreover, the market price and time duration data is given in
table2. Further, the contract price is considered to be within U.S.$35/MWh and
U.S.$50/MWh. The value of DG bound between the real power 0.2 and 1MW. The technical
and commercial information of the DGs are given in Table 3. The values of the used
parameters related to this study are given in Table 4.
Table 2 Technical and Commercial Information
Level ercentage of peak Network Time duration Market

load situation (h/yer) Price($/M Wh)
1 0-80 Light Load 4380 35

2 80-95 Medium Load 3285 45
3 95-100 Peak Load 1095 50
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Table3 Commercial Information of DGs
Parameter Unit Value

DG investment Cost $/MW 318000
DG operating cost $/MWh 29
DG maintenance cost $/MWh 7
Interest rate % 12.5
Inflation rate % 9
Table4 Values of the used parameters
Parameters Values
Annual growth rate of loads 2%
λb (f/km .year) 0.12
CF 1
∆tFault(hour) 8
Cint($/kw) 20
NDG 3
NY 20
NBus 33
Nb 32
Max(CPDG)($/MWh) 50
Min(CPDG)($/MWh) 35
Max(PDG)(MW) 1
Min(PDG)(MW) 0.2
PF 0.9Lag
Th 8760
Td 365
INT_R(%) 12.5
INF_R(%) 9
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b. Results and Discussion
DG owner‟s aim is from selling electricity to the customers in order to more revenue
gain. The assessment of several objective functions listed in Section „DG owner‟s profit and
DisCo‟s cost‟ and are used to evaluate the multi objective function aimed at maximizes the
DG owner‟s profit and minimizes the DisCo‟s cost. It is obvious that the two objective
functions are dependent on each other in which that increasing in one of them leads to
decreasing in other one.The appropriate tuning of multi objective ALO parameters is crucial
to attain an effective optimizer. For proper tuning, we selected the following parameter
values: number of search agents or no. of antlions = 40, Maximum number of iterations=100
and Number of variables =7.
Table 5 Voltage profile and VSI of proposed 33 node radial distribution system for with
and without DG
Without DG With DG
Load Bus No. Voltage Voltage
VSI VSI
Profile(p.u) Profile(p.u)
1 1.0000 1.000000 1.0000 1.000000
2 0.9970 0.988107 0.9993 0.997209
3 0.9829 0.932129 0.9973 0.989359
4 0.9754 0.904787 0.9959 0.983895
5 0.9680 0.877547 0.9949 0.979733
6 0.9495 0.810823 0.9920 0.968435
7 0.9460 0.800586 0.9887 0.955307
8 0.9323 0.754449 0.9756 0.905044
9 0.9260 0.734943 0.9696 0.883626
10 0.9201 0.716499 0.9640 0.863414
11 0.9192 0.713974 0.9632 0.860626
12 0.9177 0.709272 0.9617 0.855468
13 0.9115 0.690181 0.9558 0.834525
14 0.9092 0.683439 0.9537 0.827095
15 0.9078 0.679182 0.9523 0.822411
16 0.9064 0.675058 0.9510 0.817873
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17 0.9043 0.668960 0.9490 0.811162

18 0.9037 0.667174 0.9484 0.809192
19 0.9965 0.986066 0.9988 0.995108
20 0.9929 0.971899 0.9952 0.980877
21 0.9922 0.969224 0.9945 0.978189
22 0.9916 0.966736 0.9939 0.975690
23 0.9793 0.919699 0.9976 0.990336
24 0.9726 0.894699 0.9910 0.964325
25 0.9693 0.882726 0.9878 0.951887
26 0.9475 0.806123 0.9934 0.973890
27 0.9450 0.797415 0.9954 0.981965
28 0.9335 0.758824 0.9942 0.977345
29 0.9253 0.732772 0.9937 0.975605
30 0.9217 0.721842 0.9944 0.978289
31 0.9176 0.708873 0.9906 0.963132
32 0.9167 0.706141 0.9897 0.959931
33 0.9164 0.705272 0.9895 0.958917
Real power loss(KW) 210.99 Real power loss(KW) 47.15
Reactive power loss (KVAr) 143.01 Reactive power loss (KVAr) 38.63
Minimum VSI bus no 18 Minimum VSI bus no 18
Minimum VSI 0.6672 Minimum VSI 0.8092
The applied MOALO algorithm is effectively enhance voltage profile and voltage stability
index of the proposed test system and given in Table5. This table clearly explains
Fig.5 Voltage profile for with/without DG of proposed 33 node test system

Table6 Optimal location, Real power and Contract price of DG
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DG Power(MW) Optimal Location Contract price($)
DG number1 1 23
DG number2 1 27 49.0222
DG number3 1 30
Fig.6
VSI for with/without DG of proposed 33 node test system
The voltage profile,VSI, minimum VSI, real and reactive power loss of the system
with/without DG placement. The obtained voltage profile and VSI of with/without DG are
compared and graphically displayed in fig. 5 and fig. 6. Optimal location, Real power and
Contract price of DG is given in Table 6.
The simulation results of various operational indices, Contract Price, DG owner‟s
profit, DisCo‟s cost, optimal location and sizing of DGs for the proposed problem obtained
by a multi objective ALO algorithm are listed in Table 7. The results of multi objective ALO
satisfy each mention constraints linked to the problem. When the introduction of DGs in the
distribution system which effects that reduction of power losses in the distribution system.
Three DG units are optimally located and sized of the test system.
To express the superiority of this proposed multi objective ALO approach has a
simulation results have been compared with exist MOPSO (multi objective particle swarm
optimization) algorithm results in the report [10] and given in Table 8.The real and reactive
power loss of the system without DG is 0.211 MW and 0.143 MVAr respectively. In this
approach, the three DG units that are linked to the nodes 23, 27 and 30 with respect to the
capacity 1 MW. Thus the real and reactive power loss of the system with DGs is 0.047
MWand0.039 MVAr respectively.
Table7 Simulation results of proposed 33 node test system
System Quantity Optimal Values

TVPI(pu) 0.0207
TPLI(pu) 0.2234
TVSI(pu) 1.2129
TIC(pu) 0.9994
ENSI(pu) 0.2376
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Contract Price($) 49.0222
DG Income ($) 19173000
Investment cost ($) 954000
Operating cost ($) 11120000
Maintenance cost ($) 2684200
C sub($) 235380000
CIC($) 469790
DG owner’s profit($) 4414400
DisCo’s cost($) 255020000
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The presence of DG unit in the radial distribution system is effect that improved
voltage profile of the system and which is enhanced to system voltage stability. The result of
line flow index is indicates that the feeder should not exceed the thermal capacity of the
line. The optimal result of various operational indices and contract price obtained by an ALO
algorithm is listed in Table 8.The value of the indices is nearby zero (except VSI) and which
is signified that the performance of the system is enhanced. The optimal result of voltage
stability index is near by one, which indicates that the system voltage stability improved.
Table 8 Comparison of Operational indices, Contract price and Objective functionsfor33-
node system
Method MOPSO MOALO
[10] (Proposed method)

TVPI(pu) 0.1455 0.0207
TPLI(pu) 0.1642 0.2234
TVSI(pu) 1.2290 1.2129
TIC(pu) - 0.9994
ENSI(pu) 0.2193 0.2376
Contract Price($) 43.6619 49.0222
DG owner’s profit($) 1917933.67 4414400
DisCo’s cost($) 22473057.4 255020000
Optimal location - size 7 @ 1 33@ 23@ 1
(p.u)pairs
115@0.9 27@ 1
30@ 1
The proposed result of DG owner's profit compared with MOPSO is much better in
order to encourage the investors to spend money on DG projects. Another objective function
of DisCo‟s cost minimization is slightly higher than the proposed method when comparative
existing method. The main successive of the proposed method is motivated the DG owner in
order to profit.
VI. CONCLUSIONSANDFUTUREWORK
In this research work, a method based on MOALO approach has been proposed to
find the best solution for the DGs sizing and locating problem and determining their best
generated market clearing price between DG owner and DisCos in a competitive
Electricity market. The prime objective of the proposed MOALO technique is simultaneously
maximi zes the profit of DG owner and minimizes the operating cost of DisCos under
deregulated environment
. The essential optimal solutions are obtained by properly implementation of the multi
objective optimization method. Inorder to attain the best solution, improving the operational
issues of grid such as power loss reduction, voltage profile and stability enhancement and
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reliability improvement were considered as auxiliary tools. The projected technique has been
implemented on the IEEE 33-bus distribution test system.
The simulation results obtained from proposed method are summarized as follows
• The simulation results confirmed that not only the DG owner obtains good enough profits but
also the DisCo has his own benefits.
• The simulated base case results such as voltage profile, VSI, minimum VSI, active and
reactive power loss are compared with results obtained by after installing DG.
• The performance of applied MOALO is analysed by simulation results are competed with
other available soft computing method of MOPSO algorithm.
• From the comparison, the proposed algorithm effectively improves the profit of DG owner
and minimizes the cost of DisCos in a radial distribution system.
It is evident that the proposed MOALO algorithm is one of the best meta heuristic
approaches for solution complex, multi objective nonlinear optimization problems under
regulated and deregulated environment.
REFERENCES
1. A.A. El-Fergany, Optimal capacitor allocations using evolutionary algorithms, IET
Gener. Trans. Distrib., Vol.7 (6), (2013), pp.593–601.
2. V.H.M. Quezada, and J.R. Abbad, T.G.S. Roman, Assessment of energy distribution
losses for increasing penetration of distributed generation, IEEE Trans. Power
Syst.,Vol.21(2), (2006), pp.533–540.
3. L.F. Ochoa, and G.P. Harrison, Minimizing energy losses: optimal accommodation
and smart operation of renewable distributed generation, IEEE Trans. Power Syst.,Vol.26(1),
(2011), pp.198–205.
4. S.A.Taher and S.A.Afsari, Optimal location and sizing of DSTATCO Mindistribution
systems by immune algorithm, Electric Power Energy System, Vol.60,(2014),pp.34– 44.
5. L.L. Pfitscher, D.P. Bernardon, L.N. Canha, and V.F. Montagner, V.J. Garcia,
A.R.Abaide, Intelligent system for automatic reconfiguration of distribution network in real
time, Electric Power Energy System, Vol.97, (2013), pp.84–92.
6. D. Gautam, and N. Mithulananthan, Optimal DG placement in deregulated

Electricity market, Electric Power Systems Research,Vol.77 (12),(2007), Oct.,pp.162736.
7. GY Wu, CY Chung, KP Wong, and CW Yu, Voltage stability constrained optimal
dispatch in deregulated power systems, IET generation, transmission & distribution.Vol.1(5),
(2007), Sep., pp.761-8.
8. SH.Alemohammad,E.Mashhour and M.Saniei, A market based method for
reconfiguration of distribution network, Electric Power Systems Research,
Vol.125,(2015),Aug., pp.15-22.
9. A.Ameli,M.Farrokhifard,A.Ahmadifar,andM.R.Haghifam, Distributed generation
planning based on the distribution company's and the DG owner's profit maximization,
International Transactions on Electrical Energy Systems, Vol.25(2),(2015),Feb., pp.216-32.
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Switched Capacitor based Boost Converter for EHV

Abishake, S. Pragadeesh, M. Sanjay, R.
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Faculty of Engineering,
Karpagam Academy of Higher Education,
Abstract
In this work, a switched-capacitor (SC) voltage boost converter and control methods are
proposed for converting power from dc to ac and ac to dc. The SC converter improves a SC
circuit to primary converter circuit, and it has special features that a normal voltage-source
inverter (VSI) or boostvoltage-source-inverter can't do (VSI). The size of the linear modulation
area has been doubled, and the huge boost dc-dc inductor and filtering capacitor have been taken
out. This makes the energy density higher and the cost lower. The design of the SC converter
can help convert power from dc to ac, ac to dc, ac to ac, and dc to dc. Last, a bidirectional SC
converter for dc/ac and ac/dc power conversion in electric and hybrid electric vehicles is
simulated and proven to work (EHV).
Key words – switched capacitor, control methods,hybrid electric vehicles, boost converter
Introduction
The STATCOM has been widely used in manual networks to adjust voltage by activating
acknowledging aptitude compensation. Although the UPQC and iUPQC (Fig.1) have been
referred to as band-aids for more particular applications, the STATCOM is now widely used
for voltage control. Furthermore, these enduring ones are only used in genuine
circumstances, where their high prices are justified by the greater foresight it can provide, which
would be impossible to achieve with conventional methods. By combining additional functions
in the iUPQC device, such as a STATCOM, a wider range of applications can be obtained,
particularly in the case of broadcast bearing in acute grids and as a coupling accessory in grid-
tied micro-grids.
The iUPQC and the UPQC were compared in terms of achievement if they were living
as UPQCs. The arrangement of antecedent imitated by the alternation and
blow adeptness converters is the major distinction amid these compensators. The alternation
advocate is controlled as a non-sinusoidal voltage antecedent in the UPQC approach, while
the blow one is controlled as a non-sinusoidal acceptable source. As a result, the UPQC
ambassador must precisely actuate and amalgamate the harmonic voltage and accepted to be
corrected in real time.
In this case, throughout time, accessories that can alleviate these shortcomings have
been developed. The unified adeptness superior conditioner (UPQC) and the changeless
ancillary compensator are two of the alternatives that use an adjustable compensator
(STATCOM). A UPQC's adeptness range is made up of a combination of a blow alive analyse
and an alternation alive analyse that are linked in a back-toback configuration. The
accompanying benefit of the accumulated accepted and the accumulation voltage is enabled by
this accumulated, ensuring that the compensated accepted fatigued from the filigree and the
compensated accumulation voltage provided to the accumulated are kept counterbalanced and
sinusoidal.
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Fig. 1 Existing inverter-converter (a) and planned voltage boost converter (b)
The drive-train (DT) is one of the most important power conversion components in the
final category. The improved DT results in a reduced size, a faster speed-torque action and best
battery management. Because of its reliability, most standing EVs use a 2levelVSI with/without
boost phase [2][3]. The constraints of VSIs can be used to progress the EV power train. VSIs
are the buck converters by design. As a result, the dc-link voltage must exceed the dc/ ac input
voltage.
This advantage results in a two-fold reduction in semiconductor die area, which is
achieved using high-capacity drives and SiC-MOSFETs [10]. Additionally, the lower peak
current in higher power result in a four-fold reduction in peak losses [11]. Because power loss
is proportional to cooling system The total capacity of converters, cooling system size and
weight can be reduced significantly, while EV varietymay be increased. The classic boost-step
(seen in Figure 1(a)) isn't without flaws.
Literature survey
"Oil Beyond 2040: Riding the Energy Transition" If the electric automobile were to take
over road transportation, there would be a significant increase in electricity demand. Fossil
fuels, like coal, could still play a significant role in electricity generation in the future.
"Improving Reliability Through Evaluation Methodology and Control Strategies"
Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) reliability prediction is critical for vehicle development, scheme,
governor and operation, because it may be used as a helpful tool to improve overall system
design and control by providing an objective criterion for evaluating various configurations and
topologies.
Proposed system
Capacitor switching dc to dc converter Because all conversion losses are shown by
the voltage drop caused by a load current that is greater than zero through the output impedance,
the converter has a perfect direct voltage conversion ratio when there is no load. The resistive
output impedance takes into account all of the losses caused by the charging and discharging of
capacitors as well as the losses caused by resistive conduction. The model may also take into
account losses caused by short-circuit current and parasitic capacitors to ground, in addition to
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ISBN: 978-81-956215-6-9
losses caused by the gate drive. They won't be looked at at first, though, because these effects
are often application-based implementation dependent. For the time being, our goal is to provide
a generic framework for analysis and design.
The maximum power of a converter is set by the low-frequency output impedance,
which is controlled by a minimum efficiency goal and also affects the open-loop load regulation.
Asymptotic output impedance constraints are the slow switching limit and the quick switching
limit. The slow switching limit (SSL) impedance is calculated using perfect switches and all
other conductive connections, as well as impulsive currents flowing between input and output
sources and capacitors.
Modelling of Proposed PMBLDCM Drive PMBLDCM drive is made up of
mathematical equations that model numerous components of the PFC converter and
PMBLDCM drive. These component models when combined form a full model of the projected
PFC drive and modelling is considers in different power areas.
The electric-grid-network begins with deftness breeding systems, like deftness stations
(see the deftness Stations section of this website), that turn out 3 appearances of AC (AC)
electricity. The threephase AC accepted is insensible by a manual station that uses transformers
to rise the voltage from 1000v. The 3-appearance electricity is beatific across never-ending
extent manual curve over 3 lines, one for each part, when it's been acclimated to prime voltage.
Simulation results
All the proposed model simulated using MATLAB Simulation software. Fig. 2 shows
simulation module of SC capacitor controller
Fig. 2 Simulation model of switched capacitor controller
Fig. 3 Simulink model of Hall sensor
Fig. 3 and 4 describes Hall sensor for speed measurement and SC output voltage
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Fig. 4 Simulation of Switched capacitor output voltage
Fig. 5 Simulation of Motor speed
Fig. 6 Simulation of Stator current and back emf

Simulation output of Motor speed and Stator current and back emf is describes in Fig. 5 and 6.
Conclusion
This paper talks about a revolutionary SC power converter (SC) that can change power
from dc to ac and ac to dc. The SC converter connects to the power source through a SC circuit
in addition to the primary converter circuit. This gives it unique features that standard VSI and
boost VSI can't match. One of these important changes is that the area of the linear modulation
region has doubled. The SC converter gets rid of the inductor, which is both inconvenient and
expensive. Instead, it only uses capacitors to boost voltage, which lets it pack more power into
a smaller space. Analyses are used to figure out the maximum voltage drop across the capacitor
and the minimum charging current. The results of the analysis show what parts of the design
affect how the charging current works, which makes it possible to use more power. The new
SC converter uses a carrier-based modulation method that is based on SVPWM. It uses the
exact switching order of SVPWM with the least amount of computing. The operating
principle and modulation methods of the recommended converter have been tested with
analytical derivations, simulations, and real- world data. The SC converter can boost or drop
voltage, cut down on the number of parts, increase power density, and lower costs. In this
paper, we suggest a way to control a low-cost GC micro inverter with MPPT that is used in
solar applications. A macro-model is made to test the suggested approach and speed up
simulation times.
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References
[1] S. K. Kollimalla, M. K. Mishra, and N. L. Narasamma, “Design and Analysis of Novel
Control Strategy for Battery and Supercapacitor Storage System,” IEEE Trans. Sustain. Energy,
vol. 5, no. 4, pp. 11371144, Oct. 2014.
[2] C. Xiang, Y. Wang, S. Hu, and W. Wang, “A New Topology and Control Strategy for a
Hybrid Battery-Ultracapacitor Energy Storage System,” Energies, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 2874-2896,
Apr. 2014.
[3] J. Cao and A. Emadi, “A New Battery/UltraCapacitor Hybrid Energy Storage System for
Electric, Hybrid, and Plug-In Hybrid ElectricVehicles,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 27,
no. 1, pp. 122-132, Jan. 2012.
[4] A. Emadi, K. Rajashekara, S. S. Williamson, and S. M. Lukic, “Topological overview of
hybrid electric and fuel cell vehicular powersystem architectures and conFigurations,” IEEE
Trans. Veh. Tech., vol. 54, no. 3, pp. 763-770, May. 2005.
[5] A. Kuperman, I. Aharon, S. Malki, and A. Kara, “Design of a Semiactive Battery-
Ultracapacitor Hybrid Energy Source,” IEEETrans. Power Electron., vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 806-
815, Feb. 2013.
[6] F. Liu, J. Liu, H. Zhang, and D. Xue, “Stability Issues of Z+Z Type Cascade System in
Hybrid Energy Storage System (HESS),” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 29, no. 11, pp.
5846-5859, Nov. 2014.
[7] S. M. Lukic, J. Cao, R. C. Bansal, F. Rodriguez, and A. Emadi, “Energy storage systems for
automotive applications,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 55, no. 6, pp. 2258-2267, Jun. 2008.
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ISBN: 978-81-956215-6-9
IoT with Green Energy

1
L. Selvaraj, Dr.M.Vaigundamoorthy
1
PG scholar, 2Prof. & Head/EEE
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering
Karpagam Academy of Higher Education
ABSTRACT: Water is becoming scarcer. The unmonitored control and the extensive use of
fossil fuel in water-table pumping for irrigation exacerbate global warming and harm the
environment. Along with the rapid population growth and the concomitant increase in the
demand for food, optimal usage of water-table and energy is becoming a must and
indispensable for sustainable agriculture. In this context, Smart Agriculture (SA) is emerging
as a promising field that leverages
ICT (Information and Communication Technology) to optimize resources’ usage while
enhancing crops’ yields. In this paper, we present an integral SA solution that leverages cost-
effectiveness. Commercial solutions are costly and thus become impossible to adopt by small
and medium farmers. Our solution revolves around three main axes: 1. Smart Water Metering
promotes optimal usage and conservation of water-table (a.k.a., groundwater) via real-time
data collection and monitoring using a Cloud-based IoT (Internet of Things) system; 2.
Renewable-Energy integration promotes energy-efficient agriculture by reducing reliance on
fossil fuels in water-table pumping, and 3. Smart Irrigation to promote good crops quality and
quantity without harming the soil and the water-table ecosystems. Our solution has been
deployed and tested in a real-world Smart Farm testbed. The results have shown that the
adoption of our SA system reduces the amount of water consumption (with a traditional
irrigation system) up to 71.8%. Finally, our solution is open-source and can be easily adopted
and adapted by other researchers to promote the setting of a dedicated Cloud-based platform
for water-table usage, especially in arid and sub-Saharan countries.
INDEX TERMS Smart agriculture (SA), wireless sensors networks (WSN), Internet of
Things (IoT), fuzzy logic control, information communication technology (ICT).
I. INTRODUCTION
Water is the basis and the main engine of life on earth. Humans use water for industrial
purposes, sanitation, and irrigation. In the last decades, the annual water withdrawal ranged
between 11 billion and 15 billion cubic meters per year, out of which 69 % is used in agriculture
[1].
Unfor- tunately, most of this water is wasted because of inadequate irrigation control
systems. As in most arid and sub-Saharan countries, agriculture in Morocco is the largest
consumer of fresh water, especially after launching the Green Plan program in April 2008 [2].
This program aims to promote agriculture as an efficient sector capable of advancing the
economy, fighting poverty, and preserving many people in rural areas efficiently and
sustainably. Within the framework of this program, the government provided many facilities
and assistance to farmers and investors in irrigated agriculture to provide enough basic food
for local consumption and export promotion programs. However, the level of Smart
Agriculture penetration in Morocco remains very low.
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In addition, investors in the irrigated agricultural projects started sounding alarms of
severe depletion of groundwater on the horizon [3] and the lack of a cost-effective real- time
data collection in irrigation systems in farming fields that will enable them to benefit from the
advanced modern technologies. There is a need to develop a cost-effective and sustainable data
acquisition system for smart agriculture applications in sub-Saharan fields for sustainable,
efficient, and smart agriculture. The system should use renewable energy and the latest
Information and Communication Tech- nologies (ICT) that can sustain the aridity of an
agricultural environment. When combined with reasonable control and management and data
analytics, the data acquisition system can play an essential role in increasing agricultural
productivity and improving the quality of crops.
Most importantly, unlike the traditional methods of irrigated agriculture that widely
use underground water reser- voirs and resort to fossil fuels, especially gas, as a source of
energy. Smart agriculture (SA) exploits modern management systems to rationalize water
consumption and adopt renewable energies as a source of energy, thus rendering the
agricultural sector eco-friendly.
In this paper, we are presenting an integral and cost effective SA solution. When
approached from a Cyber Physical System (CPS) perspective [4], our solution relies on four
main ICTs: 1. A Wireless Sensors Network (WSNs) monitor, in real-time, the plant
environmental conditions, e.g., weather and soil conditions, 2. A Wireless Actuators Network
(WAN) acts upon electric appliances such as water pumps and light bulbs, 3. A Cloud- based
IoT platform for real-time data storage, processing, and visualization; and 4. A Fuzzy Logic
Control module decides on monitoring irrigation durations based on the real-time acquired
differences between desired and ambient soil moisture. We deployed our open-source
software solution for data acquisition, actuation, and control. We built our cost-effective
sensors and actuators using off-the-shelf cheap nano-Arduinos. Finally, we leveraged an
existing free Cloud-based IoT platform, e.g., NodeRED [5].
In this paper, and by considering optimal water-ground usage, renewable energy
integration, and open-source ICT- based smart irrigation, we aim to contribute towards the
smooth penetration of Smart Agriculture into underprivileged sub-Saharan countries. We are
further envisioning, through this work, to set a solid cornerstone for establishing a dedicated
Cloud-based and HPC (High-Performance Computing) platform [6] to collect real-time data
about water-table usage. This data, which falls under the big data category, as it bears the big
data 3Vs (Volume, Velocity, and Variety) [7], and along with appropriate Big Data Analytics
tools, will tremendously assist in promoting eco-friendly smart agriculture.
The paper contributions are as follows:
- We present a real-world, cost-effective, and easy-to- deploy general architecture for a Smart
Farm testbed that the research community can easily adopt and adapt for further testing and
improvement.
- We detail how to use open-source software and leverage Cloud Computing for wireless sensor
data storage and processing.
We demonstrate the integration of our developed cost effective wireless sensors
andactuators using off- the shelf hardware in a real-world case study.
- We show how integrating renewable energy into smart farms paves the path towards adopting
our solution in off-grid sites, e.g., arid and sub-Saharan areas.
- We prove that by adopting fuzzy logic into smart drip irrigation, our system reduces water
consumption by up to 71.8%, thus contributing to sustainable water-table usage.
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The rest of the paper is organized as follows. The background is presented in Section
2, and the related work is overviewed in Section 3. The general system architecture and design
are described in Section 4. In Section 5, we discuss the results and evaluate the findings.
Finally, in Section 6, we conclude and present our future work.
II. BACKGROUND
A. SMART AGRICULTURE AS A CYBER-PHYSICAL SYSTEM The rapid
technological developments of the Internet of Things (IoT), WSN, and Embedded Systems in
recent years have enabled the development of modern systems and applications that have
completely changed our lives. CPSs are among the most powerful of these modern systems,
and Smart Agriculture is a CPS.
CPS refers to systems that ideally integrate software and hardware components to
perform precise tasks. A formal definition states: ‘‘Cyber-Physical System is defined as
transformative technologies for managing interconnected systems between its physical assets
and computational capabilities’’ [8].
As shown in Fig. 1, the general CPS architecture combines embedded computing,
wireless sensors, and actuators networks to monitor and control the physical environment and
give it the ability to adapt itself to new conditions in real-time through feedback loops. Its
ability to combine different technologies and make them integrated has made CPS a crucial
technological revolution that brings innovation to multiple industries by replacing traditional
processes in many application areas with new and modern ones.
FIGURE 1. Cyber-physical systems (CPS) general architecture.

Smart agriculture is one of the most promising CPS applications that will positively
affect human life. SA can preserve a significant amount of water and energy through its ability
to monitor multiple resources such as irrigation and solar energy systems. As a CPS, it replaces
the traditional agricultural system with a smart and modern one that provides accurate
agricultural management by collecting and processing data related to the plant, the weather,
and the soil, in real-time mode and using precise control methods. The interaction of the main
components of SA as a closed-loop control CPS is depicted in Fig. 2. This figure includes the
field, the control center, the Wireless Sensors and Actuators Network (WSAN), and the drip
irrigation system.
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FIGURE 2. Smart farm as a closed CPS (Cyber physical system).
B. WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS (WSN)
The rapid developments in wireless communication technologies, micro-

electromechanical systems, and digital electronics have given rise to WSN [9]–[11]. The
latter consists of sensor nodes that monitor the agricultural environment needed data, such as
temperature, humidity, soil moisture, motion, and pressure, and send through a gateway
towards the data processing server(s). This data can be hosted locally or remotely in the Cloud
[12]. Once processed and analyzed, it becomes information that can be visualized (e.g., using
plots and charts) and sent to the control unit to react upon and take actions, e.g., switching
On/Off water pumps and drip irrigation motors. One of the main advantages of WSN is that it
reduces the cost of wiring and makes it practical and easy. According to some studies, WSN
will have the ability to eliminate from 20% to 80% of the installation costs [13].
The general structure of a wireless sensor node is depicted in Fig. 3 and consists of four units
[14]:
- The Sensing Unit consists of sensor modules that sample the environmental conditions of the
deployment field.
- The Processing Unit consists of a microcontroller with a CPU and memory to run code and
process the data.
- The Transmission Unit: This unit modulates digital data and sends it wirelessly. Several
wireless technologies are adopted for this unit. In our deployment, we are using ZigBee [15].
- The power Supply Unit is the Lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery that powers the wireless sensor
node.
FIGURE 3. General architecture of a wireless sensor node.

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C. INTERNET OF THINGS (IoT)
With the rapid advancement in ICT, today’s era has left the concept of the internet far
behind, and a new concept has emerged: the IoT. There are many definitions of IoT set by
many organizations working globally. ITU-T (International Telecommunication Union
Telecommunication Standardization Sector) has defined IoT as ‘‘Global infrastructure for
Information Society, enabling advanced services by interconnecting (physical and virtual)
things based on existing and evolving, interoperable information and communication
technologies’’ [13]. [16] defines IoT as a technology that combines the internet and existing
resources to control devices. This control is ensured by using various IoT communication
technologies such as Bluetooth, ZigBee, Long-Range (Lora), Zensys Wave (Z-Wave), SigFox,
Wi-Fi, GPRS, 4G, and 5G [17]. Even though IoT is mainly about connecting and automating
things (objects) over the internet, human intervention gives this concept the possibility of existence.
The inter relationship between the three sections that make up the IoT is illustrated in Fig.4.
IoT is witnessing continuous progress and has a promising future. Statistics indicate
that the number of IoT-connected devices is expected to rise to 43 billion devices by 2023 [18].
Furthermore, the total IoT market worldwide was worth around $ 389 billion in 2020, and it is
expected to rise to more than one trillion US dollars in 2030 [19]. This optimistic future vision
reinforces the necessity to develop newer communication technologies that enable the
synchronization of the largest possible number of new devices with sensors over the internet.
Fig.5 shows the persistent increase in connected devices/things over the internet for ten years
(2015-2025) [20].
FIGURE 4. Tri-sectional relationship between the three components of IoT.
FIGURE 5. IoT connected devices in 2015-2025.
Given that IoT is a fertile research area that both the academic and industry sectors are
interested in, all indications show an urge to deploy novel technologies to cope with the rapid
increase in IoT deployment and adoption. In this regard, 5G and its Massive Machine Type
Communication (mMTC) component is excellent news for the IoT market, and it will have a
significant impact on it [19]. Through mMTC, 5G networks will inevitably improve the
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reliability and performance of many vital ICT-related domains of substantial interest to society,
such as smart mobility, smart grid, smart buildings, and smart agriculture. The following
section presents some critical IoT applications in SA.
D. IoT APPLICATIONS IN SMART AGRICULTURE
IoT and connected objects have invaded our daily lives in all fields, from smart TVs to
connected cars: all our activities are facilitated by these new tools, which significantly
increase our comfort. All studies confirm that the potential of connected things is enormous.
For example, a study done by Fortune Business Insight indicates that the global IoT market
size is projected to reach $ 1,854.76 billion by 2028. It is set to exhibit a Compound Annual
Growth Rate (CAGR) of 25.4% during the forecast period between 2021 and 2028 [21]. The
applications of IoT are numerous and cover many areas. The most appealing IoT applications
in Agriculture are presented next.
1) SMART GREENHOUSES
Greenhouse farming enhances the quality and quantity of crops production through
manual control of environmental conditions [22]. A smart greenhouse can be created using IoT
by deploying sensors and motors that intelligently monitor and control the climate conditions
based on the needs of the plants [23]. Several operations will be automatic by adopting this
innovative agricultural system, such as opening and closing windows, adjusting the cooling
and heating system, and turning on/off light bulbs. Thus, manual intervention is no longer
required.
2) SMART IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT
The currently adopted irrigation methods are somewhat advanced and depend on
watering at specific times, which does not require much human intervention. Still, at the same
time, it involves a high degree of guesswork and can be very wasteful in terms of water and
energy consumption. Some field parts are under or over irrigated even with modern irrigation
systems. Besides, although farmers would stop irrigation systems when expected to rain,
sometimes they do not check the weather to adjust their schedules accordingly. The smart
irrigation management system can consider all of this by using precision farming
FIGURE 6. Node RED irrigation control flow construction.
methodologies and IoT-enabled sensors that monitor soil moisture levels, humidity, and
temperature everywhere in the field. The control based on this data automatically adjusts
irrigation schedules. It also provides the exact amount of water where and when needed to
create optimal conditions for the plant for a better yield without wasting water and energy.
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3) INTEGRATION INTO SMART GRID

Renewable energy integration into Smart Agriculture would serve as a bias to link Smart Farms
to Smart Grids (SG) [17].
Smart farms are both energy producers and consumers. An SG is an electricity
distribution network that promotes the flow of information between suppliers and consumers
to adjust the flow of electricity in real-time and allows more efficient management of the
electricity network [24], [25]. Smart grid benefits from the significant development that IoT
and embedded systems are witnessing to optimize energy production, distribution,
consumption, and storage. It improves the energy efficiency of the assembly by minimizing
line losses and optimizing the yield of the means of production used, taking into consideration
the real-time consumption.
E. CLOUD-BASED BIG DATA ANALYTICS PLATFORMS
This study uses Node-RED, an open-source flow-based programming tool that allows
wiring hardware devices, application programming interfaces (APIs), and online services.
We used the built-JavaScript-based library on Node.js to develop the application. We wired
pre-programmed nodes represented by appropriate icons and created the application’s different
needed functional IoT components.
Node-RED contains several node types, each of which has a specific function. For
instance, the debug-out nodes are used to monitor the flow. The inject nodes trigger a flow
manu- ally by clicking on it or automatically at regular intervals. The function nodes allow
JavaScript code to be run on the messages passed through it. Furthermore, dashboard nodes
allow us to display data [26].
In this work, we wired up input, output, and processing nodes to create needed flows
for data preprocessing, processing, storage, and controlling the water pumps and the lighting
system, as well as sending alerts. The deployed Node-Red flow construction of our irrigation
control system is depicted in Fig. 6.
III. RELATED WORK
Several studies have been carried out in Smart Agriculture (SA). Authors in [27]
covered state of the art in SA systems from a big data perspective. Their work aimed at
introducing big data processing into SA. Besides, the authors presented a detailed evolution of
the different agricultural systems was presented. It showed that SA could explore the full
potential of information communication technology (ICT) by using various data sources.
In [28], D. Glaroudis et al. provided a detailed survey about the most used messaging
protocols in IoT applications. Based on the up-to-date references, they introduced, analyzed,
and compared six protocols: Advanced Message Queuing Protocol (AMQP), Message
Queuing Telemetry Transport (MQTT), Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP),
Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP), WebSocket, and Data Distribution
Service (DDS). The performance comparison was based on throughput, latency, power
consumption, bandwidth, reliability, and security. The main challenges that are and will be
raised by SA applications were also presented in this paper to provide a solid basis for
realistic implementation options for SA applications.
In [32], the authors concluded that environmental conditions monitoring is crucial to
increasing agricultural yield. In this direction, a smart system was deployed to monitor soil
moisture, temperature, humidity, and the movement of animals in the field. The system used
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Arduino-based sensors. Besides, the suggested system deployed an Android mobile application
that schedules the irrigation, visualizes real-time data, and alerts the farmer in case of any
discrepancy. The IoT-based SA system farmer-friendly, which is an intelligent system for
monitoring the concentration of nitrates in groundwater without human intervention, has been
established in [33]. The proposed approach was based on WSN using Wi-Fi and LoRa for
data communication. The results demonstrated that the model is ambitious and can be adopted
by the farmers on large scales.
The authors in [34] performed an experimental comparison of IoT devices with solar
energy harvesting. For the sake of the comparison, they used three different communication
technologies: Wi-Fi, LoRaWan, and ZigBee. The results proved that LoRaWan was the best
solution for agricultural monitoring when prioritizing network lifetime. The research work in
[35] defined SA as the application of modern ICT into agriculture. They presented the usable
IoT hardware and software for smart agriculture and shared interesting results. A practical
solution for sustainable irrigation in hyper-arid regions was proposed in [36]. The suggested
solution is based on fuzzy logic combined with WSN. According to the results, vast amounts
of water and energy were saved through effective irrigation scheduling and management
processes. For environmental sustainability, authors in [37] developed a system that retrieves
real-time data and uses it to accurately determine the amount of water needed to irrigate the
garden. The results of this real-world prototype showed savings between 26% and 34% in
water consumption. Still, the results depend on whether the temperature sensor is used alone
or humidity and soil moisture sensors.
FIGURE 7. IoT based smart agriculture: Testbed general architecture.

soil and the weather in the field where they are deployed to decide whether to send a switch
On command to the pumps to irrigate the area or not. Besides, the designed controller monitors
the water level in the well and operates in three different modes: manual mode, mobile control
mode, and fuzzy logic control mode. The developed prototype solely relied on solar energy.
Moreover, it successfully proved its efficiency in providing the appropriate conditions for the
plants without wasting water and energy.
In [44], Y. P. Lin et. argue that the next step in the evolution in Smart Agriculture will
consist of block chain usage. They proposed an ICT e-agriculture system using block chain
infrastructure.
IV. SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE AND DESIGN
Our proposed system consists of seven main elements, see Fig.7:
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1) Data Acquisition: It is a Wireless Sensor Network that senses the environment data and sends
it to the gateway [45].
2) Big Data Analytics Platform (BDAP): The unit responsible for data storage, visualization,
and processing. In addition to that, this platform controls the drip irrigation and lighting
system within the farm. We deployed this component using a Raspberry Pi along with Node-
Red. The latter is a local server containing a control unit running algorithms to decide whether
to pump water from groundwater to basin via water pump #1 or from basin to the drip irrigation
system via water pump #2.
3) Wireless Actuator Network (WAN): It consists of actuators carrying out decisions issued by
the BDAP by switching On/Off the water pumps and the lighting bulbs. The actuators are
wirelessly connected to the BDAP [46].
4) Renewable Energy: These are solar panels that constitute the renewable power source for the
farm and battery.
5) Storage Unit: The element responsible for storing extra electrical energy produced by the solar
panels and reusing it when needed to operate the water pumps and lighting. It consists of a
Lithium battery.
6) Control Unit: It decides whether to forward the produced electricity to the Smart Farm or store
it in the batteries for future use.
7) Cluster Controller: It is responsible for collecting and filtering data related to the smart grid
and sending it to the Cloud-based IoT platform in real-time mode [47].
A. DATA ACQUISITION
The data acquisition is composed of wireless sensors and actuators. As depicted in Fig.8, a
sensor node is composed of three elements:
1. Sensor modules: soil moisture sensor deployed in the field, temperature, and humidity sensor
(DHT11) which measures the ambient air temperature and humidity, PIR sensor which detects
the existence of humans by sensing motion, and for the fields’ security reason, the fire sensor
is used to detect the presence of a flame or fire, the Ultrasonic HC-SR04 sensor which measures
the water level in the basin, and the AC sensor which measures pumps’ power consumption.
2. Microcontroller: an Arduino Nano board that connects all the components is used in this study.
3. Communication module: It is responsible for transcribing data between sensors and the
BDAP. In this study Zigbee module (Xbee series 2 S2C) was used.
In anticipation of any power failure in sunlight deficiency, all nodes are powered with an
IoT solar system (solar panel 20W, solar battery charger, and 25Ah battery). This method
makes the WSN data acquisition system ideal for agriculture as it can be easily deployed
everywhere independently of the power installation. This energy harvesting system can
guarantee up to 5 days of total autonomy for each sensor node.
B. SENSOR NODE CONFIGURATION
The WSN was implemented as a mesh topology using a scalable and reliable firmware
named Digimesh. Each sensor node can act as a sensor and a router in this configuration using
the Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol [10]. In the current study,
five wireless sensor nodes were deployed. These send real-time data to the BDAP every 15
minutes through the gateway device (sink node) that connects the WSN and the BDAP, see
Fig. 9.
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FIGURE 8. Data flow: from sensors to the cloud.
FIGURE 9. Wireless mesh network architecture.

The wireless actuator nodes we used to control the water pumps are smart relays (Sonoff
with integrated ESP8266 WiFi Card [48]). These are WiFi-based wireless smart switches that
operate with a voltage range of 90-250v AC and a wireless frequency of 2.4GHz and are
compatible with a wide range of appliances. We adopted this smart switch as it is cost-
effective, reliable, and provides an integrated Wi-Fi module. In addition, ensuring
communication with the BDAP as the Wi-Fi connection might not be available. We enhanced
the data acquisition and control unit by replacing Sonoff’s smart relay module with a standard
relay 5V connected to an Arduino Nano microcontroller equipped with a GSM/ GPRS module
or a Zigbee module. Fig.10. shows the wireless sensors used to collect data from the field,
Fig.11. shows the wireless sensors used to monitor the water level in the basin and the water
pump’s energy consumption, and Fig.12 shows the wireless actuator nodes that act on the water
pumps to switch them On/Off.
C. BIG DATA ANALYTICS PLATFORM
Big Data Analytics Platform (BDAP) is the backbone of the proposed system. The developed
BDAP is based on Node-RED and tested locally on a RaspberryPi 3 board running Raspbian
OS. Besides, we installed the message broker Eclipse-Mosquitto that implements the IoT
publish-subscribe messaging protocol (MQTT). Following are the main functionalities of our
BDAP.
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FIG. 10. In-field wireless sensor node deployment. FIGURE 11. Basin wireless sensor node
deployment.
FIGURE 12. Wireless smart actuators nodes deployment.
1. OpenWeatherMap online forecasting portal: it provides up to 5 days forecast of temperature,

humidity, wind speed, pressure, and precipitation.
1) REAL-TIME DATA VISUALISATION
The proposed BDAP contains a NodeRED dashboard that displays the acquired data from the
different sources through a user-friendly graphical user interface (GUI). The main
characteristics of the GUI are:
1. Visualizing data over short, medium, and long-term periods (daily, monthly, and yearly) in
charts form.
Allowing the user to remotely act on the pumps by switching them On/Off via graphical
command buttons.
2. Securing data access by prompting the user to authen- ticate through password-secured
sessions.
Fig.13 depicts the interactive real-time control GUI, which displays the real-time soil
moisture average, temperature average, water level in the basin, irrigation duration, rain
precipitation, and the state of water pumps (On/Off). The NodeRED dashboard was deployed
using flowchart programming.
2) REAL-TIME IRRIGATION AND WATER LEVEL CONTROL
The control flow of the proposed smart irrigation system is presented in Fig.14. It has two
primary sequences: 1. Irriga- tion control (in green), and 2. water level control (in blue).
a: REAL-TIME IRRIGATION CONTROL
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We are adopting fuzzy logic in deploying this component, and we dubbed it the Fuzzy
Irrigation Control Unit (FICU). The BDAP starts by retrieving predicted precipitation data for
the next 24 hours from OpenWeatherMap. Depending on provided data, two cases are possible:
1. If it is predicted to rain, the FICU decides to switch Off the basin waterpump#2 as the rain will
likely irrigate the field.
2. else, the FICU proceeds as follows:
a. It retrieves the actual soil moisture and ambient temperature (Ta) from the wireless sensor
nodes and computes their average values.
b. The computed average soil moisture is compared to the desired one that varies depending on
the plant type. In this study, the desired soil moisture is set to 60%.
c. The FICU computes a new variable named Soil Moisture Difference (SMD). SMD is the
differencebetween the real-time soil moisture average and the desired one.
d. If SMD is ≤ 0, FICU uses SMD and Ta to generate the irrigation duration (Id) based on the
rules mentioned in Table 1. For instance, ‘‘If SMD < 0, and Ta is Cold, then Id is set to Short’’.
Then, waterpump#2 is turned On for Id minutes to irrigate the field.
e. If SMD > 0, the waterpump#2 is turned Off.
The use of Ta alongside SMD by FICU is meant to reduce water evapotranspiration at high
temperatures. FICU comprises four components, see Fig.15: 1. fuzzification module, 2. The
Max-Min Inference Engine, 3. The Mamdani-type rule base module, and 4. The Centroid
defuzzification module.
The inputs and output membership functions of the FICU are depicted in Fig. 16. The
fuzzification/defuzzification of inputs/output is done using trapezoidal and triangular mem-
bership functions. Only three membership functions were used for each input to improve the
program execution speed and avoid the memory backlog [36]. However, five membership
functions were used for the output to cover all variations of Id.
b: REAL-TIME WATER LEVEL CONTROL
Drip irrigation using basins is the most used irrigation method in agriculture. This method has
several advantages and drawbacks as well.
◦ Advantages:
- Collecting rainwater: by collecting rainwater, water table resources are saved, and energy use
is reduced.
- Improving water quality: when water is kept in basins, it becomes more oxygenated, thus
becoming more beneficial for the plants [49].
TABLE 1. Fuzzy rules of irrigation duration.
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Drawbacks:
- Permanent supervision cost: This is the sole drawback. Conventional Water Level (WL)
control requires permanent human supervision, increasing the cost of the products. Our
BDAP monitors WL in basins based on real-time data provided by a WL sensor to minimize
the additional cost due to supervision.
FIGURE 14. Fuzzy irrigation controller architecture.
The blue part in Fig.14 shows the WL control flowchart. Once the field is watered, the BDAP
checks the WL value of the basin.
- If WL < 50 %, waterpump#1 is turned On. Then, water is pumped from the groundwater source
to fill the basin to the maximum. Once at maximum, a switch Off command is sent to
waterpump#1.
The whole water irrigation and water level control process is regularly repeated (see Fig.14).
We fixed the cycle duration to one hour.
The solar system used in this study is shown in Fig. 17. It consists of a DC/AC inverter, an
AC/DC inverter, electrical protection, and a lithium battery.
FIGURE 15. Deployed system control-flow diagram.

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The real-world deployment of the proposed SA system is depicted in Fig.18. The setup
consists of solar panels, WSN, IoT solar panels with batteries and water pumps.
V. RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
In order to evaluate our system, real-time data was continuously collected remotely
via the settled WSN over five days in July 2020. Collected data include soil moisture,
temperature, irrigation duration, water level, solar panels energy production, and the energy
consumption of waterpump#2. The relevant data variances are depicted in figures 19, 20, 21,
22, and 23.
In Fig. 19, depicting the temperature and soil moisture variances, we notice that the day
temperature rose to 40 ◦C, and the nocturnal temperature ranged between 15 and 20 ◦C.
Unlike conventional irrigation systems (depicted in Fig. 20), the soil moisture is optimal
and closer to the desired value (60%), and it stays within the range of 57%-65%. In
conventional irrigation systems, represented in Fig. 20, the soil moisture varies from 0%-
100%.
FIGURE 16. Fuzzy sets memberships functions.
FIGURE 17. Solar system real-world deployment.

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FIGURE 18. Smart agriculture real-world deployment.

In Fig. 20, we track the real-time soil moisture in traditional irrigation systems within five
days. This method consists of irrigating the field for two consecutive hours daily. The results,
in fig. 20, underpin the following drawbacks:
◦ The plant is either over or under irrigated since the soil moisture varies between those extreme
values, and the optimal value (60%) is not maintained for an extended period.
◦ The quality and quantity of the yield would be negatively affected since the soil moisture
reaches 0% for at least five hours each day.
◦ High water and energy consumption: in five days, 2400L were consumed, which is equivalent
to 480L/day for an area of 25m2. The last average is used later to evaluate our system compared
to conventional irrigation in the same region.
Our proposed system reacts to weather changes with high precision. It raises the soil
moisture to 65% during high temperatures (to avoid evapotranspiration losses) and does not
exceed 62%-63% in low temperatures.
To study the impact of the irrigation duration on soil moisture, we tracked the relevant
variances as depicted in Fig.21. Accordingly, whenever there is a decrease in soil moisture, the
FICU computes the desired irrigation period to meet the desired moisture value and sends a
switch On signal to the wireless actuator attached to waterpump#2.
Accordingly, the higher the temperature is, the longer the irrigation duration becomes.
When raising the irrigation periods, the evapotranspiration losses are reduced, and as a result,
the desired soil moisture is continuously maintained. Thus, better conditions are provided to
the plant, consequently increasing the yield’s quality and quantity.
Monitoring and controlling the water level in the basin is crucial for controlling the
drip irrigation system. In this experiment, we continuously track the basin water, which varies
according to the irrigation periods computed by the FICU. For instance, as shown in Fig.22,
when the water level
Exceeds the set threshold (50% in our case), waterpump#1 is turned Off; otherwise,
waterpump#1 is switched On until the basin is reached entirely complete. Thus, the obtained
results are consistent with the water level control previously presented in section IV.
We used a water pump with a water flow rate of 240 L/hour in our experiment. Within
five days, the total Id was 169 minutes, and 676 L were consumed during this time. This rate
is equivalent to 135.2 L/day consumed over the same area of 25 m2. Accordingly, our proposed
smart agriculture system provides the field with an average of 54 m3 / hectare per day. This
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FIGURE 19. Real-time temperature and soil moisture averages.
FIGURE 20. Real-time soil moisture using the traditional irrigation system.
water consumption is 3.55 times lower than in the traditional irrigation system, and thus the
energy consumption as well since used pumps are electrical ones.
Therefore, we conclude that the traditional irrigation system is ineffective in
maintaining soil moisture at the desired value. In addition, it is wasting water and energy
resources.
The real-time energy consumption of waterpump#2 measured by AC sensor and the
real-time solar panels’ energy production measured by a smart energy meter within five days
are presented in Fig.23. We notice from this figure that the maximum energy consumption
and maximum solar energy production are reached simultaneously (between 12:00 pm and
4:
FIGURE 21. Real-time soil moisture average and irrigation duration.
00 pm). From this figure, we also conclude reduced to the minimum possible to make it
affordable and widely adopted even by small and medium farmers. The unit price for every
single component is presented in Table 2.
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FIGURE 22. Real-time water level and groundwater pump state.
that the integration of solar energy is suitable for smart agriculture without implementing an
extensive storage system(batteries). In the design of our SA prototype, the cost has been
TABLE 2. Unit price of the different components.
◦ Cost-effectiveness.
FIGURE 23. Real-time PV power production and waterpump#2 energy consumption.
VI. CONCLUSION
This paper developed, presented, and deployed an open- source and easy-to-deploy
smart agriculture system with the main drivers of cost-effectiveness, water consumption
optimization, and renewable energy integration.
The deployed SA system leverages up-to-date ICT. We used IoT devices for data
acquisition and control (sensors and actuators). We also used Cloud Computing for data
processing, visualization, and data storage. Besides, we recurred to fuzzy logic to implement
a fuzzy irrigation control unit that decides on the appropriate Id (Irrigation Duration) based on
real-time processed data. This approach saves water and energy and provides adequate
conditions for the plants, thus optimizing crops’ yield. Furthermore, this allows better
monitoring for the water level in the basin and adheres to the conventional eco-friendly trend
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of sustainable agriculture through its total reliance on solar energy.
The case study results show that our proposed solution is promising compared to the
traditional irrigation system due to its cost-effectiveness and ability to reduce water/energy
consumption by 71.8%.
As future work, we are paving the way towards scaling up our system by deploying our
solution in several farms in the region, allowing our BDAP (Big Data Analytics Platform) to
collect big real-time data about water-table usage in the region. Thus appropriate irrigation
strategies can be derived and analyzed. Besides, we plan further experimentation to enhance
solar energy production and storage. We will also integrate LoRa wireless sensors/actuators
network and develop a machine learning system that predicts soil moisture, energy
production, and energy consumption within a few days. The machine learning algorithm can
adapt to different crop requirements in moisture levels and improve crop yield.
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Smart Comput. (SMARTCOMP), May 2017, pp. 1–6, doi: 10.1109/SMARTCOMP.2017.
7946995.
[10] N. Naji, M. R. Abid, N. Krami, and D. Benhaddou, ‘‘An energy-aware wireless sensor network
for data acquisition in smart energy efficient building,’’ in Proc. IEEE 5th World Forum
Internet Things, Feb. 2019, pp. 1–12, doi: 10.1109/WF-IoT.2019.8767308.
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Smart Grids–The Future of Power

Vijayakanth.S, Balachander K
Karpagam Academy of Higher Education, Coimbatore
Abstract
An advanced form of the electrical grid called Demand response and home control
are the "smart grid" uses advanced metering integrated with smart distribution boards
infrastructure, modern power electronics, and circuit breakers (behind the meter from a
communication infrastructure, renewable utility perspective). Energy and storage systems, and
other Efficiency improvements on municipal technologies to boost sustainability, efficiency,
programs are frequently used to finance and dependability. To estimate and manage load
control switches and intelligent energy consumption, smart grids also analyze appliances (e.g.,
PACE financing).
Meteorological data and consumer demand Electrified vehicle (EV) batteries that are
estimation more accurately. The smart gridcan parked, larger battery arrays made from EV
assist in lowering costs, enhancing energy batteries, or other energy storage canalled security,
and lowering emissions by automating charged using renewable energy sources the
infrastructure and making it smarter and [1]. more adaptive. This paper provides a brief Energy
efficient resources.
Overview of the history, requirements, Distribution of excess electricity via power
advantages, and disadvantages of smart grid cables and automatic smart switches. Systems, as
wells comparison to the current Sufficient wireless backup and utility-grade grid system. fiber
band width to link and monitor the a fore mentioned.
Introduction:
Adequate backup or "dark" capacity to an electrical grid that uses various operational
ensure failover, frequently leased for and energy-saving methods is referred to as a revenue
[2]-[3]. "Smart grid."
Important components of the smart grid include Infrastructure for advanced metering
(of electronic power conditioning and generation which smart meters are a generic name for
Nan distribution of electricity control [4]. Any utility side device even if it is more capable
e.g. a fiber optic router). European Technical Platform for Smart Grids is the apex body for
smart grid policies [5].
Although the word "smart grid" is typically used to refer to the technical infrastructure,
its implementation also involves a fundamental- engineering of the power services sector [6].
Smart meters, the products they enable, and general security concerns are where most
worries about smart grid technologies are concentrated. During times of peak power use, smart
grids might also monitor and control non- essential domestic appliances, restoring their
functionality during off-peak hours [7].
Background:
In Great Barrington, Massachusetts, the first alternating current electric grid system
was set up [8]. At that time, the grid was a centralized unidirectional system of electric power
transmission, electricity distribution, and demand-driven control. Siting of hydroelectric dams
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in mountain areas also strongly influenced the structure of the emerging grid. Finally, fossil
fuel-fired power stations were initially very polluting and were cited as far as economically
possible from population centers once electricity distribution networks permitted it. By the
late1960s, the electricity grid reached most of the population of developed countries, with only
outlying regional areas remaining 'off-grid’. Metering of electricity consumption was
necessary on a per-user basis to allow appropriate billing according to the level of consumption
of different users.
Because of limited data collection and processing capability during the period of growth of
the grid, fixed-tariff arrangements were commonly put in place, as well as dual – tariff
arrangements where night-time power was charged at a lower rate than daytime power. In
some areas, the supply of electricity, especially at peak times, could not keep up with this
demand, resulting in poor power quality including blackouts, power cuts, and brownouts.
Increasingly, electricity was depended on for industry, heating, communication, lighting, and
entertainment, and consumers demanded ever- higher levels of reliability. The relatively low
utilization of these peaking generators, together with the necessary redundancy in the
electricity grid, resulted in high costs to the electricity companies, which were passed on in the
form of increased tariffs. In the 21st century, some developing countries like China, India, and
Brazil were seen as pioneers of smart grid deployment [9].
Smart Grid Diagram

Definition of Smart Grid:
The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007(EISA-2007), which President
George W. Bush signed into law in December 2007 after it had been adopted by the US
Congress in January2007, established the first formal 2 definition of the Smart Grid. A
definition of the "Smart Grid" is given in Title XIII of this bill, which includes the following
description and 10 characteristics [10]:
"It is the policy of the United States to support the modernization of the Nation's
electricity transmission and distribution system to maintain a reliable and secure electricity
infrastructure that can meet future demand growth and to achieve each of the following, which
together characterize a Smart Grid:
(1) Increased use of digital information and controls technology to improve reliability,
security, and efficiency of the electric grid.
(2) Dynamic optimization of grid operations and resources, with full cyber-security.
(3) Deployment and integration of distributed resources and generation, including
renewable resources. (4) Development and incorporation of demand response, demand-side
resources, and energy-efficiency resources.
(5) Deployment of 'smart' technologies (real- time, automated, interactive technologies that
optimize the physical operation of appliances and consumer devices) for metering,
communications concerning grid operations and status, and distribution automation.
(6) Integration of 'smart' appliances and consumer devices.
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(7) Deployment and integration of advanced electricity storage and peak-shaving
technologies, including plug-in electric and hybrid electric vehicles, and thermal storage air
conditioning.
(8) Provision to consumers of timely information and control options.
(9) Development of standards for communication and interoperability of appliances and

equipment connected to the electric grid, including the infrastructure serving the grid.
(10) Identification and lowering of unreasonable or unnecessary barriers to adoption of
smart grid technologies, practices, and services."
Need for Smart Grid
Because conventional grids have electromechanical arrangements, which are highly
inefficient, and energy demand is increasing at a faster rate than energy supply because of the
increase in population.
Greenhouse gases are increasing due to an increase in fossil fuel consumption [11].
Significance of the Smart Grid over the Conventional Grid:

• A smart grid has automatic fault restoration by using sensors in transformers and transmission
lines.
• There is non eedto call alinemantore pair or reroute the electricity from the grid.
• The consumer can be able to know his energy consumption by viewing the smart meter in real-
time.
Comparison:
Advantages:
• Better energy management.
• Proactive management of the electrical network during emergencies.
• Better demand side/demand response management.
• Reduce carbon emissions.
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Disadvantages:
• The present infra structure is in adequate and requires a high cost of installation.
• Smart Grid is computer-based, if it is hacked then the worst things will happen.
• Most renewable energy sources are intermittent and not reliable.
The Global, Social, Economic, and Environmental impacts of Smart Grids:
The global, social, economic, and environmental impacts of smart grids are significant.
On a global level, smart grids can help reduce emissions and increase energy efficiency, while
also helping to integrate renewable energy sources into the grid. On a social level, smart grids
can give consumers more control over their energy consumption and provide access to reliable,
affordable electricity. On an economic level, smart grids can help reduce operational and
maintenance costs, while providing the potential to create new jobs and industries. Finally, on
an environmental level, smart grids can help reduce carbon emissions, improve air quality,
and conserve natural resources.
Conclusions:
Smart grids can provide several benefits, including improved energy efficiency,
reduced emissions, increased reliability of energy supply, better integration of renewable
energy sources, increased consumer control over energy consumption, and potential cost
savings. However, they can also come with risks such as cyber security threats, privacy
concerns, and increased complexity. Ultimately, smart grids can provide significant
advantages and can help shape the future of the energy sector, but these benefits must be
weighed against the potential risks.
References
[1] Hu, J.; Lanzon, A. (2019). "Distributed finite time consensus control for
heterogeneous battery energy storage systems in droop-controlled microgrids".IEEE
Transactions on Smart Grid.10 (5): 4751– 4761.doi:10.1109/TSG.2018.2868112.S2CID
117469364.
[2] "Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Assessment of Demand
Response & Advanced Metering" (PDF).UnitedStatesFedera l 4 Energy Regulatory
Commission. United States Federal Energy Regulatory Commission.
[3] Saleh, M. S.; Althaibani, A.; Esa, Y.; Mhandi,Y.;Mohamed,A.A. (October 2015).
Impact of clusteringmicrogridsontheirsta bility and resilience during blackouts.2015
International Conference on Smart Grid and Clean Energy Technologies (ICSGCE). pp. 195–
200.doi:10.1109/ICSGCE.2015.7454295.ISB N978-1-4673-8732-3. S2CID25664994.
[4] "Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Assessment of Demand
Response & Advanced Metering"(PDF).
[5] "Smart Grids European Technology Platform".SmartGrids.2011 .Archiv ed
from the original on 2011-10-03. Retrieved2011-10-11.
[6] Torriti, Jacopo (2012). "Demand Side Management for the European Supergrid:
Occupancy variances of European single- personhouseholds".EnergyPolicy.44:199– 206.
doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2012.01.039.
[7] Sayed, K.; Gabbar, H.A. (1January 2017). "Chapter 18 – SCADA and smart energy
grid control automation". Smart Energy Grid Engineering. Academic Press:481–
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514.doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-805343-0.00018- 8.ISBN978-0128053430.
[8] "The History of Electrification: The Birth of our Power Grid". Edison Tech Center.
Retrieved November 6, 2013.
[9] Mohsen Fadaee Nejad; Amin Mohammad Saberian; Hashim Hizam; et al.
(2013)."Application of smart power grid in developing countries". 2013 IEEE 7th
International Power Engineering and Optimization Conference (PEOCO)(PDF). IEEE. pp.
427– 431.doi:10.1109/PEOCO.2013.6564586.ISBN 978-1-4673-5074-7. S2CID9292426.
[10] Pub.L.110–140(text)(PDF)
[11] Subhankar Dash (2015). Smart grid the future grid. [online] Available at:
https://www.slideshare.net/subhankarDash/sm art-grid-the-future-grid.
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A COMPREHENSIVE SURVEY ON DC-DC CONVERTERS:
IN SOLAR PV APPLICATIONS, AND FUTURE TRENDS

S. Berkmans, Dr. M. Vaigundamoorthi
Dept. of EEE, Karpagam Academy of Higher Education Coimbatore.
Abstract:
This survey paper aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of
research on DC-DC converters. DC-DC converters play a crucial role in power electronics,
enabling efficient power conversion for various applications. This paper reviews 20 key
research papers in the field, highlighting different converter topologies, control strategies, and
applications. The survey also discusses recent advancements, challenges, and potential future
directions in DC-DC converter research.
Introduction
The introduction sets the stage for the survey paper by providing an overview of the
importance of DC-DC converters in modern power electronics. It discusses the growing
demand for efficient power conversion in various applications, ranging from portable
electronics to renewable energy systems. The introduction also outlines the motivation for
conducting the survey and presents the organization of the paper.
This section provides a brief overview of the fundamental principles of DC-DC
converters. It covers the basic operating principles, key components, and the classification of
different converter topologies. This foundational knowledge sets the stage for the in-depth
analysis of specific converter types in later sections.
SURVEY
Tan et al proposed comprehensive dc power balance management (PBM) in

conjunction with high power three-level dc-dc converter based fast charger. The active dc
power balance management (APBM) is proposed to assist the central NPC converter in
balancing power so that the additional balancing circuit is eliminated; while the passive dc
power balance management (PPBM) is proposed to eliminate the fluctuating neutral-point
currents and to ensure the balanced operation of fast chargers.
Butzen et al discussed the need for high efficiency, large VCR, and high power density
fully integrated dc–dc converters using common technologies, together with the difficulty of
achieving this due to the limited capacitance density available in modern technology processes.
He, Peiwen et al provides a comprehensive analysis of and comparison among the

FBCLLC, HBCLLC, FBDAB, and HBDAB converters for EV battery charging applications.
A new general gain expression of the HBCLLC converter is derived in this manuscript. The
practicability and performance of the four DC-DC converters for bidirectional EV charging
systems are discussed. The converters are designed with 1 kW power rating.
Kanamarlapudi et al proposed a new zero voltage switching (ZVS) full-bridge DCDC

converter for battery charging is this paper. The proposed isolated DC-DC converter is used
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for the DC-DC conversion stage of electric vehicle charger. The primary switches in DC-DC
converter turn-on at zero voltage over the battery charging range with the help of passive
auxiliary circuit
Elserougi, Ahmed; et al proposes a medium/high-voltage high-power hybrid modular
DCDC converter to interconnect two different DC-voltage levels in medium- /high-voltage DC
grids. The converter consists of halfbridge Submodules (SMs) rated at a moderate voltage level,
i.e. series connection of semiconductor devices is avoided while connecting two high DC-
voltage levels.
KANAMARLAPUDI et al proposed a new zero-voltage and zero-current switching
(ZVZCS) full-bridge DC-DC converter to reduce the power conversion losses. The proposed
converter incorporates a new asymmetrical pulse width modulation (APWM) gating technique
for the DC-DC conversion stage in the battery charging system.
Baddipadiga et al introduced a high-voltagegain dc-dc converterin this paper. The
proposed converter resembles a two-phase interleaved boost converter on its input side while
having a Dickson charge pump based voltage multiplier on its output side. This converter offers
continuous input current which makes it more appealing for the integration of renewable
sources like solar panels to a 400-V dc bus.
Tan et al proposed a voltage balance control (VBC) method based on a new modulation
together with three-level (TL) dc-dc converter based fast charger. Additionally, an effective
VBC coordination between the TL dc-dc converter and NPC converter is formulated. Through
the proposed VBC coordination, the controllable balancing region is extended so that additional
balancing circuits are eliminated.
Conclusion
The conclusion summarizes the key findings from the survey and emphasizes the
current state of research in DC-DC converters. It discusses the challenges that remain and
suggests areas for further investigation. The conclusion also highlights the significance of DC-
DC converters in advancing power electronics and contributing to energy efficiency.
References
Liu, Junfeng; Wu, Jialei; Qiu, Jianyong; Zeng, Jun (2019). Switched Z-Source/Quasi-ZSource
DC-DC Converters With Reduced Passive Components for Photovoltaic Systems. IEEE
Access, 7(), 40893–40903.
Kapat, Santanu; Mandi, Bipin; Patra Amit (2015). Voltage-mode Digital Pulse Skipping
Control of a DC-DC Converter with Stable Periodic Behavior and Improved Light-load
Efficiency. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, (), 1–1.
Sha, Deshang; Chen, Deliang; Zhang, Jiankun (2017). A Bidirectional Three-Level DC-DC
Converter with Reduced Circulating Loss and Fully ZVS Achievement for Battery
Charging/Discharging. IEEE Journal of Emerging and Selected Topics in Power Electronics,
(), 1–1.
Qi, Xianbin; Wang, Yi; Fang, Mingzhu (2020). An Integrated Cascade StructureBased Isolated
Bidirectional DCâ ”DC Converter for Battery Charge Equalization. IEEE Transactions on
Power Electronics, (), 1–1
Jianwu Zeng;Xia Du;Zhaoxia Yang; (2021). A Multiport Bidirectional DC–DC Converter for
Hybrid Renewable Energy System Integration . IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, (), –
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Zheng, Yanqi; Ho, Marco; Guo, Jianping; Mak, Ki-Leung; Leung, Ka Nang (2015). A Single-
Inductor Multiple-Output Auto-BuckBoost DC-DC Converter with Auto Phase Allocation.
IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, (), 1–1.
Lu, Yan; Ki, Wing-Hung; Yue, C. Patrick (2015). An NMOS-LDO Regulated

SwitchedCapacitor DC-DC Converter with Fast Response Adaptive Phase Digital Control.
IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, (), 1–1.
Tan, Longcheng; Wu, Bin; Yaramasu, Venkata; Rivera, Sebastian; Guo, Xiaoqiang (2016).
Effective Voltage Balance Control for Bipolar-DC-Bus Fed EV Charging Station with Three-
Level DC-DC Fast Charger. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, (), 1–1.
Marco Liserre;Felix Hoffman;Thiago Pereira; (2021). Multiwinding-Transformer-Based dcdc

Converter Solutions for Charging Stations [Technology Leaders] . IEEE Electrification
Magazine, (), –.
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Power Quality Analysis of AC-DC Controlled Rectifiers Fed DC Separately Exited Motor
Drive
Harihara
Dept. of EEE, Karpagam Academy of Higher Education, Coimbatore
Abstract
The power quality analysis of a single phase different AC-DC controlled converter fed
separately excited DC motor drive at different load and firing angle operating conditions is
presented in this article using the MATLAB/Simulink software platform. In addition, the
proportional integral (PI) controller is used to control the speed of the DC motor drive. The
Ziegler Nicholas tuning method is used to obtain the PI controller parameters. This work
considers single phase semi, full, and dual converters for this power quality analysis study. The
output voltage, rms output voltage, distortion factor, displacement factor, power factor, output
voltage/current ripple, and torque ripple are used to evaluate the performance of various
converter fed DC drives with PI controllers. Finally, in power quality analysis, understand the
impact of the controller and design for it.
Keywords: DC drive, AC-DC converter, PI controller and current controller, MATLAB, Power
quality analysis.
1. Introduction
The integration of electric motor drives into various industrial applications has become
increasingly essential in modern society. These drives are instrumental in controlling the motion
and speed of mechanical systems, making them critical components in a wide range of
applications, from manufacturing and transportation to renewable energy systems. One important
consideration when dealing with motor drives is the quality of power supplied to and consumed
by these systems. In this context, power quality analysis is of paramount importance, as it
ensures the smooth operation of the motor drive and the overall electrical system [1-4].
1.1 Background
The focus of this study is the power quality analysis of an AC-DC controlled converter
feeding a DC separately excited motor drive. To understand this topic, it's essential to provide
some background information. In the realm of electric drives, there are two primary categories:
AC drives and DC drives. DC motor drives, once ubiquitous, have seen a decline in usage with
the emergence of more advanced AC motor drives, thanks to their efficiency and maintenance
advantages. However, DC drives still find their applications in various industrial systems due to
their excellent speed control characteristics and high-performance capabilities. The separately
excited DC motor is one of the most versatile and precise machines in this category [5-7].
In pursuit of the aforementioned objectives, this study will employ a multi-faceted
methodology. It will involve simulation using software tools like MATLAB/Simulink and
hardware experiments on a tested setup. Real-world data collection and measurements will be an
integral part of this research. The analysis will be complemented by an extensive literature
review, which will provide the foundation for understanding the theoretical aspects and existing
research in the field.
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2. Literature Review
The literature review section delves into the existing body of knowledge related to power
quality analysis in the context of AC-DC controlled converters feeding separately excited DC
motor drives. This section is vital for understanding the current state of research, identifying gaps
in the literature, and establishing the theoretical framework for the study. It will cover various
aspects of power quality, converter technologies, motor drives, and related control techniques.
The following sub-sections provide a glimpse of what the literature review will encompass [1-5].
2.1 Power Quality Analysis

Power quality is a multifaceted concept that involves various electrical parameters,
including voltage, current, and frequency. It is characterized by the absence of disturbances or
irregularities in these parameters. Power quality issues can manifest in several forms, including
voltage sags, swells, interruptions, harmonics, and transients. These issues can have detrimental
effects on the performance of electrical systems and the equipment connected to them. The
literature review will explore the fundamental principles of power quality analysis, its
importance in industrial applications, and the standards and guidelines that define acceptable
power quality levels [6].
2.2 AC-DC Converters

AC-DC converters play a crucial role in electrical systems as they facilitate the
conversion of alternating current (AC) into direct current (DC). The choice of converter topology
has a significant impact on power quality. The literature review will discuss various types of AC-
DC converters, such as diode rectifiers, thyristor-based converters, and more advanced
technologies like voltage source inverters (VSIs) and current source inverters (CSIs). It will
delve into the operational principles of these converters, their advantages, disadvantages, and
their suitability for different applications [6-7].
2.3 Separately Excited DC Drives

DC motor drives are known for their precise control of speed and torque. The separately
excited DC motor is a prominent member of this category, featuring a separately excited field
winding. The literature review will provide insights into the working principles of these motors,
their advantages, and the typical applications in which they are employed. The control
techniques for separately excited DC motors will also be explored, including armature voltage
control, field flux control, and their combination [1-2].
2.4 Interaction between Converters and Motor Drives

One of the key focuses of this literature review understands the interaction between AC-
DC converters and DC motor drives. When an AC-DC converter feeds a DC motor drive, the
quality of power supplied can have a profound impact on the motor's performance. The review
will address issues such as voltage fluctuations, harmonics, and transient effects, which may
arise in this interaction. It will also explore the challenges associated with maintaining stable
power quality in such systems.
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3. Working AC-DC Converter fed DC motor drive

3.1 Single-Phase Semi Converter fed separately Excited DC Motor
Fig.1 Circuit diagram Fig.2 Mode diagram of 1Ø half controlled rectifier with RLE load
Figs. 1 and 2 depict a single phase semi-converter bridge made up of two thyristors and three
diodes. T1, T2 are the two thyristors; D1, D2 are the two diodes; and freewheeling diode FD is
the third diode connected across load. Thyristor T1 is forward biased after t=0 only when the
source voltage Vs exceeds E. T1 is thus triggered at a firing angle delay Vs > E. When T1 is
turned on, the load is connected to the source via T1 and D2.For the period ωt=α to π, load
current Io flows through RLE, D2, source and T1 and the load terminal voltage Vo is equal to
Vs. Soon after ωt=π, load As the ac source voltage changes polarity, the voltage Vo tends to
reverse, and the FD becomes forward biased and begins to conduct. T1, D2, and FD transfer the
load current. T1 is turned off at t=+ because it is reverse biased after t=+ via FD. After t=, T2
will be forward biased only when the source voltage is greater than E during the negative half
cycle. When the source voltage exceeds E., T2 is triggered. Soon after (+), FD is reverse biased
and thus turned off, and the load current shifts from FD to T2, D1. At t=2, FD is forward biased
once more, and the output current Io is transferred from T2, D1 to FD [3, 6].
Quadrant operation: Because it is a semi-converter, there is no voltage reversal on the output
side, and the current is also maintained in the positive direction only, so this drive will only
operate in the first quadrant.
3.2 Single Phase Full Converter fed DC Drives
Figs. 3 and 4 depict a single phase full converter bridge made up of four thyristors. When T1
andT2 are gated, these thyristors will be activated only if Vs>E. Thyristors T1 and T2 conduct.
Forward biased thyristors T3, T4 are activated. Natural commutation occurs when the supply
voltage turns off T1, T2, and the load current is transferred from T1, T2 to T3, T4. T3, T4
thyristors conduct. Because both Vs and Is are positive during to, power flows from ac source
to load. When Vs is negative but Isis is positive during the interval to (+), the load returns
some of its energy to the supply system [3, 6].
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Fig 3 Circuit diagram Fig.4 Mode diagram of full controlled rectifier with RLE load
3.3 Single Phase Dual Converter
Fig..5 Dual Converter Equivalent Circuit

A single-phase dual converter is an electronic device used for bidirectional control of
power in single-phase AC circuits (fig.5). It can convert AC power into DC power and vice
versa. The basic operation of a single-phase dual converter involves using two controlled
thyristor bridges in antiparallel to control the power flow in both directions [3,6].
Here's a simplified explanation of how a single-phase dual converter works:
Components: Two thyristor bridges (also known as controlled rectifiers), AC source
(single-phase supply), Load (typically a DC motor or other DC load), and Control circuitry to
trigger the thyristors.
Operation:
Rectification (AC to DC Conversion):
 During the positive half-cycle of the input AC voltage, one of the thyristor bridges
conducts. The thyristors in this bridge are triggered into conduction based on the control
signals.
 The controlled thyristors allow current to flow from the AC source to the load, rectifying
the AC voltage into DC voltage.
 The direction of current flow depends on which bridge is conducting.
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Inversion (DC to AC Conversion)

 During the negative half-cycle of the input AC voltage, the other thyristor bridge
conducts.
 The thyristors in the second bridge are triggered in such a way that they generate an
inverted AC voltage across the load.
 This allows the current to flow in the opposite direction, effectively converting the DC
voltage back into an AC voltage.
Control
 To control the output voltage or current, the firing angle of the thyristors in both bridges
is adjusted by the control circuitry.
 By varying the firing angle, the conduction angle of the thyristors is controlled, and,
consequently, the average output voltage and current can be controlled.
Bidirectional Power Flow
 By controlling the firing angles of the thyristors, you can determine whether power flows
from the AC source to the DC load (rectification) or from the DC load back to the AC
source (inversion).
 This bidirectional capability is useful in applications where energy needs to flow in both
directions, such as in regenerative braking systems for trains or in controlling the speed
of DC motors.
Fig.6 Quadrants of operation of dual converter fed DC motor drive
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4. MATLAB/Simulink Implementation and Simulation Results Discussion
Table 1 DC Motor Specifications

Description Value Unit
Rated voltage 110 V
Rated current 20 A
Power 2.5 Hp
Rated speed 1800 Rpm
Armature resistance (Ra) 1 
Inductance (La) 0.046 H
Field resistance (Rf) 281.3 
Field inductance (Lf) .156 H
Field armature mutual inductance (Laf) 0.9483 H
Inertia Constant (J) 0.093 Kg-m2
Friction coefficient (B) 0.008 N-m sec / rad
Back emf and torque constant (Ka) 0.55 V sec / rad
Table 1 show the simulated specification of DC motor drive.
5.1 Single phase semi converter
Fig.8 Simulation diagram Open Loop Single Phase Semi Converter fed DC Drives
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Fig.9 Simulation diagram Open Loop Single Phase Full Converter fed DC Drives
5.2 Open Loop Single phase full converter
Figs. 8 and 9 show the MATLAB/Simulink model of the single phase converter fed DC motor
drive in open loop mode.
5.3 Closed Loop Single phase full converter
Fig.10 General schematic diagram of single phase rectifier fed dc drive
A closed-loop single-phase full converter is an electronic device used for controlling the power
flow in single-phase AC circuits. It utilizes thyristor-based switching elements to convert AC
power into variable DC power with precise control. In a closed-loop system, feedback
mechanisms, such as sensors, measure the output variables (voltage and current) and provide this
information to a controller [8-11]. The controller adjusts the firing angles of the thyristors to
maintain desired output characteristics, ensuring stability, accuracy, and efficient operation.
Closed-loop control allows for precise regulation of DC voltage or current, making it suitable for
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applications like motor drives, battery charging, and power quality improvement in single-phase
AC systems (fig.10).
5.3.1 Single phase Dual converter
Fig 12 Simulation diagram for single phase open loop Dual converter
Fig.13 MATLAB/Simulink model of single phase dual converter in open loop mode.
Fig.14 Simulation Waveform of Open Loop Single Phase Semi Converter fed DC Drives
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Fig.14 Simulation Waveform of (a)Open Loop Single Phase (b)Full Converter fed DC Drives
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Fig.15 Simulation Waveform of Closed Loop Single Phase Full Converter fed DC Drives
Fig.16 Simulated waveform of Open Loop Single Phase Dual Converter fed Dc Drive
Fig. 13, 14, 15 and 16 show the simulated response of converters fed DC motor drive in both the
open and closed loop operation. From, these results it is found that, controller performed well in all
the operating conditions. Fig 17, 18, 19 show THD analysis of different converters.
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Fig 17 FFT for Single phase semi converter
Fig 18 FFT for Open Loop Single Phase Full Converter
Fig 19 FFT for Closed Loop Single Phase Full Converter
6 Conclusions
The operating modes of different types of converter fed dc drives are studied. The dynamic
performance of the converter fed DC motor drive has been evaluated. The simulation model and
analysis are carried out using MATLAB/Simulink. The performance of different converter fed dc
drives is studied with open and closed loop. The performance indices or power quality analysis are
also evaluated for single phase converters fed dc drive.
References
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[1] Austin Hughes, “Electric motor drives fundamental types and applications”, Third Edition 2006.Pg
No – 133 to 154.
[2] Gopal K.Dubey, “Power semiconductor controlled drives”, Second Edition. Pg no – 72 to 101.
[3] Muhammad H Rashid, “Power Electronics, circuits, devices and applications”, Second Edition
Prentice-Hall of India, 1994.Pg No 648 to 652.
[4] R.Krishnan, “Electric motor drives modeling analysis and control”, Original Edition 2010.Pg no 36
to 51.
[5] R.Itoh and Ishizaka,”Single phase sinusoidal rectifier with step up-step down characteristics,”IEE
proc. Nov.1991.
[6] M.H.Rashid, Power Electronics: circuit, device, and application, 2nded. Englewood cliffs, NJ:
prentice hall-1993.
[7] W.M.Grandy, M.J.Samotyi,”Survey of active power line conditioning methodologies,” IEEE
Trans. Power delivery. July 1990.
[8] Arunkumar, T.S. Sivakumaran, K. Ramash Kumar, “Improved performance of linear quadratic
regulator plus fuzzy logic controller for positive output super lift Luo-converter”, Journal of
Electrical Engineering, Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 397-408, 2016.
[9] K. Ramash Kumar, S. Jeevananthan, “PI control for positive output elementary super lift Luo
converter”, World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 130-135,
2010.
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Supra-harmonics Mitigation from

Photovoltaic using Active Filters
1st A.Subramaniya Siva 2nd Dr.S.G.Rameshkumar 3rd Dr.K.Dhayalini

Department of Electrical Department of Electrical Department of EEE
Engineering Engineering K.Ramakrishnan College of
FEAT,Annamalai FEAT,Annamalai Engineering Samayapuram,
University University Trichy, India
Chidambaram,Tamilnadu, Chidambaram,Tamilnadu, dhaya2k@gmail.com
India India
npksiva.ss@gmail.com sgrramesh@gmail.com
4th S. Arun
Department of EEE
K.Ramakrishnan College of
Engineering Samayapuram,
Trichy, India
arunselvam1214@gmail.com
Abstract— The integration of photovoltaic (PV) systems into the power grid has witnessed
significant growth in recent years due to the increasing demand for clean and sustainable
energy sources. However, the proliferation of PV systems has raised concerns about the
presence of supraharmonics in the grid, which can adversely affect the performance of
connected electrical devices. Supraharmonics are high frequency harmonic components
beyond the typical harmonic spectrum, often associated with power electronic converters used
in PV inverters. This research focuses on the mitigation of supraharmonics originating from
photovoltaic systems using active filters. Active filters, based on advanced control algorithms
and power electronics, offer an effective solution to suppress unwanted harmonic components
and maintain the quality of the grid. The study investigates the characteristics and sources of
supraharmonics in PV systems, emphasizing the need for robust mitigation techniques. The
proposed active filter is designed to dynamically detect and eliminate supraharmonics, ensuring
compliance with international power quality standards. The control strategy involves real-time
monitoring of the grid voltage and current, enabling the active filter to inject compensating
currents that cancel out the undesired supraharmonic components. The effectiveness of the
active filter is evaluated through simulation studies and practical implementation on a
representative photovoltaic system. Development of an active filter system with advanced
control algorithms capable of detecting and mitigating supraharmonics in real-time. It
contributes to the advancement of power quality management in photovoltaic system
addressing the emerging challenges associated with supraharmonics. Utilization of simulation
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tools and practical experiments to validate the performance of the proposed active filter under
various operating conditions
Keywords—component, formatting, style, styling, insert (key words)
I. INTRODUCTION
Supraharmonics, which refer to frequencies beyond the conventional harmonic range,

have emerged as a significant concern in power systems. This research, published in IEEE
Access, focuses on the identification, standards, and measurement techniques associated with
supraharmonics. The authors explore advanced methods to detect and quantify these non-
standard frequencies, shedding light on the challenges they pose to power grid stability and
equipment reliability.[1] Diagnosing supraharmonics-related problems in electrical equipment
is a crucial aspect of ensuring the reliability and performance of power systems. The study of
Alfalahi et al. (2021) sheds light on this intricate process, emphasizing the impact of
supraharmonics on electrical equipment. Supraharmonics, characterized by frequencies beyond
conventional harmonics, can induce adverse effects on various components within the power
grid. These effects manifest as increased stress on transformers, resonances in capacitor banks,
and potential overheating of power cables and conductors.[2]A review of power quality
challenges and state‐of‐the‐art mitigation techniques" critically examines the integration of
renewable distributed generation (DG) systems into the electrical grid, emphasizing power
quality challenges and mitigation strategies. Published expertise in IEEE Access, the study
explores the growing integration of renewable energy sources like solar and wind into
distribution networks and the associated impact on power quality. The authors provide an
insightful review of the challenges posed by these grid-integrated renewable DG systems,
including issues related to voltage fluctuations, harmonics, and transient disturbances.
Furthermore, the paper discusses the state-of-the-art mitigation techniques and technologies
designed to enhance power quality in the presence of renewable DG sources.[3] Beyond the
conventional Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) algorithm, the exploration of advanced techniques
becomes imperative for analyzing harmonics within the frequency range of 2 kHz to 500 kHz.
In this frequency domain, where non-standard harmonics, known as supraharmonics, are
prevalent, traditional methods may fall short. The research conducted beyond the FFT
algorithm aims to overcome limitations and enhance accuracy in detecting and characterizing
harmonics in this extended frequency spectrum. Sophisticated signal processing techniques,
such as wavelet transforms, Prony analysis, and higher-order spectral analysis, are gaining
prominence for their ability to provide detailed insights into complex harmonic structures.[4]
The deployment of fast charging stations for electric vehicles introduces a unique set
of challenges in the context of harmonic distortion, encompassing both low and high-order
harmonics. As electric vehicle fast chargers draw significant power from the grid, they can
contribute to low-order harmonics, such as the 5th and 7th harmonics, [5] The induced
primaryemission and induced secondary emission within the frequency range of 2 to 150 kHz
are influenced by a multitude of factors. Primary emissions in this frequency range are
typically associated with power electronic converters, and their intensity is influenced by the
design and operation of these devices.. On the other hand, induced secondary emissions are
often a result of interactions between the primary emissions and the surrounding environment.
[6] Power quality enhancement is a paramount consideration in the integration of distributed
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generation (DG) into electrical grids, and Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) stands out as a
promising tool in achieving this goal. The paper explores the application of PSO in
optimizing the operation of DG systems to mitigate power quality issues. By dynamically
adjusting the parameters of DG units, PSO aims to minimize voltage fluctuations, harmonic
distortions, and improve overall grid stability. The optimization process in PSO involves
iteratively adjusting control variables based on the collective behavior of a swarm of
particles.[7] Mitigating supraharmonics in microgrids and electric vehicle (EV) charging
stations is a critical concern to ensure power quality and system reliability. The use of
multilevel converters has emerged as an effective solution to address supraharmonic issues in
these contexts. These converters, with their ability to synthesize output voltages with multiple
voltage levels, provide enhancedharmonic mitigation capabilities. By leveraging the multilevel
converter technology, microgrid and EV charging station operators can actively control the
voltage output, minimizing [8,9] supraharmonic content and reducing potential detrimental
effects on the power system. This approach not only enhances power quality but also
contributes to the seamless integration of renewable energy sources and the growing
electrification of transportation. The adoption of multilevel converters represents a
sophisticated and adaptable solution to the unique supraharmonic challenges in microgrid and
EV charging station environments, aligning with the increasing need for sustainable and high-
quality power distribution systems.[10]
II. SYSTEM MODEL
In low-voltage (LV) and medium-voltage (MV) grids, supraharmonics (SH) have become
increasingly prevalent as a result of the growing use of technologies that produce distortion in
the 2-150 kHz range. The negative impacts of SH that are taken into consideration include light
flicker, auditory noise, LV residual current devices (RCDs) tripping, and MV cable termination
failure. Researchers and field engineers who are dealing with SH-related issues will find this
work interesting; it also acts as a roadmap for future investigations.
Fig:1 Block diagram of the proposed system
A. PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
A solar cell, also known as a photovoltaic cell (PV cell), is an electrical device that uses
the photovoltaic effect to directly convert light energy into electricity. [1] It's a type of
photoelectric cell, which is an apparatus that changes its electrical properties (such voltage,
current, or resistance) in response to light. Single solar cell units are frequently used as the
electrical building blocks of photovoltaic modules, sometimes referred to as "solar panels"
informally. The maximum open-circuit voltage that a typical single-junction silicon solar cell
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can generate is between 0.5 and 0.6 volts. Photovoltaic cells can run on artificial light or
sunlight. Besides generating energy, they can also be employed as photodetectors (like infrared
detectors), picking up light or other electromagnetic radiation that is close to the visible
spectrum, or taking measurements.
Fig :2 Circuit diagram of photovoltaic cell
Fig :3 Simulink diagram of photovoltaic cell
B. BOOST CONVERTER
The term "boost" refers to a converter where the output voltage is higher than the input
voltage. Below is a boost converter that makes use of a power MOSFET. There are two modes
to the boost converter's operation: Mode 1 and Mode 2. When transistor M1 is turned on at
time t=0, mode 1 starts. The input current increases as it passes through transistor M1 and
inductor L. Transistor M1 is turned off at time t=t1 to initiate mode 2. At this point, the input
current passes through diode Dm, load, L, and C. Until the following cycle, the inductor current
decreases. The load is subjected to the energy stored in inductor L. An inductor is linked to the
input voltage source
.
Fig :4 Circuit diagram of boost converter
The switch-functioning solid-state gadget is linked across the source. A diode is the
second switch that is employed. The Boost converter is viewed as the constant current input
source since the induct or connected input source produces a constant input current.
Furthermore, the load can be thought of as a steady voltage source. As seen in the above
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diagram, the diode is linked in parallel with a capacitor, the load, and both.
Fig :5 Simulink diagram of boost converter

Pulse Width Modulation is used to turn the controlled switch on and off (PWM). PWM
has two possible bases: frequency and time. One of the drawbacks of frequency-based
modulation is that it requires a large range of frequencies to operate the switch in a way that
produces the correct output voltage. For DC-DC converters, time-based modulation is most
commonly utilised. A boost converter can regulate the DC link voltage, ensuring a stable and
controlled output. A Proportional-Integral (PI) controller can be employed to adjust the duty
cycle of the boost converter. The PI controller maintains the desired DC voltage level by
continuously adjusting the on-time of the switch. Instabilities and supraharmonics in a PV
system can be attributed to variations in the DC voltage level. By employing a boost converter
with a PI controller, the DC voltage is regulated, reducing the likelihood of supraharmonics in
the AC output.
C. ACTIVE FILTER
High-Frequency Components beyond Harmonics in Active Filters, when designing
active filters, the typical focus is on fundamental frequencies and harmonic components.
Harmonics are multiples of the fundamental frequency and are often the primary concern in
filtering applications. Supraharmonics, in contrast, represent frequencies higher than harmonic
frequencies
Fig 6. Simulink diagram of second order low pass filter
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To get sinusoidal current and voltage, the low pass filter is connected to the inverter
module's output. Low pass filter design is dependent on a number of variables and formulas.
First, in the output stage, there is a second order LC low pass filter. Passive low pass filters in
inverter systems are often built with a cut-off frequency between 500 and 1500 Hz. The filter
is configured with a cut-47 off frequency of 1 kHz. The inductance is roughly equal to 0.003H.
12Ω for the resistance, 0.003H for the inductor, and 6.8µF for the overall filter parameters. The
filter's ultimate cut-off frequency is 1.1 kHz.
D. PI CONTROLLER
Combining the functions of the integral controller (I) with proportional controller (P)
yields the PI controller. Figure displays the PI control system as a block diagram. The error
signal (E(s), control signal (U(s), output response signal (C(s), reference signal (R(s),
disturbing signal (D(s), and transferring signal of the system Gp(s) and Gc(s) make up the PI
controlling system. The following equation expresses the PI controller's theoretical function:
Fig 7. PI controller
Although it lacks stability, the four-phase interleaved boost converter system has a quick output
response. The benefits of the PI controller are less stable mistakes and quicker response times.
As a result, using a PI controller for this system makes perfect sense. As seen in Fig., the design
of the PI controller uses PSO search to control the voltage of the four-phase interleaved boost
converter in order to determine the value of the PI controller for the circuit
Fig 8. Control system of PI controller
E. SUPRAHARMONICS USING PI CONTROLLER

Using a Proportional-Integral (PI) controller to mitigate supraharmonics in a power
system involves employing a control algorithm that dynamically adjusts the operation of the
active filter to achieve effective harmonic suppression. Here's a breakdown of the work
principles involved. The proportional term responds to the current error between the reference
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(desired) and actual currents. The active filter output is directly proportional to the
instantaneous value of the supraharmonic current. The integral term accumulates the historical
error over time. It ensures that even small, persistent errors lead to corrective action over time.
Measure the current at the point of common coupling (PCC) or the location where the active
filter is connected. Use sensors or current transformers to obtain real-time current waveforms.
Analyze the current waveform to identify the supraharmonic frequencies. Fourier transform or
wavelet analysis can be employed for frequency domain analysis. Develop a mathematical
model of the power system, considering the dynamics of supraharmonics. Include the transfer
function of the active filter in the model. Tune the parameters of the PI controller based on the
characteristics of the supraharmonics and the system dynamics.
Fig 9. Simulink diagram of PI controller
F. PWM GENERATING PULSE

The Generating pulse for PI controller. PWM used to varying the width of pulses in a
train of constant amplitude pulses. PWM is a technique where the duty cycle of a square wave
is adjusted to control the average power delivered to a load. In the context of a PI controller:
The PWM duty cycle is adjusted based on the proportional error, The integral term helps
eliminate steady-state errors over time By using PWM in a PI controller achieve a fine level of
control over the output, regulating it in response to both immediate errors (proportional) and
accumulated errors over time (integral).
Fig 10. Supraharmonics current and voltage
III. RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
The input waveform of Supraharmonics current and voltage.

This waveform is obtained from the solar pv panel which is dc converted into ac by
inverter circuit to filter through low pass filter to suppress the supraharmonics.
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Fig 11. Waveform with error
Fig 12. Waveform without error
Fig :13 Output of FFT window in red
The FFT analysis is to reveal the frequency components present in a signal. FFT (Fast
Fourier Transform) analysis transform a signal from its time domain representation into its
frequency domain representation. X axis represent time y axis represent module.
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Fig:14 Output of TSHD
The output of TSHD which shows the THD analysis is to quantify the distortion present in a
signal using THD analysis to assess the quality of a signal. Total Supraharmonic Distortion
(TSHD) in a system is the sum of all these supraharmonic distortion components across the
frequency spectrum nonlinear loads can generate supraharmonic distortion that extends beyond
the traditional harmonic frequencies. TSHD is a measure of the total impact of these higher
frequency distortions. It's often expressed as a percentage or in decibels relative to the
fundamental frequency.
IV. CONCLUSION
When integrating power-electronic converters into the electrical grid, which are
thought to be the essential technologies of EVs, smart meters, and RES, harmonic distortions
are produced that cause serious problems. In conventional grid-commutated power-electronic
converters, undesirable harmonic in the <2 kHz region would be produced. By reducing these
discrete low-order harmonics, power-electronic converters using PWM signals with high
switching frequencies can achieve the appropriate output voltages and currents. Numerous
studies have lately reported various problems related to the power system's power quality as a
result of these supraharmonics. Moreover, additional nearby devices are being impacted by the
propagation of SH. Future research on reducing SH and enhancing power quality in electrical
systems would benefit from the above ideas and proposals, especially with the integration of
RES, which is anticipated to increase significantly in the near future. Based on the findings of
this study, more research may be conducted to address the shortcomings of the current SH in
order to define potential norms and avoid SH. To mitigate using FFT analysis the
supraharmonics TSHD is reduced using active second order filter. The simulation modelled
using MATLAB in between the rang of 2KHz to 3KHz.
REFERENCES
[1]. Alfalahi, S. T. Y., Alkahtani, A. A., Al-Shetwi, A. Q., Al-Ogaili, A. S., Abbood, A., Mansor,
M., & Fazea, Y. (2021). Supraharmonics in Power Grid: identification, standards, and
measurement techniques. IEEE Access, 9, 103677–103690.
https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2021.3099013
[2]. Espín-Delgado, Á., Rönnberg, S., Letha, S. S., & Bollen, M. (2021). Diagnosis of
supraharmonics-related problems based on the effects on electrical equipment. Electric
Power Systems Research, 195, 107179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2021.107179
[3]. Bajaj, M., & Patel, A. (2019). Grid integrated renewable DG systems: A review of power
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quality challenges and state‐of‐the‐art mitigation techniques. International Journal of
Energy Research, 44(1), 26–69. https://doi.org/10.1002/er.4847
[4]. Shadmehr, H., Chiumeo, R., & Belloni, F. (2018). Beyond FFT algorithm in analyzing
harmonics at frequency range of 2 kHz to 500 kHz. Int. Conf. Harmon. Qual. Power
(ICHQP. https://doi.org/10.1109/ichqp.2018.8378868
[5]. Basta, B., & Morsi, W. G. (2021). Low and high order harmonic distortion in the presence
of fast charging stations. International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems, 126,
106557. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2020.106557
[6]. Sutaria, J., Rönnberg, S., & Espín-Delgado, Á. (2023). Factors influencing the induced
primary emission and induced secondary emission in the frequency range of 2 to 150 kHz.
Electric Power Systems Research, 224, 109725.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2023.109725
[7]. Siva, A. S., & Pavithra, V. (2022). Power Quality Enhancement in the Integration of
Distributed Generation using Particle Swarm Optimization. 2022 3rd International
Conference on Electronics and Sustainable Communication Systems (ICESC).
https://doi.org/10.1109/icesc54411.2022.9885685.
[8]. Siva, A., Kumar, S., & Dhayalini, K. (2023). Supraharmonic mitigation in microgrid and
electric vehicle charging station through multilevel converter. Indonesian Journal of
Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, 32(3), 1309.
https://doi.org/10.11591/ijeecs.v32.i3.pp1309-1317
[9]. Vijayalakshmi, S., Sundararaju, K., Siva, A. S., & Subramanian, A. (2023). Electric vehicle
charging station modelling using FOH approximation and material selection based on
temperature. Materials Today: Proceedings, 77, 394–400.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.10.163
[10]. A. Bracale et al., "Harmonic and Supraharmonic Emissions of the Electric Vehicle
Chargers in Distribution Networks," 2023 International Conference on Clean Electrical
Power (ICCEP), Terrasini, Italy, 2023, pp. 883-888, doi:
10.1109/ICCEP57914.2023.10247358
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Fast filter Based Noise Removal in Digital Images

K. Elavarasi, Dept. of EEE,
Karpagam Academy of Higher Education
Abstract— Images play a major role in today’s world. It provides a lot of information in
the field of medicine in diagnosing the disease, removing the defected area and also in
traffic observations, surveillance systems, navigation etc. Often images are corrupted by
noise due to various factors which cannot be avoided. Image denoising is done to detect
the corrupted pixels and then correct them by the original pixel of the image. Filtering
techniques are applied in images to filter out various types of noise. In this paper fast
filters including mean, median, minimum, maximum, background subtraction are
employed for removing the noise in images. ImageJ platform is employed for obtaining
the results.
Keywords- Fast filters, noise removal, mean, median, background subtraction, ImageJ
I. INTRODUCTION
Digital images are prone to a variety of types of noise. Unlike analog cameras, digital
cameras work with a sensor instead of film. Sensors receive light and process it into electric
charge through tiny photo diode whose outputs are reflected as pixels in final digital image.
These electrical charges tell the sensor what color each corresponding pixel is meant to be
and other information which will create the digital image. A Each square of the image
sensor matrix is a photo site, usually with one light sensor painted on it. A photo site
generally corresponds to one pixel in your digital image. When light strike the image
sensor, electrons are produced. These photoelectrons give rise to analog signals which are
then converted into digital pixels by an Analog to Digital (A/D) Converter. Noise is the
result of errors in the image acquisition process that result in pixel values that do not
reflect the true intensities of the real scene. Image noise is occurred during the process of
capturing of images transmission of images acquiring of images. It is the digital equivalent
of film grain for analogue cameras. Noise increases with the sensitivity setting in this
camera, length of the exposure, temperature and among different camera models. Image
denoising involves the detection of corrupted pixels and then corrects them by the original
pixel in the image. The main objective behind these techniques is to suppress noise while
preserving important features of the image.
All standard paper components have been specified some results [1] it deals with the use
of adaptive filter to identify pixels which are likely to be contaminated by noise and the
image is restored using a specialized regularization method that applies only to those
selected noise candidates. [2] it presents a new efficient algorithm for removal of impulsive
noise from corrupted images while preserving the details and is based on the alpha-trimmed
mean, which is a special case of the order statistics filter only for impulsive noise detection
instead of pixel value estimation [3] it presents a new nonlinear non iterative
multidimensional filter, the peak and valley filter for impulsive like noise reduction based
on order statistics and a minimal use of background information [4] it is based on the
minimum absolute value of four convolutions obtained using one dimensional laplacian
operators [5] it deals with a soft- switching noise-detection scheme to classify each pixel
to be uncorrupted pixel, isolated impulse noise, non-isolated impulse noise or image object’s
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edge pixel, standard median(SM) filter is developed fuzzy weighted median (FWM) filter
will then be employed according to the respective characteristic type identified [6] it deals
with a class of signal dependent noise models it is uniquely defined by the variance of the
zero mean random noise and by the gamma exponent which rules the dependence of the
signal. Our paper is organized as follows, in section II noise and filtering techniques
including mean, median, background subtraction, minimum, maximum are summarized,
section III deals with the methodology implanted for noise removal, section IV shows
results and discussion, Section V presents the conclusion.
II. NOISE AND FILTERS

Noise is an unwanted signal or degradation in an image signal caused by external
disturbance during the transmission of image from one place to another place through
satellite, wireless and network cable. There are a number of sources of noise
contamination. Heat generated might free electrons from the image sensor itself thus
contaminating the "true" photoelectrons. These "thermal electrons" give rise to a form of
noise called thermal noise or dark current. Another type of noise is more akin to the 'grain'
obtained by using a high ISO film. When we use a higher ISO, we are amplifying the
signal we receive from the light photons. Unfortunately, as we amplify the signal, we also
amplify the background electrical noise that is present in any electrical system. In low light,
there is not enough light for a proper exposure and the longer we allow the image sensor to
collect the weak signal, the more background electrical noise it also collects. In this case
the background electrical noise may be higher than the signal. Digital cameras produce
three kinds of noise in common they are random noise, fixed pattern and banding noise.
Some random noise is identified by the intensity and the color fluctuations slightly high
and low than the actual image intensity. Banding noise is considered as camera dependent,
this type of noise occurs when it reads data from the digital sensor. Speckle noise is those
modeled by random values multiplied by the pixel values of an image. Periodic noise looks
like noise in appearance where signal gets subjected to a periodic, apart from a random
disturbance. The two type of noise to be removed is discussed below:
1. Salt and Pepper noise:
Salt-and-pepper noise is a form of noise sometimes seen on images. This is also

known as impulse noise which is caused by sharp and sudden disturbance in the image
signal and its appearance is randomly scattered pixels either black or white over the image.
It presents itself as sparsely occurring white and black pixels. The noise is caused by errors
in the data transmission. The corrupted pixels are either set to the maximum value (which
looks like snow in the image) or have single bits flipped over. In some cases, single pixels
are set alternatively to zero or to the maximum value, giving the image a `salt and pepper'
like appearance. Unaffected pixels always remain unchanged.
2. Gaussian noise:
It is caused by random fluctuation in the signal. It is modeled by the random values

added to an image. A type of statistical noise that is having a probability density function
equal to that of the normal distribution which is indicated as Gaussian distribution. The
values at any pair of times are identically distributed and statistically independent. Sources
like poor illumination high temperature leads to Gaussian noise. In other words it is called
ideal filter because it reduces the magnitude of high spatial frequencies in an image
proportional to their frequencies trying to reduce the magnitude of higher frequencies more.
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III. METHODOLOGY
The following sequence of operation is carried out in removing the noise. The basic
image processing including image enhancement is performed to restore the original
operations are performed in the image initially and filtering technique is applied to those
images in effectively removing the noise. First an RGB image has been converted to an 8 bit
gray scale image ranging from 0 to 256. Image enhancement technique is applied to obtain a
clear image and then it is filtered.
Original Input Image (noise image)
Image Preprocessing (Image

enhancement, Gray scale image)
Filtering operation (Median, Mean,

Background subtraction, Maximum,
Minimum)
Output filtered image
Fig: 1: Sequence of Operations
a. Image Preprocessing:
Every digital image is preprocessed before it is used for further operation. This
operation is performed before all others. It generally increases the reliability of an
optical inspection. During image acquisition it is often degraded by several factors
preprocessing involves correction, distortion and noise introduced in the image. It is
lowest level of abstractions whose ultimate aim is the improvement of the image data
that suppress degradation and noise.
b. Median filter:
Median filtering is one kind of smoothing technique, as is linear Gaussian
filtering. All smoothing techniques are effective at removing noise in smooth patches
or smooth regions of a signal, but adversely affect edges. It is important to reduce the
noise in a signal and to preserve the edges. Edges are of critical importance to the
visual appearance of images. In this type of filter the current pixel is replaced by the
mid element of its neighboring pixel. The pixel is replaced with the median of pixel
within a window centered at that pixel. In case built in median the weight of border
pixels is the same as those inner pixels. The main idea is to smooth the rough areas in
scanned images that have a grainy appearance. It simplifies the colors or shades in an
image by reading the brightness of adjacent pixels of noise and averaging out the
differences.
c. Mean filter:
Average over n*m pixels, in this the out of the image pixel gets replaced by the
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nearest border pixel. It is image averaging and the value at a pixel is the output which is
set to the average of values within a circular window centered at the pixel in the input.
While performing average the window size is used to determine the neighborhood size.
d. Background subtraction:
Background subtraction includes background from minima and background
from maxima. It does not output the result of the filter operation but rather the original
image minus the result of filter operation plus an offset. The offset is needed except for
32-bit float images to keep the result in the range of the image type. (8- bit grayscale
and 8- bit/channel RGB). Subtract filtered often results in a high pass filter with median
it highlights outliers, with the minimum and maximum filters. Subtract filtered is a kind
of edge detection and with other filters it provides various types of background
subtraction.
e. Minimum filter:
In case of minimum filter, the current pixel will be replaced by minimum pixel
value of its neighboring pixels. It is minimum over n*m pixels and enhances dark
values in the image by increasing its area. The darkest pixel then becomes the new pixel
value at the center of the window. It assigns each cell in the output grid the minimum
value in a moving window centered on each grid cell which is essentially an erosion
operation.
f. Maximum filter:
In this type of filters the current pixel will be replaced by maximum value of
its neighboring pixel. It is maximum over n*m pixels, makes the lighter pixels larger
and shrinks the darker ones. The Maximum filter enhances bright values in the image
by increasing its area. Similar to a dilate function each 3x3 (or other window size) is
processed for the brightest surrounding pixel. That brightest pixel then becomes the
new pixel value at the center of the window.
Fig: 4: Image J platform

III Results and Discussion
A test input image is taken here for processing. Initial preprocessing operations are
done in the image. First step involves the conversion of an RGB(color) image into an 8-bit
gray scale image which will be used for filtering operation. Salt and pepper noise and
Gaussian noise is applied to the images. ImageJ platform (powerful image analysis
platform) is used for removing the noise in the image. Fast filters including mean, median,
minimum, maximum, background subtraction is applied to the noisy images and the result is
produced. The output image is compared with the original 8-bit image after noise removal.
The above images show the filtered output obtained using the fast filters. From the
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output image we can infer that Median filter is used effectively in removing the salt and
pepper noise and Gaussian noise when comparing to the other filters. It processes the image
in the running window with specified radius and the transformation makes the target pixel
luminosity equal to the mean value in the running window. In case of mean filters as the
window size is increased, more noise is removed, but at the same time the image is blurred
more. The maxima and minima outputs show the darkest and brighter pixel in the image.
All these filters have effectively removed the noise.
Fig: 2: Original Image Fig: 3: Gray image (8-bit)
Fig: 5: Salt and Pepper noise Fig: 12: Gaussian noise
Fig: 6: Mean filter Fig: 13: Mean filter (G)
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Fig: 7: Median filter Fig: 14: Median filter (G)
Fig: 8: Minimum Filter Fig: 15: Minimum Filter (G)
Fig: 9: Maximum Filter Fig: 16: Maximum Filter (G)
Fig: 10: Background Minima Fig: 17: Background Minima (G)
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Fig: 11: Background Maxima Fig: 18: Background Maxima (G)
IV Conclusion
In this paper we have discussed the removal of both noise (salt and pepper, Gaussian
noise). Apart from median and mean filter additional four filters have been used for
removing the noise which shows a better resolution of images. Simulations results for
both noise shows promising performance especially edges are preserved and uniform
regions have been smoothed. However, in case of minimum and maximum filters further
improvisation in future will lead to a better noise removal.
REFERENCES
[1] R.H.Chan and C.W.Ho and M.Nikolova,”Salt-and-pepper noise removal by median

type noise detectors and detailpreserving regularization”IEEE Trans.Image
Processing,Vol.14,No.10,pp,1479-1485,oct.2005
[2] W.Luo, “An efficient detail-preserving approach for removing impulse noise in
images”, IEEE Signal Process.Lett.v13 i7,pp.413-416.
[3] P.S.Windyga, ”Fast impulse noise removal,” IEEE Trans.Image Processing,
vol.10,pp.173-179, Jan,2001
[4] S.Zhang and M.A.Karim, “A new impulse detectorfor switching median filters,”
IEEE Signal Processing Lett.,vol.9,pp.360-363,Nov 2002.
[5] H.l.Eng and K-K.Ma,”noise adaptive soft switching median filter,” IEEE Trans.Image
Processing,vol.10,pp.242-251,2001.
[6] B.Aiazzi,L.Alparone, and S.Baronti, “A robust method for parameter estimation of
signal-dependent noise models in digital images,” in Proc,IEEE Int.conf. Digital
Signal Processing, 1997,pp.601-604.
[7] T.Chen, K.K.Ma,L.H.Chen, Tri-state median filter for image denoising, IEEE
Trans.Image Processing,8,pp.1834-1838,1999.
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An IoT Based Deep Learning Model for Betel Leaf Disease Detection
S.THILAGAMANI KAVITHRA T KAYALVIZHI D LAVANYA R

Department of Computer Science and Engineering
M.Kumarasamy College of Engineering
Karur, Tamilnadu , India -639 113
sthilagamani11@gmail.com
Abstract— Diversity in ecosystems and ecological equilibrium depend on the health of trees.
Timely intervention and mitigation efforts can be facilitated by the early diagnosis of illnesses
affecting the leaves of betel trees. In order to diagnose the illness from photos of betel leaves,
this research surveys many machine learning and deep learning techniques. This review
suggests a unique deep learning-based method for predicting tree diseases. It employs the
VGG16 convolutional neural network architecture and analyses high-resolution photos of tree
leaves to identify whether they are disease-free or diseased with a particular illness. The
process involves compiling a sizable dataset of pictures of tree leaves from different species
and disease kinds. Data preparation methods including picture scaling, normalization, and
augmentation are employed to increase the model's resilience and generalization. The
pretrained VGG16 model is utilized for feature extraction, with the top layers customized for
the job of tree disease prediction. The suggested model undergoes rigorous training and
validation procedures in order to enhance its performance. Metrics including accuracy,
precision, recall, and F1 score are used to evaluate the model's performance in classifying
diseases. The objective of the project is to create a trustworthy and effective tool that will
enable environmentalists, foresters, and arborists to promptly diagnose and cure problems
affecting trees. The results of this study offer a scalable and automated method for early tree
disease identification, which advances environmental monitoring and precision agriculture.
The study also explores possible real-world applications, supporting sustainable practices for
the preservation of global ecosystems.
Keywords: Agriculture, Betel leaf-based disease prediction, Model selection, Deep learning,
Machine learning
I. INTRODUCTION
The vitality and health of trees and plants are essential to agricultural productivity,
environmental harmony, and food security in horticulture and agriculture. Early diagnosis and
control of plant and tree diseases is one of the most challenging tasks facing producers and
arborists. The "Tree Leaves-Based Disease Prediction" technology was created as a solution
to this problem. This state-of-the-art tool examines the fine characteristics of tree leaves using
machine learning and image processing, perhaps leading to the quick and precise diagnosis of
illnesses. Through the analysis of visual clues offered by the leaves, such as discolouration,
malformations, or lesions, this technique holds the possibility of giving early warnings, precise
diagnoses, and actionable suggestions for disease treatment. In this age of agricultural
innovation, this strategy re presents a ray of hope for farmers, foresters, and environmental
stewards working to preserve the health of our crops and forests, eventually paving the way
for a more resilient and sustainable future for agriculture and ecosystems. This paper explores
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the methods, advantages, and possibilities of disease prediction using tree leaf data,
illuminating a game-changing approach that has the potential to completely change how we
safeguard our agricultural and arboreal environments. The fundamental flow diagram for
disease prediction based on tree leaves In Fig. 1, a convolutional neural network is used.
Fig. 1. Deep learning model for betel leaf disease prediction
II. RELATED WORK

Jiangchuan Fan, et.al,…[1] Research on detection technologies has received a lot of
interest. The goal of plant phonemics research is to use genome-wide sequencing to do high-
throughput quantitative investigations on particular genotypes of significant phenotypic
characteristics. Furthermore, via carefully controlled examinations of phenotypes and
genotypes, these phenotypic characteristics comprise not only morphological data but also a
plethora of physiological and biochemical data, as well as deeper mechanistic data, enabling
scientists to find and predict heritable features. Currently, the great majority of food on the
planet is still produced on fields. Therefore, the main focus and hotspot for next breeding and
plant yield research will be on plant phenotypic detection techniques and methodologies in the
field. Additionally, research on the relationship between plant phenotype and environmental
perception mechanism, development of visual data mining technology, integration of 5G
technologies, and improvement of the structural degree of big data in plant phonemics are all
important. These efforts will result in a wonderful presentation of the real-time visual mining
results of the plant phonemics big data cloud. Reveal the principles governing plant genetics
and variety, expedite the integration of massive data from several revolutions in various
ecological zones, and enhance agriculture's overall competitiveness and capacity for
autonomous innovation.
Shrikrishna Kolhar, et.al,…,[2] studied and assessed the uses, advantages, and
drawbacks of many imaging methods for plant phenotyping. While CFIM, thermal imaging,
and hyperspectral imaging are beneficial for detecting physiological plant features, digital
colour imaging is excellent for determining structural plant traits. MRI and X-ray CT imaging
are used to phenotypic plant roots. In order to measure illness symptoms that visual RGB
imaging is unable to, imaging modalities outside of the visible band are also employed. Three-
dimensional imaging is used to identify a holistic and component phenotype. Time series
photos may be used to monitor the emergence of reproductive organs, leaf emergence,
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germination time, and plant development trends. The segmentation techniques and applications
based on colour, threshold, and learning are compared in this paper. Colour index-based
techniques are commonly employed for plant phenotyping, although they have problems with
shadow and bright light variability. While threshold-based segmentation techniques are
effective in varying lighting situations, they necessitate greater computation time due to the
need to alter the threshold in many phases. Although learning-based techniques are very
accurate, they are complicated because of the several training stages needed for accurate
segmentation. This research also reviews the stateof-the-art machine vision techniques for
plant phenotyping, spanning from deep neural networks to basic image processing algorithms.
Dr. V. Anantha Natarajan, et.al,..[3] Investigated the efficacy of deep learning
architectures for cultivated land pest and disease identification. The suggested system was fed
with a comprehensive dataset of 1090 real-time images of tomato leaves that were affected by
early blight, leaf curl, septoria leafspot, and bacterial spot. The images were captured using
camera devices with 12MP and 48MP resolutions, varied lighting conditions, and all stages of
tomato disease (early, medium, and final). An automated illness diagnosis system based on
deep detectors is suggested: Using a quicker R-CNN with ResNet, farmers may identify
illnesses in tomato plants such as bacterial spot, septoria leafspot, leaf curl, and early blight.
Furthermore, we used the tomato disease dataset described in this study, which comprises 1090
thorough photos of the early, medium, and ultimate stages of tomato disease, to train and
evaluate the suggested system end-to-end phases.
Jingyao Zhang, et.al,…[4] developed an innovative technique that makes use of a deep
convolutional neural network and a minimal sample size to diagnose illnesses of the cucumber
leaf. A two-stage segmentation technique was used to extract the lesion pictures, and it had a
good discriminating capacity to remove disease spots from cucumber leaves with little
assistance from humans. Through the use of the rotation, translation, and AR-GAN procedures,
the excellent training examples were produced. Convolutional layers were added, and the
suggested DICNN showed quick convergence and strong feature extraction. The outcomes of
the trial proved that the suggested technique could successfully detect illnesses of cucumber
leaves. This study looked at a workable way for field agricultural IoTs to promptly identify
plant leaf diseases, which is a very useful application. Future research will focus on improving
our methods for disease identification in more plants and on discovering other varieties of
illnesses affecting cucumber leaves.
Shuiqin Zhou, et.al,…[5] developed an automated process using picture stitching,
automatic segmentation, and trait extraction to support plant salinity tolerance research. The
results of this investigation showed that while salt damages were successfully preserved, the
green channel in RGB colour system and the value channel in HSV colour scheme were useful
in eliminating picture backdrop. Moreover, individual soybean plants may be automatically
separated from photos using the RGB-based vegetation index ExG. The process that was
created was successful in recognising the unique visual characteristics linked to signs of salt
damage in soybean leaves. The results showed that it is possible to distinguish between the salt
tolerances of five genotypes of soybeans that were subjected to salt stress based on their
phenotypic characteristics. Stitched photos taken from the top perspective may be
automatically analysed with this approach. After size and colour calibration, the process may
be modified to analyse more plant species captured by a high-throughput phenotyping
platform. Using this strategy, we were able to analyse the growth process and variance in salt
tolerance while also producing physiologically relevant results at the image and pot levels on
the same day.
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Zhenbo Li et.al,..[6] Give a thorough overview of computer vision-based plant
phenotyping solutions, briefly discuss the advantages and drawbacks of imaging technologies
and analysis techniques from the viewpoints of the plant organ and the entire plant, and then
offer some common processing frameworks and algorithm principles. Found that there is great
potential for automatically assessing and quantifying phenotypes using image-based plant
phenotyping techniques. In example, deep learning significantly streamlines the phenotypic
feature extraction process and enhances plant phenotyping applications. Plant phenotyping is
an intricate and challenging process that requires the development of a multi-domain, multi-
level, multi-scale plant phenotypic database in addition to the usage of hardware devices
(imaging apparatus and phenotyping platforms) for the collection of raw data. Additionally, a
trait identification technology system and bioinformatics technology needs to be created in
order to extract information from vast omics data. The extraction of phenotypes from
photographs is the exclusive topic of this review. Genetic analysis and source phenotyping are
still challenging processes. Must work together to resolve these problems and advance the
process. Additionally, will work with other academic sectors to combine knowledge from other
domains and deliver technically sound solutions that have biological or agronomic importance.
Vemishetti Sravan, et.al,..,[7] The data for this study was gathered using the plant
village database. Three crops— potato, pepper, and tomato—represent 15 distinct disease
classes in addition to healthy classes in the dataset. This work solves the crop disease
classification problem using the ResNet50 model. The last three layers of the Resnet50 model
are swapped out for new ones. By adjusting the ResNet50 model's hyperparameters, including
learning rate, mini-batch size, and epoch count, the entire process was finished. The
classification accuracy of the fine-tuned ResNet50 approach is 99.26%. Before spreading to
all sections of the plant, including plant tissues, leaves, stems, roots, seeds, and leaves, among
other parts, these diseases primarily infect three plant components. Therefore, it is essential to
identify and classify crop illnesses early on in order to stop the spread of diseases that might
harm the entire crop. Disease detection requires greater time and resources when surveillance
is ongoing. By using automatic categorization, these methods can develop a solution to the
problem, saving both money and time.
TABLE I. RELATED WORKS
S.no Ref.no Year Technique Demerits

1 [1] 2021 Support vector machine Computational complexity is high
algorithm
2 [2] 2023 Learning-based Need to develop the accurate machine vision

segmentation Threshold- algorithms for plant phenotyping
based segmentation
3 [3] 2020 Faster R-CNN, Identify the diseases in tomato plants
R-FCN and SSD
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4 [4] 2021 Dilated and Develop the system for disease recognition
inception convolutional of more plants
neural network (DICNN)
5 [5] 2021 RGB based vegetation Time complexity is high

index ExG method
6 [6] 2020 Plant phenotyping Not implement in real time environments

methods based on
computer vision
7 [7] 2020 ResNet50 model Over fitting problem can be occurred
8 [8] 2020 Trichome image Deployment of machine learning algorithms

to improve the accuracy
preprocessing
9 [9] 2020 Image-Based, Organ- Need to collect
Level Plant Phenotyping
large datasets
10 [10] 2020 Convolutional neural Develop the Xception level to improve the
network (CNN)
accuracy
III. BACKGROUND OF THE WORK
Computer vision methods have been used in the current approach and are crucial for
the automated diagnosis of leaf diseases. The computerised identification and categorization
of leaf diseases is essential for preventing plant and leaf infection and for boosting agricultural
productivity. Pre-processing, segmentation, feature extraction and reduction, fusion, and
classification are some of the five steps in the current technique. First, the pictures' noise was
eliminated, and the watershed method was used to identify diseased regions. Feature extraction
(i.e., colour, shape, and texture), feature reduction (i.e., removing redundant features), disease
segmentation using image processing techniques like K-Means, saliency methods, and many
more, and finally classification using machine learning classifiers are some of the crucial steps
that underpin computer vision techniques. Based on hand annotation, K-mean clustering was
utilised to segment the leaf portions. It separates distorted pictures into many groups. An image
element group that is similar when combined yet distinct from the values of other clusters is
called a lone cluster. The input photos are first segmented using the K-means approach. In the
second step, a NN classifier accepts the segmented images. When a smaller dataset is available,
the strategies that came after these phases increase accuracy. Subsequently, characteristics of
form, colour, and texture are taken out of the affected areas and serially combined. The
multiclass SVM classifier is used for the final classification in the end. A monitoring
knowledgebased technique used for detection, sorting, grouping, and regression is called the
SVM. Using the largest hyperplane margin to distinguish between two groups, SVM is simply
a binary linear classifier. A maximum margin hyperplane, which is a hyperplane that has the
largest distance to the nearest data points, offers a decent separation; the larger the margin, the
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less the generalization error. The feature set is not linearly separable in a finite-dimensional
space, even if it may appear there.
IV. TRANSFER LEARNING BASED DISEASE PREDICTION

In this study, we developed a VGG16 convolutional neural network (CNN)
architecture-based system for the prediction of tree illnesses based on photographs of tree
leaves. The creation of a varied dataset of tree leaf photos, preprocessing methods including
augmentation and resizing to improve model performance, and the modification of the VGG16
model for illness prediction are the main goals. Using the pre-trained VGG16 model for feature
extraction and customizing its fully connected layers for the purpose of classifying tree diseases
is the technique. The work underscores the importance of early identification in reducing the
impact of diseases on tree populations and ecosystems, building upon the suggested approach
for tree disease prediction utilizing the VGG16 architecture. The system's ability to recognize
possible illnesses and evaluate a variety of leaf photos from different tree species adds to an
all-encompassing approach to environmental monitoring. Using the generated dataset, the
system goes through extensive training and validation procedures. Its performance is assessed
using important metrics like as accuracy, precision, recall, and F1 score. One of the expected
results is a trained algorithm that can correctly identify whether leaves on trees are healthy or
impacted by particular illnesses. The suggested approach is significant because it has the
potential to facilitate prompt intervention, early diagnosis of tree diseases, sustainable forestry,
and environmental protection. In the end, the project hopes to offer a useful resource for
arbori culturalisms and foresters, utilizing cutting edge technology to tackle the problems
related to preserving the integrity of the world's ecosystems. The suggested work for disease
predictionbased on tree leaves using the VGG16 model is displayed in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2. Proposed work

Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) like the VGG16 model are becoming more and
more popular for use in computer vision applications like image categorization. It was created
by the University of Oxford's Visual Geometry Group (VGG) and participated in the 2014
ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge. The amount of weight layers it has is
indicated by the "16" in its name.
Important features and elements of the VGG16 model include:
A. Convolutional Layers:
To extract features from input pictures, VGG16 has thirteen convolutional layers. Max-pooling
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layers, which down sample the feature maps to provide hierarchical information, come after
these layers.
Fully Connected Layers:
VGG16 contains three fully connected layers after the convolutional layers, and an output
layer for classification comes last. The final judgements about the class of the input image are
made by these completely linked layers.
B. Receptive Fields:
The layers of VGG16 employ comparatively tiny 3x3 convolutional filters. Each neuron in the
design has a very narrow receptive field, which enables it to pick up minute features in the
pictures.
C. Pre-training on ImageNet: The ImageNet dataset, with millions of labelled pictures in
hundreds of categories, was used to pertain VGG16. The model gains a thorough
comprehension of a variety of visual ideas from this pertaining.
D. Transfer Learning: VGG16 is a great option for transfer learning because of its pre-
training. By swapping out the final few layers while maintaining the weights of the pertained
layers, you may fine-tune the model for a particular job, such as brain tumor identification.
E. Deep Network: VGG16 can recognize complex characteristics and patterns in photos
and is rather deep in comparison to its predecessors. But this depth also means that the
computing complexity is raised.
Many image-related applications, such as object identification, picture segmentation,
and medical image analysis, such brain tumor diagnosis, have made extensive use of the
VGG16 model. Despite requiring a significant amount of resources because of its depth, its
design offers a solid framework for developing precise and potent convolutional neural
networks. It is still a useful technique in computer vision and deep learning. User can predict
the betel leaf diseases and show the leaf name in LED display. Finally send alert as SMS to
farmers.
Fig 3: Hardware deployment
V. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Through simulation, the sign facts that are used to gauge the efficacy of the
recommended approach are obtained from key feature datasets. F-measure, Recall, and
Precision are used to assess the system's performance. The ratio of the overall number of
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flawless predictions to the entire quantity of test data is known as accuracy (ACC). Another
way to show it is as 1 - ERR. The accuracy ranges from
0.0 to 1.0, with 1.0 being the best attainable accuracy.
learning model
ACCURACY
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
SVM KNN NAIVES VGG 16
BAYES
Fig 4: Accuracy shows the accuracy for machine learning and deep
VI. CONCLUSION
Finally, the proposed system for betel leaf-based disease prediction using the VGG16
convolutional neural network represents a significant advance in precision agriculture and
environmental monitoring. The incorporation of deep learning techniques, specifically the
VGG16 architecture, provides a powerful tool for early detection of betel leaf diseases. The
system demonstrates the ability to accurately classify leaves as healthy or diseased by
leveraging a diverse dataset of betel leaf images and applying meticulous preprocessing,
including resizing and augmentation. The VGG16 model's adaptability for feature extraction,
combined with the customization of its top layers for disease prediction, improves the system's
ability to generalize across different tree species and disease types.
REFERENCES
[1] J. He, J. Chen, W. Luo, S. Tang and J. Huang, "A Novel High-Capacity Reversible
Data Hiding Scheme for Encrypted JPEG Bitstreams," in IEEE Transactions on Circuits and
Systems for Video Technology, vol. 29, no. 12, Dec. 2019, pp. 3501-3515.
[2] Wu, Hao-Tian, Yiu-ming Cheung, Zhiyuan Yang, and Shaohua Tang. "A high-capacity
reversible data hiding method for homomorphic encrypted images." Journal of Visual
Communication and Image Representation 62, 2019, pp. 87-96.
[3] Ou B and Y. Zhao, "High Capacity Reversible Data Hiding Based on Multiple
Histograms Modification," in IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video
Technology, vol. 30, no. 8, Aug. 2020, pp. 2329-2342.
[4] D. Xiao, F. Li, M. Wang and H. Zheng, "A Novel HighCapacity Data Hiding in
Encrypted Images Based on Compressive Sensing Progressive Recovery," in IEEE Signal
Processing Letters, vol. 27, 2020, pp. 296-300.
[5] Y. Yeung, W. Lu, Y. Xue, J. Huang and Y. -Q. Shi, "Secure Binary Image
Steganography With Distortion Measurement Based on Prediction," in IEEE Transactions on
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Circuits and Systems for Video Technology, vol. 30, no. 5, May 2020, pp. 1423–1434.
[6] Y. Lin and H. Xie, "Face Gender Recognition based on Face Recognition
FeatureVectors,"IEEE 3rd International Conference on Information Systems
and Computer Aided Education (ICISCAE), Dalian, China,
2020, pp. 162-166
[7] F. Chen, Y. Yuan, H. He, M. Tian and H. -M. Tai, "MultiMSB Compression Based
Reversible Data Hiding Scheme in Encrypted Images," in IEEE Transactions on Circuits and
Systems for Video Technology, vol. 31, no. 3, March 2021, pp. 905-916.
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Charging Station for Electric Vehicles Powered by Solar Power
Kavitha1 Dr. B. Sharmila2

Department of Electrical Engineering,
Sri Ramakrishna Engineering College,
Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India.
kavithaduraiswamy@gmail.com
Abstract: Although electric vehicles are generally regarded as clean vehicles, they are not
completely clean, as emissions can also be produced during the generation of electricity. This
paper on a solar-powered charging station for electric vehicles is a working solution to bridge
the gap that a truly renewable and clean vehicle can leave. Today's solar energy ecosystem is
very unstructured and localized. There are about 50 solar power plants in India, but none of
them are interconnected in a way that there is a method to analytically evaluate the solar energy
generated. The aim of this paper is to find a possible method to connect the solar-powered
electric vehicle charging station and perform analytical operations to increase the efficiency of
solar energy.
Keywords: Electric vehicles, Charging station, Solar powered plants, Solar energy.
I. INTRODUCTION
In today’s world, fossil fuel is the power source as it provides energy for automobiles,
airplanes, and it is a used to produce electricity. However, fossil fuel cause environment
problem.In order to solve this problem, there are two paths: first, through designs which
consume less energy and improve fuel efficiency; second through usage of alternative energy
with storage such as hydrogen or battery. Now a days, in the field of automobiles, many
companies have developed commercially available electric cars that consume alternative fuels.
Nevertheless, an electric car or electric vehicle is only as clean as the primary energy used to
power it. That means we also have to look at clean electricity generation if we want to improve
the traffic-based air pollution with electric vehicles.
Figure 1:Solar Electric Charging Station
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Figure 2: Charging Vehicle Through Battery

The base designed is a mobile solar car park roof. Nowadays, there are few solar car
parks which are in the market which are mobile grid-connected solar systems. The system
discussed in this paper is a mobile multifunctional solar charge station that allows direct DC
charging from the solar panel to different vehicle traction batteries. The latest development in
the field of micro-electronics and the Internet of Things gives us the ability to connect the
entire infrastructure to the internet at very low power consumption and cheap price. The main
objective of this project is to decreases the use of fossil fuels and to increase the use of
renewable sources like wind ,solar energy, etc. This Project focus at finding a possible and
viable method to connect the solar powered electric vehicle charging station and perform
analytical operations to increase efficiency of Solar Energy. To build the communication path
betweenthe user and the charge station by using advanced technologies in Embedded System.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
Solar panels and solar energy have been prevailing from a decade along with their
shortcomings. In the recent years, the booms in micro-electronics have made a huge impact in
increasing computational power and cost of embedded electronics. it has become very easy
to produce intelligence to things. Keeping this in mind we have tried to find a probable model
for connecting the Solar Energy system with these micro-electronic systems to give birth to
the Internet of Things. We have designed architecture for connecting the individual solar units
to the internet along with providing them with sensors that can be used to measure their
efficiency. As an overall design these panels become the part of a huge network of panels that
can talk to each other and behave in an intelligent fashion. This would lead to real-time
knowledge about the operations and detect failures in an early stage with the formulation of a
standard data schema we should be able to make more and more devices that communicate
with cloud services without worrying about any proprietary protocol. The Schema would help
us concentrate what on the data is about more that how to send the data. In this manner that
servers also cares less about what format the data is going to come in and dedicate more
processing power towards the analysis and data and learn from the data.Further more and more
algorithms can be formulated to make sense of the data so collected and help in increasing the
efficiency of the solar energy system. Finally, we would state the if the motioned procedure is
followed to setup an analytic system then a very efficient Solar analytics system could be built
at a very low cost and also very high efficiency rate.
III. PROPOSED SYSTEM
Figure 3: Block Diagram

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A prototype module will be develop for the project. It includes particular PCB boards for all
interfaces according to the block diagram. Every PCB will be connected with jumper
wires.Wireless communication GSM is used for sending messages. For demo be about we
used the LDR is used for finding the day/night. A prototype module will be developed for
this project. It includes individual Microcontroller boards for all interfaces according to the
block diagram. Every Components will be interconnected with jumper wires.
1) Solar panels is used for converting the solar energy into electricity
2) GSM is used for communication.
3) For demo purpose two lead acid batteries are used.
4) We are using step down transformers.
HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
This section gives information about hardware components used

A. RENESAS 64-PIN
It has General-purpose register 8 bits × 32 registers (8 bits × 8 registers × 4 banks), ROM 512
KB, RAM: 32 KB, Data flash memory: 8 KB ,On-chip high-speed on-chip oscillator and also
it has On-chip single-power-supply flash memory and On-chip debug function.
Figure 4: RENESAS 64-PIN BOARD

B. LCD
A liquid crystal display is a flat panel display and an electronic visual display, based on Liquid
Crystal Technology. A liquid crystal display consists of an array of little segments that can be
handled to present information. Liquid crystals display do not emits light directly instead they
can use light modification techniques.
LCD’s are used in various range of applications, including computer monitors, televisions ,
instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, signage, etc. They are common in customer
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devices such as video players, clocks, watches, calculators, and telephones.
Figure 5: LCD DISPLAY
C. Solar Panel
A solar panel is a packed, attached assembly of photovoltaic cells. The panels can be
used as a component for a larger photovoltaic cells to generate and supply electricity in
commercial applications. Because a single solar panel can generate only a limited amount of
power, many installations contain many panels. A photovoltaic system commonly includes an
array of solar panels, an inverter, and eventually a battery and interconnection wiring. A solar
cell also called photovoltaic cell or photoelectric cell is a solid state electrical device that
changes the energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect.
Figure 6: SOLAR CELL
D. Crystalline Silicon Modules
Many solar modules are currently generates from silicon photovoltaic cells. These are
commonly classified as monocrystalline or polycrystalline modules.
Figure 8: CHARGING SOLAR PANEL
E. GSM
In the GSM Module SIM900 is a Tri-band GSM/GPRS engine that works on frequencies
EGSM 900 MHz, DCS 1800 MHz and PCS 1900 MHz SIM900 features GPRS multi-slot class
10/ class 8 and supports the GPRS coding schemes CS-1, CS-2, CS-3 and CS-4.
Figure 10: GSM MODULE
F. Battery
The storage battery where electrical energy can be stored as chemical energy and
chemical energy is then converted to electrical energy as when esstential. The converts of
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electrical energy into chemical energy by applicable external electrical source is known as
charging of battery. The conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy for providing the
external load is known as discharging of secondary battery. Throughout charging of battery,
current is passed through it which causes some chemical changes inside the battery. These
chemical changes consume energy during their formation.
Figure 11: 12V, 7AH BATTERY

The relay is an electrically controlled switch. Current flowing through the coil of the
relay generates a magnetic field which attacheda lever and changes the switch contacts. The
coil current can be on or off so relays have two switch positions and nearly have double throw
switch contacts as shown in the diagram. Relays permit one circuit to switch a second circuit
which can be completely different from the first.
Figure 9: SPDT RELAY

G. Transformer
A transformer is a device that carries the electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled conductors. A differing current in the first winding generates a
varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a it flows magnetic field through the
secondary winding. This varying magnetic field a differ electromotive force (EMF) in the
secondary winding. This effect is known inductive coupling.
H. Keypad
The keypad is about 4x4 Matrix Membrane Keypad (#27899) .This 16-button keypad
supplies a functional human interface component for microcontroller systems. appropriate
adhesive backing produce in an easy way to set up the keypad in a different of applications.
SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION
This section gives brief description about software requirements
1) Cube suite + IDE
2) Renesas flash programmer
3) Language: Embedded C
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Figure 9: CUBESUITE SOFTWARE
VI. CONCLUSION
The prototype module developed for the project. It includes individual Renesas
microcontroller board for all interfaces according to the block diagram. Every component will
be interconnected with jumper wires. Wireless communication GSM is used for sending
message. For demo concern we used the LDR is used for finding the day/night. The Renessa
microcontroller placed at the centre forms the control unit for the entire project. A program is
embedded in the microcontroller to take the actions based on the inputs provided to it. The
format in which data is sent across the network and the model in which it is stored and handled
plays a major part in building a scalable application.
REFERENCES
[1] T.M. Razykov, ‘Solar photovoltaic electricity: Current status and future prospects’, Solar
Energy 85 (2011) 1580–1608
[2] Thegaurdian, Web, 2015
[3] S. Chinnammai, ‘An Economic Analysis of Solar Energy’, Journal of Clean Energy
Technologies, Vol. 1, No. 1, January 2013.
[4] A. Garro, ‘Reliability Analysis of Residential Photovoltaic Systems’, International Conference
on Renewable Energies and Power Quality (ICREPQ’11)
[5] ‘Smart Home and Smart Factory Systems’, Microsoft Embedded Conference (2014)
[6] ‘Google Cloud Platform.’ In Wikipedia. The free Encyclopaedia. Wikimedia,

RetrievedJanuary17,2015,from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Cloud_Platform
[7] Fay Chang, ‘Bigtable: A Distributed Storage System for Structured Data’, Google, Inc OSDI
2006
[8] ‘MapReduce.’ In Wikipedia. The free Encyclopaedia. Wikimedia, Retrieved January 17, 2015,
from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MapReduc
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Investigation and Performance Analysis of

Wind Energy Converters
Mrs.S.Sri Ragavi Dr.G.Emayavaramban
Research Scholar,/EEE Assistant Professor/EEE
Karpagam Academy of Higher Education Karpagam Academy of Higher Education
Abstract: This research investigates optimal power electronic converters designed

specifically for wind systems that use Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generators (PMSG).
The full analysis includes the design, evaluation, and comparison of various converters. The
attractiveness of connecting with sustainable energy sources is emphasized, recognizing them
as nature's single source of nearly endless energy. Furthermore, their preference for
renewable energy over fossil fuels is highlighted by the concomitant reduction in pollution.
Power electronics are critical in turning wind energy into electricity, and the use of
converters and inverters allows for the quick and efficient generation of power from these
renewable sources. The study compares various Direct Current (DC) -DC converter
topologies used in wind power generation, such as Buck-Boost Converters (BBC), Cuk
Converters (CC), and Single-Ended Primary-Inductor Converter (SEPIC) converters. The
comparison is based on important performance indicators such as output efficiency and Total
Harmonic Distortion (THD). The significance of selecting the most efficient and ripple-free
converter is highlighted, since doing so can considerably reduce or eliminate the need for
additional filter circuits. The research finishes by determining the optimal converter for the
wind power system, taking total harmonic distortion and efficiency into account. Notably, the
PMSG wind generator under consideration is designed to handle a substantial 24KW 240V
electrical load, highlighting the practical relevance of the research findings in real-world
wind energy applications.
Index Terms– Total harmonic distortion, efficiency, power electronic converters, and wind
power systems
I. INTRODUCTION
Renewable energy technologies make use of renewable resources to provide clean and
plentiful power. They are being researched because of the increasing need to find new ways
to generate power. Renewable sources of energy (RES) are now the major focus of power
production research due to their unlimited potential, ease low environmental effects, and
broad availability. The main problems with RES are its unpredictability and difficulty in
regulating. The inability to generate sufficient energy due to a lack of available electricity, as
well as power that is prone to significant fluctuations in voltage or frequency, are the
problems. Several DC-DC converter types have been created in recent times for use in
energy conversion. A sustainable power-generating hybrid system allows for the introduction
of high-frequency harmonic current into the grid. It might reduce the effectiveness and
lifespan of the system's generators, worsening the overheating problem. This precludes the
use of a DC-DC converter. To reduce this harmonic content, passively input filtering must be
used, which adds complexity and cost to the system. Researching the inner workings of
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energy converters that transform electrical energy into mechanical energy, including BBC,
CC, and SEPIC converters is utilized to couple wind turbines with solar panels. The
suggested converters may work in either solo or parallel mode, and they do not require input
filters to eliminate high-frequency frequency harmonics. To better understand, the structure
of this work considers the following. Phase II involves virtual testing of a wind energy
system fuelled by PMSGs. In Part III, we model and assess power electronics converters
using Generator wind sources.
II. TOPOLOGY STUDY OF CONVERTERS
In the last several years, it has been clear that the layout of a converter has a significant
impact on its performance. CC was the first to point out how having a steady input as well as
an output current affects efficiency positively. For the purpose of offering one example,
reliable sources like [1, 2] offer theoretical and practical data showing that perhaps the
converter seems to be more effective than the flywheel back conversion with input filter
overall duty cycles. Amazing efficiencies [3] were achieved when identical individual parts
were used to perform the very same voltage regulation converting feature. While traditional
freeloading components were taken, efficiencies were obtained when identical physical
components (capacitors, diodes, inductors, and transistors) were used to perform the same
overall voltage conversion function while accounting for typical parasitic elements of step-
down components [4].
A SEPIC is one kind of DC-to-DC converter. Changes inside the transistor's duty ratio
may be used to modulate the SEPIC converter's output [5]. The fact that SEPIC's output and
input voltages are identical is one of the technology's many benefits. When the power is off,
there's no voltage output and a large amount of temporary charge is stored. The Single-phase
full circuits are a substitute for conventional power inverters that are similar to both boost
and buck converters. Issues with drive circuits might arise due to the device's lack of
grounding [6]. The switch may be connected to either the supply or grounding terminals. A
non-inverting BBC has an output voltage with the same polarization as the input power.
While BBC often just includes a single inductor, that number may certainly be higher.
A. BUCK BOOST CONVERTER
Fig. 1 BBC Circuit Configuration
A non-inverting DC-DC BBC uses a single inductor and capacitor to perform the
functions of both a buck and a boost converter. The input voltage will be applied across the
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diode in parallel, and the active switch will be connected across the inductor and diode in
series [7]. In Fig. 1, the output voltage is balanced by connecting a capacitor across the load.
This type of converter is the most popular because of its efficient operating principle while
dealing with non-linear and changing loads. Active switch 1 was activated in conjunction
with the diode during buck mode operation. The diode will remain permanently on unless
switch 2 is activated. When the converter is being used in boost mode, switch 1 is
deactivated. To handle fluctuating and intermittent DC input supply, a semiconductor
interface, such as a BBC, can be implemented into renewable energy systems [8]. The output
polarity may be negative relative to the input DC source, and the output voltage may be
either smaller or greater than the input voltage depending on the application specifications.
By connecting the step-up and step-down choppers in a series, a BBC may be realized. In
static operation, a semiconductor device's transformation ratio is the ratio of its output
voltage to its input voltage. The duty ratio of the active switch and the operating efficiency of
power electronic DC-DC converters with buck-boost topologies have a significant link. In
mode 1, the input current travels through the inductor and the turned-on state, charging the
inductor completely. At the same moment, the capacitor's voltage is released to the load.
When the switch is disengaged, current flows to the diode, capacitor, and load. When the
active switch is turned back on, the energy stored in the inductor is transferred to the
capacitor and the load. When the switch is turned off, the entire current of the inductor is
discharged to the load, completing a full cycle of energy transfer within the BBC [9].
B. CUK CONVERTER
Fig. 2 CC Circuit Configuration
The CC circuit consists of 2 inductors, 2 capacitors, and an active and unregulated

semiconductor switch. Because it produces a voltage smaller than the input voltage, the CC is
an inverting converter [10]. The energy is transmitted from the source to the load via the
capacitor via the active switch and the diode commutation. Inductors, as shown in Fig. 2,
play an important role in the CC circuitry by converting voltage sources into current sources.
When the inductor value is high enough, the current flows in just one direction, eliminating
ripples. Parallel connection of the capacitor to the voltage source will result in considerable
energy loss due to the reduction in output current caused by parasitic resistance. Power loss
and current limitation caused by resistors can be avoided if capacitors are charged by the
inductor currents. Both continuous and discontinuous current modes are supported by the
CC.
SEPIC converters, like BBC, are a form of DC-DC converter that can tolerate a wide
variety of input voltages [11]. The components of the circuit depicted in Fig. 3—two
inductors, two capacitors, and an active switch controller—are employed to reduce noise.
While the magnetic windings of a SEPIC converter are coupled due to their shared core, the
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converter can also function as an uncoupled inductor if the windings are done independently.
When the ON switch is pressed, the DC power source charges inductor 1, and the capacitor
charges inductor 2 in parallel [12]. When the diode is switched off, the capacitor's voltage is
proportional to the supply to the load. When the active switch is deactivated, the inductor
discharges to the load through the diode while the capacitor charges. Duty ratios of the
converter directly correlate to the output voltage [13]. Although a large inductor value can
dampen output ripples, doing so comes at the expense of increased circuit impedances, a
larger than necessary operating area, and a higher price tag. Because of the impedance, the
converter can't work as well.
C. SEPIC CONVERTER
Fig. 3 SEPIC Circuit Configuration
III. MODELLING A WIND ENERGY TRANSFORMATION SYSTEM USING

PARTICLE MESH SUPERCONDUCTORS
The core of a wind power conversion system often resides in a wind farm equipped with
adjustable blade pitch and wind speed settings. This crucial information is harnessed to
regulate the spin of the wind turbine, driving a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator
(PMSG) [14]. The primary objective of the generator is to convert mechanical energy from
the turbine into electrical energy. Importantly, this model is designed to adapt to variations in
wind direction or velocity. The wind energy transformation system is meticulously modelled
using Simulink, a simulation tool that allows for a detailed representation of the dynamics
involved. Fig. 4 illustrates the comprehensive Simulink model, highlighting the integration of
a PMSG generator within the wind energy system.
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Fig.4 Wind energy system modelled in Simulink with a PMSG generator
Several key waveforms are presented to demonstrate the performance of the modelled
system. These include voltage and current waveforms from the wind turbine (Fig. 5 and Fig.
6, respectively), showcasing the electrical characteristics produced during operation.
Fig.5 Wind turbine voltage waveform
Fig.6 Waveform of current from wind turbine
The generated Alternating Current (AC) from the synchronous generator with a permanent
magnet is then subjected to a diode bridge rectifier (Fig. 7). The rectifier serves the crucial
function of converting the AC input into DC, a necessary step in the process of harnessing
electrical power from the wind turbine.
Fig.7 Diode bridge rectifier power waveform
Fig. 8 and Fig. 9 provide insights into the output characteristics of the diode bridge
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rectifier. Fig. 8 illustrates the output voltage waveform, depicting the nature of the rectified
DC, while Fig. 9 showcases the corresponding current waveform.
Fig.8 The output voltage waveform of a diode bridge rectifier.4

Fig.9 Diode bridge rectifier current waveform
IV. MODELLING WIND CONVERTERS POWERED BY PMSG

The following discussion outlines the Simulink models for a BBC, CC, and SEPIC power
electronic converter designed to harness wind energy. Each converter type plays a crucial
role in efficiently transforming the variable and intermittent power generated by wind
turbines through a PMSG.
A. SIMULATION OF BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER

The Simulink models presented here depict the dynamic simulation of wind converters
powered by a PMSG. Here, the focus is on the Buck-Boost power electronic converter, with
Fig.10 illustrating the Simulink model tailored for wind energy applications. The subsequent
figures (Fig.11 to Fig.14) showcase the output waveforms and THD of the BBC. Fig.11
reveals the power waveform, Fig.12 illustrates the current waveform at the converter's
output, and Fig.13 displays the voltage waveform. The comparative analysis of THD
between the BBC is depicted in Fig.14, offering valuable insights into their performance
characteristics.
Fig.10 A Simulink model of a BBC for use with wind energy
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Fig.11 The power waveform produced by the BBC
Fig.12 Current waveform at the output of a BBC
Fig.13 The voltage waveform produced by the BBC
Fig.14 THD at the output compared between BBC
B. SIMULATION OF CUK CONVERTER

Here we give attention to the CC, with Fig.15 representing the Simulink model designed
for wind energy integration. The ensuing figures (Fig.16 to Fig.19) detail the output
waveforms and THD analysis of the CC. Fig.16 captures the output power waveform, Fig.17
outlines the current waveform, and Fig.18 illustrates the voltage waveform. Fig.19 provides a
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comprehensive THD analysis of the CC's output voltage, enhancing our understanding of its
performance in the context of wind energy conversion.
Fig.15 A Simulink model of a CC for use with wind energy
Fig.16 Output Power waveform of CCs
Fig.17 Waveform of the current produced by a CC
Fig.18 Waveform of the voltage produced by a CC
Fig.19 CC output voltage THD analysis
C. SIMULATION OF SEPIC CONVERTE

We conclude the simulations with a focus on the SEPIC converter. The Simulink model is
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represented in Fig.20, and subsequent figures (Fig.21 to Fig.23) present waveforms and
characteristics of the SEPIC converter's output. Fig.20 showcases the current waveform
output, while Fig.21 and Fig.22 illustrate the output voltage waveforms. Fig.23 delves into
the characteristics of the SEPIC power converter's output waveform, offering a holistic view
of its behavior.
Fig.20 SEPIC converter current waveform output
Fig.21 Waveform of the output voltage from a SEPIC converter
Fig.22 Waveform of the output voltage from a SEPIC converter
Table.1: Results of the simulations are discussed in detail
Identifying Most Suitable

Output Total-harmonic- Efficienc
Characteristics of the for Electricity
Voltage(V) distortion (%) y (%)
Converting Device Systems
BBC
269.1 20 89.07 X
CC
271.8 15.5 90.06 X
SEPIC
279.5 13.47 93.2 √
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The table compares three different power electronic converters—BBC, CC, and SEPIC—
each evaluated for usefulness in wind energy systems powered by a PMSG. Output Voltage
(V), THD, Efficiency, and a qualitative assessment of their suitability for electricity systems
are among the features listed.
The Buck-Boost Converter, for example, has an output voltage of 269.1 V, a THD of
20%, and an efficiency of 89.07%. It is marked with an 'X,' indicating that it is not applicable
to electrical systems. Despite its moderate THD, the Buck-Boost Converter performs well,
giving it a viable solution for some applications.
The CC has a 271.8 V output voltage, a 15.5% THD, and a somewhat greater efficiency of
90.06%. It is marked with an 'X,' as is the Buck-Boost Converter, to indicate its compatibility
with electrical systems. The lower THD and somewhat better efficiency of the CC make it an
appealing alternative, particularly in cases where minimizing harmonic distortion is a
priority.
With an output voltage of 279.5 V, the lowest THD at 13.47%, and the maximum
efficiency at 93.2%, the SEPIC Converter stands out. It is denoted by a √, indicating its high
appropriateness for electrical systems. The better efficiency and lower harmonic distortion of
the SEPIC Converter make it the most appealing of the three converters, providing a balance
of high performance and cleaner power output.
The table below displays the simulated results obtained.
V. CONCLUSION
Significant research has been devoted to evaluating the effectiveness of various power
electronic converters in wind power plants, with a particular emphasis on BBC, CC, and
SEPIC converters. In an open-loop system, this component closes the simulation phase for
the power electronics converter by maintaining a constant wind energy angle. The open-loop
system's voltage and current waveforms were analyzed using a MATLAB simulator in the
simulation. In terms of overall harmonic currents and efficiency within wind energy
generating systems, comparative studies across the three converter topologies demonstrate
that the SEPIC converter outperforms both the BBC and the CC. SEPIC converters
outperform Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator (PMSG)--based renewable power
generating systems in terms of overall harmonic distortion and efficiency. These findings
highlight SEPIC converters' potential as a preferred choice for optimizing the performance of
power electronics converters in wind energy applications.
REFERENCES
[1]. L. Szabo, K. A. Biro, C. Nicula and F. Jurca, “Useful Simulation Tool for Induction
Generators Used In Wind Power Plants” IEEE Conference on Clean Electrical Power
(ICCEP). Page(s) 574-579; 21-23 May 2007.
[2]. G. L. Johnson, “Wind Energy Systems” Electronic Edition, Manhattan (USA), 2004.
[3]. Chen Wang, Liming Wang, Libao Shi, and Yixin Ni, “A Survey on Wind Power
Technologies in Power Systems” IEEE World Wind Energy Association (WWEA). World
Wind Energy Report 2008 (Germany). Available at http//www.WWindEA.org
[4]. http://www.windpowerindia.com
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[5]. Yi Zhang and Sadrul Ula, “Comparison and evaluation of three main types of wind turbines”
IEEE PES, Vol. 1, Page(s):1-6 April 2008.
[6]. J. G. Slootweg, H. Polinder, and W.L. Kling, “Dynamic modeling of a wind turbine with
doubly fed induction generator” IEEE PES, Vol. 1, Page(s):644 – 649, July 2001.
[7]. Wei Quio and Roland G. Harley, “Effect of grid-connected DFIG wind turbines on power
system transient stability” IEEE PES, Vol. 1, Page(s):1-7, July 2008.
[8]. Henk Polinder, Frank F.A.van der Pijl, Gert-Jan de Vilder and Peter J. Tavner, “Comparison
of Driect-Drive and Geard Generator Concepts for Wind Turbines” IEEE Transactions on
Energy Conversion, Vol. 21, No. 3, Page(s):725-733, September 2006.
[9]. Ramkumar, M. S., & Krishnan, M. S. (2014). Power Management of a Hybrid Solar-Wind
Energy System. International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology, 3(2), 1988-
1992.
[10]. Zhenyu Fan and J.H.R. Enslin, “Wind Power Interconnection issues in the North
America” Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exhibition, 2005/2006 IEEE PES,
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DOUBLE INTEGRAL CONTROLLER PARAMETERS FOR SIMULATION

ANALYSIS OF THE POESLLC IN SUPERLIFT LUO CONVERTER
Suresh Kumaar.G
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Karpagam College of Engineering
Coimbatore, India
sureshkumar.g@kce.ac.in
Abstract: In this research paper the output voltage, analysis, design, and inductor current
regulations ripples in enhancing the model of super lift Luo-Converter working under
continuous conduction mode using linear quadratic regulator plus proportional double integral
controller is proposed. Here the time variations switching performance super lift Luo-
Converter and its dynamic characteristics becomes highly complex. In order to enhance the
dynamic characteristics, this converter has offered parameters variation, in output voltage and
inductor regulations. This super lift Luo-Converter is analyzed for PV system based on the
energy sources. The controller parameters of Linear Quadratic Regulator are designed using
the reduced order model of positive output elementary super lift Luo-Converter and its
Proportional Double Integral Controller parameters are derived by Ziegler-Nichols tuning
method. The performance of the Linear Quadratic Regulator plus Proportional Double Integral
Controller is verified at different operating conditions for both developing the
MATAB/Simulink model in comparisons with Linear Quadratic Regulator plus proportional
integral controller. In the simulation results it shows that output voltage in the designed
controller and inductor current regulations are produced under various operating regions.
Keywords: Luo-Converter; a Linear Quadratic Regulator; Ziegler-Nichols tuning
1. Introduction
DC-DC converters, which supplies battery power, are essential for portable electronic
devices like mobile telephones and laptop computers. Such electronic devices often have
multiple sub-circuits, requiring uniquely different voltage rates than the battery supplied (often
higher or lower than battery voltage, sometimes even negative voltage).Therefore, when its
stored energy is exhausted the battery voltage decreases. DC to DC transformers provide a
multiple voltage generation cycle with a single variable battery voltage, which saves space in
order to supply different parts of the system by using multiple batteries.
The classical converter such as buck, boost and buck-boost converters result in parasitic
elements, output voltage and power transfer efficiency. The voltage lift (VL) technique has a
greater extent to cope with the parameter uncertainty problems of parasitic elements and
stability bounds increases the output voltage Super-Lift (SL). The system is better than the VL
technique and can increase the voltage transfer gain by a very large number of techniques. Luo
is a modern DC-DC series of converters with a high voltage transfer rate, high power density;
high performances, reduced rip voltage and electricity. Typically these converters can be
designed in computer peripheral devices, industrial applications and power supplies. The Luo
converter is a positive elementary output super lift converter.
The classical modeling methods namely switching signal flow graph (SFG) and state-
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space averaging are used for high-order complicated switching dc–dc converters topologies.
The design of SFG technique is straightforward method; but the dynamic characteristic is not
enough as the high-frequency components are averaged out in the model.It creates the
controller inappropriate for large-signal dynamic control. With different state-space averaging
techniques resulting current error is fed to derive the converter system.
2. Related Work
The method of Luo Converter Control [1] is derived. The control design
remains difficult for static and dynamic behavior because of the fluctuations compensate for
temperature variations and the switching existence. DC-DC converters typically ensure
stability investigated based on the dc circuits. In addition, a reasonable response is also
required for a typical control system in terms of rejecting load variations, changes in input
voltage and parameter uncertainties. A LQR plus PDIC is therefore designed for enhancing
POESLLC's wide variation of system when the steady state behavior is attained.
Different Modes of Control [2] is presented as a program kind of proportional control.

Application is explained in distinctive LQR fields [3]. Now-a-days, LQR is familiar as
controller/regulator in various applications where some of them are clarified. LQR integrated
fuzzy control for UPS inverters. It is used for controlling shell vibrations in aircraft flight
control. The integral action method for a 3-Phase 3-Wire Shunt Active Power Filter is created.
The liquid level controller is especially used in chemical Industries for the Yaw Control in
Small-scale Helicopter. Average models of controller were carried out in the research work of
converter [4-18].
From the literature surveys, it is understood that the development of control

methodology for the POESLLC is required further study. Therefore, LQR plus PDIC for
POESLLC is designed in CCM for this research work. The state space average model (SSAM)
for POESLLC is derived at first and then LQR plus PDIC is designed. The performance
of POESLLC with developed LQR plus PDIC is determined at variance operating regions
through appropriate choice of the controller parameters. The finest tuning of PDIC parameters
is performed to eliminate the steady state error and excellent start-up response of same
converter despite of line and load variations. The controller coefficient of LQR is obtained by
using SSAM of the POESLLC.
3. Proposed Method
This proposed work presents on the output voltage, analysis, inductor current
regulations and design Luo-Converter designed to regulate higher order power electronic
controller. The methodologies adapted in time varying switching performance Luo-Converter
are series of relatively dynamic characteristics becomes highly complex. In attempt to enrich
the dynamic characteristics, it is necessary to design a Linear Quadratic Regulator plus
Proportional Double Integral Controller, output voltage and inductor regulations. The dynamic
state space be capable of generating a wide range of negative voltages is derived by using state
space averaging method and its model control treats converter as a digital system. The
controller parameters is validated for different perturbations using the reduced order model of
positive output elementary super lift Luo-Converter and its Proportional Double Integral
Controller parameters are derived by Ziegler-Nichols tuning method.
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Fig.1 Positive output elementary super lift Luo converter

3.1 Operation and Modeling of POESLLC
In this design consideration SSAM is used for the design of POESLLC. In Fig.1 the
+ve output elementary super lift Luo converter is shown. It includes power switch (n-channel
MOSFET) S, dc supply voltage Vin, capacitors C1, C2, freewheeling diodes D1 and D2
inductor L1 and load resistance R.In the description of the converter process, it is presumed
that all the components are ideal and also that the +ve output elementary superlift converter
Luo operates in a continuous conduction mode. With reference fig.2 Mode 1 operation when
the switch S is ON. When the switch S is ON, voltage across capacitor C1is charged to Vin.
The current il1 flowing through inductor L1increases with voltage Vin.
Fig.2 Mode 1 operation
Fig.3 Mode 2 operation

3.2 Open Loop Simulation Analysis of the POESLLC
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Fig .4 Open loop simulation for POESLLC
This section is deals about the simulation results of POESLLC in open loop i.e without
any closed loop controller. The MATLAB/Simulink model POESLLC is depicted in Fig. 4.
The simulation specification of POESLLC as follow: switching frequency (fs) =100 kHz, 0.5
duty cycle (d), Inductor (L1) = 100µH, energy transfer capacitor (C1) and output capacitor
(Co) = 30µF and (R) = 50Ω load resistance. This open loop POESLLC output voltage is also
affected by the variation in load due to unexpected change of variation system disturbance. In
general the experts mention this change of system parameters as parasitic effect. One such kind
is load disturbance which viewed in the below with sudden change in load from 50 ohms to 60
ohms. At the voltage output in fig.9 it is disturbed with small overshoot and change in output
voltage.
3.3 Design of LQR for POESLLC
The survival requirements of biological life are very restrictive. During the evolution,
temperature changes of a few degrees destroy entire populations. Since the sources of energy
in the living organisms, like the cell, are very small, many species have adapted so that they
are efficient in an attempt to maintain homeostasis or equilibrium using the least regulated
effort required. The cell will sustain the voltage difference across the membrane required for
survival and proper working with cell membrane implies very little effort in the pumping of
sufficient chemical.
LQR Theorem 1: Control the machine (A, B)

3.4 Weight Matrix Selection
The LQR architecture selects the weight matrix Q and R with a view to meet the
previously mentioned specifications with its output of the closed circuit system. Q and R
selection is weakly linked to the output specification and a certain number of tests and errors
are needed before satisfactory design results can be achieved with an interactive computer
simulation.
3.5 Computation for POESLLC

The ideal control theory requires the process at a minimum cost of a dynamic system.
As tracking function, the time invariable quadratic controller is used. The ROLQR gain matrix
method is determined by choosing R and Q values (weight matrix) appropriately.
3.6 Design of PDIC for POESLLC
Fig.5 Simulation diagram for POESLLC with LQR and PDIC
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Figure 5 demonstrates the proposed ROLQR scheme in which the PDI controller and
ROLQR controller are the outer voltage controller and the inner current controller. The output
voltage is supplied to the PDI controller with the error e1 as compared to the reference
voltage.When the plant is so complex and cannot easily obtain their mathematical model, it is
not possible to evaluate the configuration of a PID controller. The method of choosing control
parameters for the specific performance specifications is called controller tuning (control roller
tuning). We have to take creative approaches to design PID controllers. Nevertheless, over half
of today's industrial controllers use PID or modified PID systems.
Basic PID control schemes have been seen previously using analytic control design
techniques such as root locus, frequency response, pole placement method. PID controllers can
be modified on-site PID controller tuning; this is where the plant's mathematical model is
unknown or cannot be easily accessed and therefore analytic design methods cannot be used.
Numerous forms of tuning rules have been suggested for PID controller parameters.
3.6 Ziegler-Nichols rules for tuning PID controllers

Of course, the tuning rules can be generalized to Ziegler Nichols for plants whose
dynamics are understood. The method of root-locus can be used if the plant has a proven
mathematical model such as a transfer function to measure the critical gain Kcrand the
frequency of oscillations experienced in oscillations whereby2α ̸total. cr = P. cr. For these
values one may find the points of intersection with the imaginary axis of the root-locus
branches. The tuning rules of the Ziegler-nichols have been widely used to modify PID
controllers to be of great use in process control systems.
Form 1: transient response protocol Ziegler- Nichols the procedure is also called open- loop
reaction curve.
4. Results and Discussion

This section briefly describes the implementation of LQR plus PDIC for POESLLC.
4.6 Line Variation
Fig.6 Input voltage changes for POESLLC with LQR and PDIC
The figure shows the line voltage change from 12V to 15V and its respective output
voltage with respect to time interval. It shows that the time interval 0.05s the input voltage
changes from 12V to 15V but the output voltage remains same i.e output voltage.
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Fig 7 Line variation for the POESLLC with PDIC plus LQR
The figure shows the output voltage and output current for the same line variation for
a period of interval. It clearly shows there is no change in output voltage and in case of output
current unexpected sudden change in system line voltage.
Fig.8 Regulated o/p voltage when load changes from 50 to 40 Ohms
4.2 Load Variation
Fig.9 Regulated o/p voltage when load changes from 50 to 60 Ohms
4.3 Circuit Components Variations
Fig 10 Regulated o/p voltage when Co changes from 30 to 80F
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Fig 11 Regulated o/p voltage when L changes

from 100 to 200 H
The fig.10 shows the regulated output voltage when the output capacitance changes
from 30 to 80F. The output voltage and output current does disturb because closed loop
controller is used for a particular line voltage.
Similarly, fig. 11 shows the regulated output voltage for the input inductance changes
from 100 to 200H. Its output voltage and output current does disturb because closed loop
controller PDIC and LQR for POESLLC for a particular line voltage.
4.4 Steady State Region

The designed controller for POESLLC shows a very good steady state response for
the various changes in line voltage and load resistance are depicted in the fig 12 and fig 13
respectively.
Fig 12 Transient responses for various input voltage change
Fig 13 Transient responses for various load change
For a particular line voltage the fig 14 shows o/p Voltage Ripple of 0.015V for
POESLLC with LQR and PDIC for certain time interval. With a resolute range of load
resistance the efficiency is plotted for POESLLC with controller for line voltage 12V with no
circuit parameter variation as shown in fig 15.
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Fig 14 O/p Voltage ripple for POESLLC with LQR and PDIC
Fig 15 %
Efficiency for various load change ofPOESLLC with controller
Fig 16 Input voltage vs output voltage

The input voltage Vs output voltage of POESLLC with controller is depicted in the
above fig 16 which is having negligible overshoot.
4.5 Comparison of SMC plus C and Designed Controller
Table 1 Comparison of SMC plus PDIC and Designed Controller
S.No Description SMC PDIC

1 Line Variation Overshoot of 2.5v Null overshoot
2 Steady state region Overshoot of 0.2v Null overshoot
3 Startup transient 0.02s 0.012s
response
4 Output voltage ripple 0.05v 0.012v
5 Load variation Overshoot of 2v Null overshoot
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The LQR plus PDIC is designed for POESLLC is verified at different operating
conditions. The simulation results are shows that the designed controller produced outstanding
performance at various operating regions in comparison with the classical method
implemented for POESLLC.
5. Conclusion
Using the MATLAB / Simulink platform, design, the research and implementation of LQR
plus PDIC for POESLLC controlled in CCM has been successfully demonstrated. This
simulation results demonstrates that the developed controller provided outstanding output
voltage and current inductor regulations in different operating regions compared to
conventional controllers. Therefore, it is mainly designed for low power application such as
power supply for various medical equipment, communication system, computer hardware parts
and industrial application.
6. References
[1]. F.-L Luo., H .Ye: ‘Advanced DC/DC converters’ (CRC Press and Taylor & Francis Group,
London, NewYork, 2006).
[2].F.L.Luo and H.Ye, “Positive output super lift converters,” IEEE Transaction on power
electronics, Vol.18, No. 1, pp. 105-113, January 2003.
[3]. F.L LUO., “Luo converters – voltage lift technique,” Proceedings of the IEEE Power
Electronics special conference IEEE-PESC’98, Fukuoka, Japan, 17-22, pp. 1783-1789, May.
1998.
[4]. F.L LUO., “ Luo converters – voltage lift technique (negative output),” Proceedings of the
second World Energy System international conference WES’98, Tornoto, Canada, 19-22,
pp.253-260, May. 1998.
[5]. F..LUO; “Re-lift converter: design, test, simulation and stability analysis,” IEE
Proc.Electr. Power Appl., 1998, 145, (4), pp. 315-325.
[6]. V .Biolkova, Z Kolka, D Biolek,: ‘State-space averaging (SSA)revisited: on the accuracy
of SSA- based line-to-output frequency responses of switched DC-DC converters’, WSEAS
Trans. Circuits Syst., 2010, 9, (2), pp. 81–90.
[7]. A Merdassi,, L Gerbaud, S Bacha: ‘Automatic generation of average models for power
electronics systems in VHDL-AMS and modelica modelling languages’, J. Model. Simul.
Syst., 2010, 1, (3), pp. 176– 186.
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An Overview of SynchronizationStability
Enhancement Methods of Voltage Source
Converters
Ponrekha M
Dept. of EEE, Karpagam Academy of Higher Education,
Coimbatore, India ponrekha.manoharan@kahedu.edu.in
Abstract—The growing integration of Renewable Energy Sources into weak grids requires
stable interconnection of voltage-source inverters (VSIs) with weak grids. During severe
voltage sags, weak grid integrated voltage-source inverters may lose synchronization with the
grid. The transient stability of these inverters during severe grid disturbances is vulnerable
and substantially different from that of synchronous machines. Grid-Forming inverters are
highly preferred over Grid-Following inverters to avoid the sideband oscillations in weak
grids. These inverters use power-based synchronization method to synchronize with the grid
so that the instability caused by a standard Phase Locked Loop (PLL) in weak AC grids can
be avoided. This manuscript presents a comprehensive review of the transient stability
improvement of Grid-Forming voltage-source inverters.
Keywords—Voltage-source inverter, grid-forming, transient stability, Current Limitation

Control, weak grid.
I. INTRODUCTION
Conventional power systems use synchronous generators as the grid interfaces which
operate at a speed in synchronism with the frequency of grid. When there is a frequency
change due to the imbalance of power between generation and demand, the synchronous
generators automatically increase or decrease speed according to the grid frequency. This
property of the synchronous generators is called inertia [1], [2]. However, Modern power
systems lack this property because most of the renewable based power generations such as
wind and solar are integrated with the power grid through power electronic converters.
Nowadays, as the synchronous generators are replaced by power electronic converters, the
entire power system becomes inertia-less and imposes challenges on stability and control [3].
The power system stability can be basically classified into two major groups: small-signal
stability and large-signal stability. For the analysis of small signal stability, VSIs are
modelled by using the small-signal linearization methods, and thus linear control theory can
be applied. Several research works have been carried out on the small-signal stability of VSIs
[4]-[9]. Only limited research works have focused on the large-signal stability study. The
large-signal stability problems can be further classified as transient (angle) stability and
voltage stability.
References [10]-[16] focused on the voltage stability analysis under different fault
conditions. Several voltage-stiff control schemes such as Power Synchronization Control
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(PSC), Virtual Synchronous Machine (VSM), and Synchronous Power Controller (SPC) have
been proposed to emulate the dynamic response of synchronous machines to address the
dynamic problems of the grid [17]. Among them, PSC has the advantages of transferring
power between remote points of the grid and better performance in weak grids [18]. The
transient stability analysis of PLL and PSC based VSIs has been addressed by design-
oriented study under large-signal disturbances by means of the equilibrium points and phase
portraits in [18] and [19]. The authors used phase portraits for PSC and to facilitate the design
of power system protection the critical clearing angle has been identified. Virtual
synchronous machines are used to mimic dynamic characteristics of traditional synchronous
generators to compensate for the loss of inertia and reserve capacity. Z. Shuai et al [20]
investigated the transient angle stability of a virtual synchronous generator (VSG) by
Lyapunov's direct method. The authors revealed that the reactive power control loop will
decrease the internal voltage of the inverter during transient and easily drive the system into
instability. Andres Tarraso et al [21] proposed a synchronous power controller to emulate the
inertia of synchronous generator and to control the different distributed generation units
reducing the cost of the power electronic converters. With the increasing integration of
renewable energy sources into the power grid, the study of transient stability problems is
essential.
This paper aims to present a comprehensive review of transient stability improvement
of Grid-Forming voltage source inverters mostly used in renewable power generations. The
different grid-synchronization methods are discussed in Section II. The basics of Grid-
Following and Grid-Forming inverters and the typical control schemes of Grid-Forming
inverters are reviewed in Section III. Then to identify the equilibrium points, static power
transfer limitations are analyzed. This is followed by the transient stability characteristics,
enhancement methods and current limitation control of Grid-Forming inverters in Section IV.
Conclusion is presented in Section V.
II. GRID SYNCHRONIZATION METHODS
A wide variety of grid-synchronization methods are available for power electronic

converter-based Renewable Energy Integration. Basically, the grid synchronization methods
can be classified based on the operating modes of converter as: 1) Voltage-based method and
2) Power- based method.
A. Voltage-based method
This method finds the frequency and phase angle of the point of common
coupling (PCC) voltage of grid-integrated inverters. The estimated phase angle is then used
with the vector current control or direct power control for regulating the real and reactive
power flow in the system. This synchronisation method is also called as the Grid-Following
control, as they follow the phase of grid voltage [22].
B. Power-based method
This method directly reads the phase angle of the PCC voltage by regulating the real
power of the grid-integrated converters. It utilizes the real power-frequency (P-ω) droop
control, which is used by the synchronous machines, to synchronize the inverters with the
grid. To track the generated phase angle of the PCC voltage, the voltage control is required,
which, thus, differs from Grid-Following inverters. Such voltage-controlled inverters are
known as the Grid-Forming inverters [22].
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The transient stability of these two types of grid integration methods is different. It
is reported that the voltage-based synchronization methods, e.g. PLL that is mostly found in
Grid-Following inverters, can cause sideband oscillations around the fundamental frequency
in weak AC grids [23]. Alternatively, the power-based grid synchronization methods, e.g.
PSC used with Grid-Forming inverters can result in sideband oscillations in strong AC
systems [24] and series compensated systems [25].
During large instability such as severe voltage dips, grid faults and sudden loss of a
generation/load, the small-signal analysis will be inadequate to describe the synchronization
dynamics of grid-integrated inverter based resources, since the equilibrium points of the
power system may be altered or even lost in those scenarios. Thus, it is essential to first check
the presence of equilibrium points after the disturbance. Certainly, the inverters will lose the
synchronism with the grid if no equilibrium points are present. However, even if the
equilibrium point is present after the disturbance, the inverters may still lose the synchronism
with the power grid, since the system dynamics may not converge to the stable equilibrium
point, which is highly dependent on the type of grid-synchronization method used [18], [19]
and [26]. The nonlinear systems theory is needed to evaluate whether the system dynamics
can converge to a stable equilibrium point when subjected to large disturbances. It has been
found that the PLL basically introduces a second-order nonlinear swing equation to Grid-
Following inverters, and a voltage-angle curve is resulted instead of the conventional power-
angle curve for the transient stability analysis [18]. In contrast, the Grid-Forming inverters
with the basic droop control can be characterized as a first-order nonlinear system, which can
considerably improve the transient stability [19]. Yet, the reactive power droop control loop
can affect the transient stability of Grid-Forming inverters adversely [27]. Unlike
synchronous generators (SGs), the limited over current capability of power electronic
converters necessitates the use of current limiting control, which imposes another constraint
to the transient stability behavior of Grid-Forming inverters [26].
III. TYPES OF INVERTERS FOR GRID INTEGRATION
A. Grid-Following Inverters
Fig. 1 shows a Grid-Following voltage-source inverter using voltage-based
synchronization method [22]. It act as controlled current source and follows any change in
the voltage and frequency of the grid. Here the vector current control technique is applied.
The Phase Locked Loop plays a critical role in the synchronization of the Grid-Following
inverter. The PCC voltage vector is transformed to the dq-reference frame and the q-axis
voltage is regulated by a proportional + integral (PI) controller. The phase angle of the PCC
voltage is obtained a feedback control loop. The Direct Voltage and the Alternating Voltage
Controls (DVC and AVC) are used in the outer loops to generate the current references i𝑑𝑟ef
and i𝑞𝑟ef for regulating the real and reactive-powers respectively. The magnitude and phase
angle of the current reference can thus be determined, and the vector current control can be
implemented in the inner loop in either the αβ or dq-reference frame. The voltage feed
forward (VFF) control is also used through a low-pass filter (LPF) and applied to the output
of the current control, to improve the dynamic performance of the inverter.
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Figure 1. Block diagram of a Grid-Following inverter [22].

B. Grid-Forming Inverters
Fig. 2 shows a schematic diagram of the Grid-Forming inverter using power-based
synchronization method [28]. In this control method, the active and reactive power outputs of
the Grid-Forming inverter are regulated through the active power control (APC) and reactive
power control (RPC) to produce the phase angle and magnitude of the voltage
reference 𝑉𝛼𝛽𝑟ef . The output voltage of the inverter is regulated by the inner voltage control
(VC) loop and is added with the current control (CC) loop to limit the over current and the
filter (LC) resonance damping. Grid-Forming inverters can synchronize with the grid through
either of the following methods: Power Synchronization Control (PSC) or Droop control or
Virtual Synchronous Generator as shown in Fig. 3. The PLL is not required for grid-
synchronization of the Grid-Forming inverters during normal operation [28]. Unlike the Grid-
Following inverter, a Grid-Forming inverter act as a controlled voltage source. The PSC loop
and the basic droop control loop are similar, and they can be classified as the first-order
power control loops.
(a)
Figure 2. Block diagram of a Grid-Forming inverter [22].
(b)
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(c)
(d)
Figure 3. Typical control schemes for Grid-Forming inverter (a) PSC (b) Droop
Control (c) Droop Control with LPF (d) VSG control [27]
The virtual inertia can be synthesized by adding the LPF into the basic droop control
loop, which has been proven similar to the basic VSG control [29], and they are classified as
the second-order power control loops. Thus, the PSC and basic droop control can be seen as a
special case of the second-order power controls: droop control with LPF and VSG without
virtual inertia, the dynamics of the Grid-Forming inverters can be characterized using a
general second-order power control model [27]. Hence, the dynamics of Grid-Forming
inverter plays a critical role in the transient stability analysis.
TRANSIENT STABILITY OF GRID –FORMING INVERTERS
A. Limitation of static power transfer
During faulty and weakgrid conditions, the synchronization instability will be

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unavoidable when the inverter violates the maximum limit of static power transfer between
the PCC and the grid. This limitation exist for Grid-Following and Grid-Forming control
structures and is an essential stabilitycondition for the presence of equilibrium points in the
power system. The power transfer limitation ensures that the inverter is operating under a
stable equilibrium point [30], [31]. The q-axis component of the PCC voltage, which is used
for synchronization in the Grid-Following inverter can be expressed as
𝑣𝑝𝑐𝑐𝑞 = 𝑉g sin(𝜃g − 𝜃𝑃𝐿𝐿) + 𝐼𝑃𝐶𝐶𝑍g sin(𝜃𝐼 + 𝜑𝑧) (1)
where 𝜑𝑧 is the grid impedanceangle. The PLLmust be able to controlthe q-axis

component of the PCC voltage to zero for stable operation. In the equation (1), the PLL is
able to regulate the first term only and the second term behaves as a destabilizing positive
feedback term in the PLL control. Therefore, when the Short Circuit Ratio (SCR) of the grid
is low (weak grid) or during a severe voltage sag where grid voltageis small, the Phase
Locked Loop may not be able to control the q-axis component of the voltage to zero and
transient instability of the inverter occurs. The condition for stability can be obtained by
equating 𝑣𝑃𝐶𝐶𝑞 = 0 in equation (1).
𝑉g
𝐼𝑃𝐶𝐶 < (2)
|𝑍g sin(𝜃𝐼 + 𝜑𝑧)|
From equation (2), it can be noted that only a limited amount of 𝐼𝑃𝐶𝐶 can be injected
for a given grid voltage magnitude, current injection angle and grid impedance. For only real
current injection (𝜃𝐼 = 0), the injection limit is reduced to the ratio between the voltage
magnitude and the reactance of the grid. However, during faulty condition where reactive
current is often required, the injection limit of current reduces to the ratio between the voltage
magnitude and the resistance of the grid. For Grid-Forming inverters, the active power
output can be calculated as
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The equation (3) can be visualized by the well-known power-angle curve as shown in Fig. 4.
In the power-angle curve, the point a is the stable equilibrium point (SEP) and the point b is
the unstable equilibrium point (UEP) respectively. From the Fig. 4, it is clear that for the
existence of an equilibrium point, the reference power (𝑃𝑟ef ) must be less than or equal to the
maximum amount of real power (𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥) that can be transferred from the Grid-Forming
inverter to the grid.
Figure 4. Power-angle curve

B. Transient Stability Enhancement Methods
During large load generation imbalances and grid faults, the transient instability is
a large threat to the stable and secure operation of the power system. Transient instability is
defined as the inability of the power system to return to its normal operating conditions after
a large disturbance. The large disturbance may occur due to the sudden addition or removal
of the load, switching operations, faults, outage of a transmission line or a generator, etc. The
transient instability may occur in the Grid-Forming inverters during the fault when a stable
operating point does not exist or the dynamics of the synchronization do not have enough
damping to be attracted to the stable operation point. In general, there are three categories of
control methods for enhancing the transient stability of Grid-Forming inverters, which are
summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. Transient Stability Enhancement Methods for Grid-Forming Inverters
Parameters varied Proposal

Reducing the active power reference [20]
Active and reactive
power references Increasing the reactive power reference [33]
Active and reactive power control [36]
Mode- switching control [35]
Control loops or
controller parameters Minimizing acceleration and boosting deceleration [42]
Employing machine learning methods [37]
Moment of Inertia Coordinate the design of virtual inertia and damping term [24]
and Damping Gain scheduled inertia and damping [34]
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Parameters Virtual inertia was utilized to augment the frequency

dynamics.[38]
Complex damping solutions to avoid steady-state characteristics
change [39]
Transient damping to boost the system’s damping ratio [40]
Transient damping through High Pass Filter [41]
C. Control Strategies for Current Limitation
In Grid Forming Inverters, direct control of voltage and frequency is possible, but
the inverter current and fault-ride-through current cannot be limited during transient
conditions. Conventional Synchronous Generators can handle up to seven times their rated
current but the power electronic based inverters can handle only 20 percent of the over
current during voltage sags due to the low current rating of semiconductor switches [43],
[44]. The inverters should be provided with over current precautions and it must be secured
against severe faults such as short circuits, heavy load, line-tripping/reclosing, and voltage
phase jumps. Hence current limitation control is essential during transients. Several control
methods have been developed which are summarized in Table 2.
Table 1. Strategies for Current Limitation Control in Grid-Forming Inverters
Proposal References
Modify outer power references during
[17]
fault
Adaptive parameters for droop control and
[26]
virtual impedance
Switching to a Grid-Following mode [28], [45]
Current limitation through virtual
[46]
resistance
Disabling outer power controls and
current limitation through virtual
[47]
admittance
Enhanced droop control for current

[48]
limitation
Using voltage limits for current limitation [49]
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Creating a current reference within the

[50]
synchronization loop
Using current reference saturation
technique by computing critical clearing
[51]
angle and time
IV. CONCLUSION
This paper has given a comprehensive review of the transient stability of Grid-
Forming inverters widely used in weak AC grids. Limitation on static power transfer,
different transient stability enhancement methods and control strategies for current limitation
are presented. With the increasing use of power-electronic inverters in renewable-based
generations in power grids, the grid code needs to be updated continuously to maintain the
transient stability of grid-integrated converters.
REFERENCES
[1] P. Kundur, “Power System Stability and Control,” New York, USA: McGraw-Hill, 1994.
[2] G. Delille, B. Francois, and G. Malarange, “Dynamic frequency control support by
energy storage to reduce the impact of wind and solar generation on isolated power
system’s inertia,” IEEE Trans. Sustain. Energy, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 931–939, Oct. 2012.
[3] F. Blaabjerg, et al, “Distributed power generation systems and protection,"Proc. IEEE,
vol. 105, pp. 1311- 1331, Jul. 2017.
[4] J. L. Rueda, D. G. Colome, and I. Erlich, “Assessment and enhancement of small signal
stability considering uncertainties,’’ IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 198–
207, Feb. 2009.
[5] X. Wang, F. Blaabjerg, and W. Wu, “Modeling and analysis of harmonic stability in ac
power-electronics-based power system,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 29, no. 12,
pp. 6421-6432, Dec. 2014.
[6] H. Wu et al, “Small-signal modeling and parameters design for virtual synchronous
generators,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 63 no, 7, pp. 4292−4303, July. 2016.
[7] Khazaei J, Miao Z, Piyasinghe L, “Impedance-model-based MIMO analysis of power
synchronization control. Electric Power Systems Research, 154: 341-351, 2018.
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A Study on Energy Management System of Electric

Vehicles
Jayanthi.G, Balachander K
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering,
Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India,
govindarajanjayanthi@gmail.com
Abstract: This study primarily examines the evolution of the Energy Management
System (EMS) in electric vehicles (EVs) and the parts that make it up over different
historical periods. The importance of the battery in an electric vehicle must be discussed in
length while discussing the EMS. In order to supply the necessary power to the electric motor
for transportation, the battery is a crucial component of electric vehicles. Online monitoring
and status estimate of the batteries are crucial for the safe and dependable operation of the
batteries on electric cars. A Battery Management System (BMS) has the ability to accomplish
this.In addition to BMS, control over the best possible power flow between the battery,
converters, and other vehicle components should exist. The term "energy management
system" (EMS) refers to this regulation. The total performance of the vehicle is thus heavily
dependent on this EMS. In order to reduce energy consumption or increase system efficiency,
extend the life of batteries, and create a clean and effective transportation system by
guaranteeing a long product life and a safe driving experience, the design of EMS becomes
increasingly important.
Index Terms – Electric Vehicle, Battery Management System, Energy Management
System.
I. INTRODUCTION
Automobile manufacturers have turned their focus to clean car technology as a

result of growing worries about energy and environmental issues, such as the depletion of fossil
fuels and rising fuel prices and global warming. Because of developments in battery
technologies, Power Electronics Interfaces (PEIs), and control systems, electric vehicles (EVs)
are gaining popularity as a substitute for conventional internal combustion engines. Electric
motors, motor controllers, traction batteries, battery management systems, and plug-in
chargers that can be used independently of the vehicle are the main parts of an electric vehicle.
The communication between the BMS and external components, such as system controllers,
environmental control units, and power inverters/chargers, is its primary duty. Through these
communication connections, users can modify control parameters and obtain diagnostic and
condition information about the BMS. Aside from potential improvements in the composition
and architecture of battery systems, on-board energy management plays a key role in achieving
the required levels of performance, dependability, safety, and affordability. Electric vehicles
become commercially successful as a result. The following areas of this document are
improved: The development of electric vehicles, the types of batteries and battery management
systems that have been developed, the components of the powertrain and their functions, and
the future of battery management systems
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II. HISTORY OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES
The early structure of the electric vehicle was envisaged in 1331 by Italian architect
Guido da Vigevano, setting in motion the historical backdrop of the electric vehicle. Even in
the absence of Leonardo da Vinci invented the first self-moving automobile in 1478[1], hich
was propelled by massive coiled springs housed in cylindrical drum-shaped casings.
Subsequently, in 1828, Hungarian inventor Ányos Jedlik developed a primitive electric motor
and built a tiny model automobile with it [14]. Professor Sibrandus Stratingh developed a
miniature electrical vehicle in 1834 using non-rechargeable primary cells. The identical basic
design served as the foundation for the motors of the first generation of electrical carriages..
Poor efficiency resulted from those motors' cumulated electromagnets, which were
sequentially driven by simple commutators. Because of this, the initial generation of electric
automobiles were not fit for daily usage. Robert Davidson created an electric vehicle in Great
Britain in 1873 using throwaway iron/zinc batteries. However, because to its exorbitant
operating expenses, it was not acceptable for use in contemporary applications. Thomas Parker
debuted an electric automobile with rechargeable lead-acid batteries in 1885. Between 1925
and 1960, the prevalence of Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) automobiles and fuel drove
electric vehicles almost completely extinct.
III. EVOLUTION OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES
Following the dark years (1925–1960), electric cars returned to the market in 1964 under
the name Electrovair-I, as depicted in figure 1. This vehicle has an AC electric drive that runs
on batteries in place of the engine. The power source was made of silver-zinc batteries since
they had a high peak power and good energy storage, but they were expensive and depleted
after 100 recharges. Following the release of Electrovair-I, batteries were the subject of study
and development. The following section has covered the development of batteries.
Fig.1. Electrovair-I
A. Development of Batteries and Battery Management Systems
Following Electrovair-I's release, research and development was done on batteries. Six
165Ah lead-acid batteries and an onboard charger (which allowed the batteries to be
entirely recharged while freewheeling) were features of the 1973 Enfield 8000, a two-
seater battery-electric city automobile. Yet lead-acid batteries' low specific energy,
inadequate performance in cold climates, and brief cycle life drove them to extinction.
Electric vehicles such as Iza also utilised the nickel-cadmium battery. Nevertheless, it was
capable of self-discharge and had a comparatively low energy density. Then, in 1997,
Honda EV Plus launched Nickel Metallic Hydride (NiMH) batteriesDespite having a
higher energy density than lead acid batteries, nickel metal hydride (NIMH) batteries had
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certain drawbacks, including poorer charging efficiency and a self-discharge capacity of
up to 12.5% per day at room temperature, which was made worse by exposure to high
temperatures. Due to their high energy density relative to weight, lithium-ion and lithium
polymer batteries are the most widely utilised battery types in contemporary electric cars.
With a self-discharge rate that is an order of magnitude lower than that of NiMH batteries,
Li-ion batteries are outstanding energy preservers. However, Li-ion batteries also come
with a few disadvantages. The overcharging and overheating of these batteries have
resulted in significant problems. Li-ion batteries are susceptible to thermal runaway, which
can result in explosions or fires in cars.
A Closer Look At The Lithium Ion Batteries Inside Electric Vehicles

i. Cathode Materials
a. LCO stands for lithium cobalt oxide.The commercialization of lithium-ion was made
possible by this cathode material. Cells with low power density, limited cycling ability,
and high volumetric energy density can be created with LCO. Cost will be the main
concern when the cathode is completely composed of cobalt.
b. c. Lithium-iron phosphate, or LFP.The cathode with plenty of iron and phosphate will
have cheap raw material costs. When looking at cost per kWh, LFP is a more expensive
cell because of its intrinsic low voltage and poor energy capacity..
c. Lithium nickel cobalt aluminium oxide, or NCA, is a high-energy cathode substrate.
To improve energy density and reduce cost/kWh, research is currently being conducted to
enhance the nickel content even more. At the same time, less cobalt is being used. Using
NCA is mostly done by Tesla. Tesla is probably going to stick with NCA for its current
development cycle because it's made to be used in a cylindrical cell configuration that
Panasonic provides.
d. The material type of NCM (lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide) varies greatly
because the stoichiometric balance of nickel, cobalt, and manganese depends on it. An
even ratio (sometimes called NCM 1-1-1) is suitable for high-power applications, while
higher concentrations of nickel provide a higher energy density while requiring less cobalt.
NCM will still be the best cathode material choice for all EV manufacturers..
ii. Lithium manganese oxide, or LMO, is similar to lithium fold photovoltaics (LFP)
because of its high electrical output. However, it is not dense in energy. The main issue
with this type of cathode is its low stability.
iii. Anode Materials
Due to their lower cost, greater energy capacity, and lower voltage need than lithium ions,
carbon-based anodes have been the industry standard since Li-ion batteries were first
introduced to the market. Though disruptive technologies like pure lithium and pure silica
anodes have the potential to replace carbon-based anodes as the current standard
technology, they may do so in the nearby future.
Lithium titanate oxide (LTO) anodes charge far faster than other types. A battery cell can
therefore be fully charged in five minutes. These anode's main disadvantages are its low
energy capacity and high initial costs.
B. Development of Battery Management System (BMS)

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i.Technical advancements have been made in electric vehicles since their introduction and
multiple resurgences. Innovation is evident in the development of electric car powertrain
components and battery management systems.
BATTERY BOX
CURRENT SOC
PRESSURE PACK VOLTAGE
TEMPERTAURE
SERIAL
CONTACTOR COMMUNICATION
Fig. 2. Electronic Control Unit Management
After 1991, the ECU management is replaced with Battery Management System (BMS).
ii. Battery Management System (BMS)
The Ford Ranger EV was the sole vehicle for which BMS was developed, and that
was in 1998. This highlights the critical role that the battery management system plays in
managing each cell's heat through active or passive balancing methods, reporting data,
monitoring the battery's state, and maintaining the battery within its safe working range..
An ample BMS shown in figure 3 will include the following functions:
 Predicting the state of the battery.
 Control over charging and discharging of each battery cell.
 Management of cell balancing.
 Thermal management.
 Data acquisition
 Safety protection
 Indication of battery status and authentication to a user
 interface
 Modular Communication among the powertrain components.
 Extended battery life.
III. Electric Vehicle Powertrain

An EV's powertrain is very important. It moves the EV by transferring the motor's
mechanical energy to the wheels. Figure 5 below depicts the powertrain components of an
electric vehicle (EV), which include batteries, dc-dc converters, inverters, and motors.
An electric vehicle's drive system and controls provide the energy for the vehicle. The
electric vehicle is propelled to its drive wheels via a gear box by the motor, which receives
electricity from the batteries and is powered by the controller.
Thus an adaptive controller and robust motors should be designed to improve the
steady state and dynamic performances of the vehicle. The controller operates between
the batteries and motor to convert DC current of battery into AC current for AC motors
and regulate the power flow between them. Hence the controller plays a crucial role in
the functionality of high performance EV with an Subsequently, the intricately designed
BMS was transformed into an intelligent BMS
.
iii. Intelligent Battery Management System
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The necessity of frequent monitoring of vital operating parameters, ensuring
robust communication among all the nodes on all of the control loops within the system,
fast decision making followed by emphatic control and protection machines in EV makes
the researches to design an intelligent battery management system.
The clever power management system and an inventive power-stage component
maximise the battery's lifespan and performance while confirming its safety..
An intelligent battery management system shown in figure 4 consists of
monitoring components close to the battery cells, one or more power-conversion stages
depending on the needs of the vehicle, and intelligent controllers or embedded processors.
These components are placed at strategic locations in the architecture to manage various
aspects of the power subsystem
Fig.4. Intelligent Battery Management System and its components

This type of BMS are gaining attention towards them because of the unique features
like fast decision making under thermal runawayoptimal balance of maximum speed,
acceleration and mileage covered per charge. Also the controller can reverse the direction
of rotation of motor for the reverse movement of the vehicle and makes the motor to act
as a generator, so that the kinetic energy of motion can be used to recharge the battery
when brakes are applied. Controlling and timing the energy fluxes between regeneration
and acceleration is an essential design task to improve the overall system's energy
efficiency. For an EV to ride smoothly and comfortably, an efficient management system
must be designed, since the EV's control parameters vary with time.
V. Selection of Traction Motor
An essential component in the growth of the electric transportation sector is the traction
motor. EVs are not complete without their electric propulsion system. A variety of AC
and DC traction motor types are shown in Fig. 5
EXCITED
FIELD WOUND SQUIRREL PM

ROTOR CAGE
Fig 5.Different types of ac and dc traction motors

The advancement in material sciences, control techniques and optimization of motor
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design offer new motor types with high efficiency and reliability. The selection of electric
propulsion system is based on the following factors like
 Flexible control characteristics.
 Easy and simple starting and braking methods.
 Capacity of producing wide range of torques over wide range of speeds.
 Availability of wide range of electric power.
 Ability to work under any environmental circumstances.
 Absence of vibrating parts.
 Zero emission of exhaust gases.
 Operating in all 4 quadrants of torque –speed plane.
 Starting and acceleration at a very short time.
vi. Energy Management System (EMS) and its significance
Following the development of BMS and powertrain components, a central control system
is required to supply motive power to the area of adhesive friction between a wheel and surface,
similar to that between a vehicle's driving wheel and the road, as well as power to be fed into
and removed from each pack during regeneration. "Energy Management" is the name of this
central control software. This EMS establishes a communication link between each dc-dc
converter and motor to regulate the power flow among powertrain components, as well as a
communication channel with the batteries to ascertain the status of charge of each battery pack.
Bat 1 HIGH VOLTAGE
DC-LINK
MN
CONTROL
CURRENT CONTROL
DC LINK
Bat 2
ENERGY MANAGEMENT
Bat N
Fig 6. Optimal power flow between Energy Management System and powertrain
components
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VII. CONCLUSION
This paper actually presents the literature survey of EVs as EVs will become cost
competitive in all aspects compared to the ICE vehicle. This is of great significance
globally, as EVs will enable reductions in CO2 and NOX emissions, reducing the impact
of vehicles on the environment. Also Energy Management System of EV plays a crucial
role in EV as it increases the battery life, increases the thermal stability of battery and
increases the reliability of powertrain components and functional safety.
REFERENCES
[1] Chong Zhu, Member, Fei Lu, Hua Zhang, “A Real-Time Battery Thermal Management
Strategy for Connected and Automated Hybrid Electric Vehicles (CAHEVs) Based on
Iterative Dynamic Programming”, IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, 2018.
[2] A Comprehensive Study of Key Electric Vehicle (EV) Components, Technologies,
Challenges, Impacts, and Future Direction of Development”Energies, 2017.

[3] Camacho, O.M.F.; Mihet-Popa, L. “Fast Charging and Smart Charging Tests for Electric
Vehicles Batteries using Renewable Energy”. Oil Gas Sci. Technol., 71, 13–25. 2016.
[4] Grunditz, E.A.; Thiringer, T. “Performance Analysis of Current BEVs Based on a
Comprehensive Review of Specifications”. IEEE Trans. Transp. Electr., vol.2, 270–289,

2016.
[5] Aishwarya Pandaya and Hari Om Bansal,“Energy management strategy for hybrid electric
vehicles using genetic algorithm”, Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy, 2016.
[6] Xiaosong Hu, Scott J. Moura, Nikolce Murgovski, Bo Egardt. “Integrated Optimization
of Battery Sizing, Charging, and Power Management in Plug-In Hybrid Electric
Vehicles” IEEE Transactions on control systems, 2015
[7] Sakhdari, B, Azad, N, L, “An Optimal Energy Management System for Battery Electric
Vehicles”, IFAC-48-15 (2015) 086–092.
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Wind -Photovoltaic Cogeneration System
Dr.A.Amudha , Santhana Kumar R , Niyas Ahmed S , Kaviarasan S ,
Department of Electrical and electronics Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Karpagam

Academy of Higher Education Coimbatore- 641021.
ABSTRACT
This paper introduces a new topology, yet simple and efficient, for a grid-connected
windphotovoltaic (PV) cogeneration system. A permanent magnet synchronous generator-based
fullscale wind turbine is interfaced to the utilitygrid via back-to-back (BtB) voltage-source
converters (VSCs). A PV solar generator is directly connected to the dc-link capacitor of the BtB
VSCs. No dc/dc conversion stages are required, and hence the system efficiency is maximized.
The proposed topology features an independent maximum power point tracking for both the wind
and the PV generators to maximize the extraction of the renewable energy. The regulation of the
VSCs is achieved via the vector control scheme in the rotating reference frame. The detailed
smallsignal models for the system components are developed to investigate the overall stability.
The influence of the utility-grid faults on the performance of the proposed system is also evaluated.
Nonlinear timedomain simulation results under different operating conditions are presented to
validate the effectiveness of the proposed topology.
Index Terms--AC-DC power converters, DC-AC power converters, maximum power point
trackers, permanent magnet machines, solar power generation, wind power generation
INTRODUCTION
The cost of the wind and solar energy generation has been rapidly falling since the last
decade. Driven by their economic and technical incentives, the global installed capacity of
photovoltaic (PV) and wind generators has approached 303 Gigawatt (GW) and 487 GW in 2016,
as compared to 6 GW and 74 GW in 2006, respectively. Due to the intermittent and unregulated
nature of the wind and solar energy, power-electronic converters are utilized as an interfacing stage
to the load-side or the utility-grid, and hence distributed generation units are created.
Due to the intermittent and unregulated nature of the wind and solar energy, power-
electronic converters are utilized as an interfacing stage to the load-side or the utility-grid, and
hence distributed generation units are created [2]-[3]. In literature, most of the distributed
generation systems are solely dedicated for one form of renewable resources, e.g., a solar energy
as in [4]-[5] or a wind energy as in [6]-[8]. In order to maximize the benefits of the available
renewable resources, the combination of the wind and solar energy in the same vicinity has been
considered [9]-[22]. The cogeneration of the wind and solar energy has the following
characteristics; 1) the availability of the wind and solar energy is generally complementary, and
hence combining both forms of energy increases the overall operational efficiency [23]. 2) the
combination of the wind and solar co-generators optimizes the utilization of lands resources, and
hence improves the capital investments as compared to the static PV generators, the wind-solar
cogeneration systems are more dynamically capable to support the utility-grid due to the available
moment of inertia in the mechanical system of the wind generators. 4) having two sources of
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energy increases the generation reliability. The grid-connected wind-PV cogeneration systems are
not widely addressed. On the contrary, several wind-PV cogeneration systems are proposed for the
standalone off-grid applications A standalone wind-PV cogeneration system is proposed . On the
small-scale level, a single-phase cogeneration system has been proposed in whereas a laboratory-
scale system is introduced Generally, the system structure in comprises a common dc-bus that
interfaces several parallel connected converters-interfaced renewable energy resources, which
might reduce the overall system efficiency and increase the cost. More importantly, the cascaded
connection of power converters requires rigorous controllers coordination to avoid the induced
interactions dynamics, which might yield instabilities [25][26].back-toback (BtB) voltage-source
converter (VSC) connected to a doubly-fed induction generator is used to interface a dc-dc
converter-interfaced PV generator and an energy storage unit . a PV generator charging a battery
bank and interfaced to a wind driven induction generator via a VSC is proposed. The wind-PV
cogeneration systems in highlights the efficient integration of the renewable energy resources with
the minimal utilization of power-electronic conversion stages. However, these systems are
proposed for specific off-grid applications. In the utility grid integration of the renewable energy
resources has been improved by using multiple-input converters. A buck/buck-boost fused dc-dc
converter is proposed. A dc-dc converter with a current-source interface, and a coupled
transformer is proposed respectively.
However, the proposed systems in are based on the dc power distribution which might not
be the ideal distribution medium in the ac-dominated power systems. Up to the authors’ best
knowledge, the combination of the grid-connected wind-PV systems has been solely addressed in
The system comprises a BtB VSCs to interface the PV and wind generators to the utility-grid. On
the machine-sideVSC, the dc-link voltage is regulated to the maximum powerpoint tracking
(MPPT) value of the PV panels by an outer loop proportional-and- integral (PI) dc voltage
controller. The reference values of the machine-side currents are calculated using the synchronous
detection method, and a hysteresis current controller is utilized for the regulation. On the grid-
side-VSC,hysteresis grid-current controller is used to inject the total currents into the utility-grid.
In spite of the potential benefits of the proposed system , the following challenges are noted; 1) the
MPPT of either the PV and wind power involves the operation of bothVSCs, which in some cases
might decreases the system reliability and increases the losses.
For instance, if the wind velocity is lower than the cut-off speed of the wind turbine, i.e.,
no wind power, the machine-side VSC may be unable to track the solar PV MPPT dc-link
voltage .2) the currents of the machine and grid-side converters are regulated using hysteresis
controllers resulting in a variable switching frequency and higher harmonic contents. Motivated
by the promising benefits of the wind-PV generation systems, this paper introduces a new
topology, yet simple and efficient to interface both the wind and PV generators into the utility-
grid. The contributions of this paper are as following; 1) The realization of the grid-connected
wind-PV cogeneration system using BtB VSCs with no extra dc/dc conversion stages. 2)
Independent MPPT operation where the MPPT of the wind and PV generators is solely achieved
by the voltage-source rectifier (VSR), and the voltage-source inverter (VSI), respectively. 3) The
development of the complete small-signal state-space model of the wind-PV cogeneration system
to characterize the overall system stability.
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4) The performance of proposed system has been investigated under different operating conditions,
including the utilitygrid faults, using time-domain simulations.
EXISITING METHODOLOGY
Until now, there have been individual windmills and solar panels used for electricity
production, resulting in numerous A windmill is a structure that converts wind power into
rotational energy using vanes called sails or blades, by tradition specifically to mill grain, but in
some parts of the English-speaking world the term has also been extended to encompass wind
pumps, wind turbines, and other applications. A solar panel is advice that converts sunlight into
electricity by using photovoltaic (PV) cells. PV cells are made of materials that produce excited
electrons when exposed to light. The electrons flow through a circuit and produce direct current
(DC) electricity, which can be used to power various devices or be stored in batteries.
PROPOSED METHODOLOGY
As shown in Fig. 1, the proposed system consists of a VSR to interface the wind generator,
and a VSI to connect the cogeneration system into the utility-grid. The PV generator is directly
connected to the dc- link capacitor of the BtB VSCs via a dc cable. The VSR and VSI are two-
level converters consisting of six cells; each comprises an insulated-gate-bipolartransistor (IGBT)
in parallel with a diode. In the following subsections, the complete modeling and control of the
proposed system is provided. A. Wind Generator A full-scale wind turbine (FSWT) utilizing a
permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG) is selected for its low maintenance and low
operational cost .The cogeneration of the wind and PV energy is investigated following different
weather conditions. As shown in Fig. 5, the wind speed increases from 8.4 to 10.8, then drops to
7.2, and finally increases respectively. The solar irradiance level decreases from 1 to 0.8, and then
to 0.4, and finally increases The corresponding variables are then regulated During the entire
operating range, are highly damped which is reflected on the generated wind and PV power as
depicted in Figs. 6(c)-(d), respectively, and the injected current to the utility-grid as in Fig. 6(e).
For further investigation, the maximum wind power, i.e., 2MW, and a PV power of 0.568MW are
generated where the dc-link stability is preserved with a maximum overshoot of 0.06 p.u. as shown
in Fig. 6(b). Under all conditions, a unity PCC voltage is maintained following (14), as shown in
Fig. 6(f). The designed vector controllers for the VSR and the VSI do not saturate the generated
PWM, as shown in Figs. 6(g)- (h), respectively, where the variable frequency operation of the VSR
is clearly noted. Wind-Only Generation During the night-time or at low-irradiance conditions, the
PV generator provides a zero power to the utility-grid. Under this condition, the dc-link voltage is
regulated to the minimum value.The corresponding wind and PV power as well as the injected ac
current to the utility-grid are shown. Note that a blocking diode is usually connected in series with
each PV string to prevent reverse current flow at the low irradiance levels.
D. PV-Only Generation The wind speed is assumed to be less than the cut-off speed, and
hence the majority of the generated wind power is consumed in the system losses. Therefore, the
PMSG operates in the braking mode and the rotor is brought to a stand-still by mechanical .
Motivated by the promising benefits of the wind-PV generation systems, this paper introduces a
new topology, yet simple and efficient to interface both the wind and PV generators into the
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utility-grid. The contributions of this paper are as following; 1) The realization of the
gridconnected wind-PV cogeneration system using BtB VSCs with no extra dc/dc conversion
stages. 2) Independent MPPT operation where the MPPT of the wind and PV generators is solely
achieved by the voltage-source rectifier (VSR), and the voltage source inverter (VSI),
respectively. 3) The development of the complete small-signal statespace model of the wind-PV
cogeneration system to characterize the overall system stability. The performance of proposed
system has been investigated under different operating conditions, including the utilitygrid faults,
using time-domain simulations.
Figure 1 Block Diagram

WORKING PRINCIPLE
The working principle of a Wind-PV (Photovoltaic)

Cogeneration System involves the integration of wind turbines and solar panels to harness
renewable energy from both wind and sunlight. Here's a step-by-step explanation of how such a
system typically operates:
1. Wind Turbines:
- Wind turbines are designed to capture the kinetic energy of the wind. The turbine blades are
connected to a rotor, and as the wind blows, it causes the blades to spin. This rotational motion is
then transferred to a generator, where it is converted into electrical energy. The electrical output
from the wind turbines is typically in the form of alternating current (AC).
2. Photovoltaic (PV) Panels:
- PV panels consist of semiconductor materials, usually silicon-based cells, that convert sunlight
into electricity through the photovoltaic effect. When sunlight strikes the solar cells, it excites
electrons, creating an electric current. The electricity generated by the PV panels is also in the form
of direct current (DC).
3. Power Electronics and Inverters:
- Since the wind turbines and PV panels produce electricity in different forms (AC from wind
turbines and DC from PV panels), power electronics and inverters are used to convert and
synchronize the electrical outputs. The electrical output is often converted to a consistent AC form
compatible with the grid or the connected electrical system.
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4. Cogeneration Controller:
- A cogeneration controller or system controller manages the operation of both the wind and PV
components. It monitors the energy production from each source, assesses the overall energy
availability, and optimizes the system's performance. The controller may decide which source to
prioritize based on real-time conditions, weather forecasts, and energy demand.
5. Energy Storage (Optional): - Energy storage systems, such as batteries, may be integrated
into the system to store excess electricity generated during periods of high wind or sunlight. These
stored reserves can then be utilized during periods of low renewable energy production, providing
a more consistent and reliable power supply.
6. Grid Connection:
- The cogeneration system can be connected to the electrical grid, allowing for the exchange of
electricity. Excess electricity generated can be fed into the grid, and the system can draw power
from the grid when renewable energy production is insufficient. This connection enhances the
system's flexibility and provides support to the grid.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A time-domain simulation model for the hybrid system in Fig. 1 is developed under the
Matlab/Simulink® environment to evaluate the validity and the performance of the system. The
wind and PV generators are rated at 2.0 and 0.9 MVA, respectively. The complete model entities
are built using the SimPowerSystem® toolbox. The VSCs are simulated using average-model-
based blocks. The simulation type is discrete with a sample time of 50 µs. In the following
subsections, the proposed windPV cogenerator is subjected to theoretical challenging operating
conditions which might not occur in the realty, e.g., large step variations in the wind speed and the
solar irradiance levels, and three-phase-toground (3PG) faults conditions. These worst-case
scenarios are applied to challenge the system stability and show the effectiveness of the designed
controllers.
CONCLUSION
This paper has presented the wind-PV cogeneration systems using vector-controlled grid-
connected BtB VSCs. The VSR at the wind generator-side is responsible for extracting the
maximum wind power following the wind speed variations. On the utilitygrid side, the roles of the
VSI are to extract the maximum PV power from the PV generator, achieve the balance between
the input-output powers across the dc-link capacitor, and to maintain a unity PCC voltage under
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different modes of operation. A smallsignal stability analysis has been conducted for the entire
system. The proposed system has the following advantages; 1) the increased reliability and
efficiency due to the combined wind and PV generators. 2) the independent MPPT extraction as
the VSR and VSI are solely responsible for extracting the wind and PV powers, respectively. 3)
the regulation of the dc-link voltage under all operating conditions is maintained by the VSI and
hence a better damped performance is yielded. 4) simple system structure and controllers design.
4) fault-ride through can be achieved using existing protection schemes. A well-damped
performance has been presented using time-domain simulations results under the Matlab/Simulink
environment.
REFERENCES
[1] Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century, “Advancing the global renewable
energy transition,” REN21 Secretariat, Paris, France, 2017
[2] F. Blaabjerg, Z. Chen, and S. B. Kjaer, “Power electronics as efficient interface in dispersed
power generation systems,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 19, no. 5, pp. 1184-1194, 2004.
[3] J. Carrasco et al., "Power-electronic systems for the grid integration of renewable energy
sources-a survey," IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 53, no. 4, pp. 1002-1016, 2006.
[4] A. Yazdani and P. P. Dash, "A control methodology and characterization of dynamics for
a photovoltaic (PV) system interfaced with a distribution network," IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol.
24, no. 3, pp. 1538-1551, 2009.
[5] L. Nousiainen, J. Puukko, A. Maki, T. Messo, J. Huusari, J. Jokipii. J. Viinamaki, D.
Lobera, S. Valkealahti, and T. Suntio, “Photovoltaic generator as an input source for power
electronic converters,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 28, no. 6, pp. 3028-3038, 2013.
[6] [6] Nicholas Strachan, and D. Jovcic, “Stability of a variable-speed permanent magnet
wind generator with weak ac grids,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 25, no. 4, pp.2279-2788, 2010.
[7] P. Mitra, L. Zhang, and L. Harnefors, “Offshore wind integration to a weak grid by VSCHVDC
links using power-synchronization control - a case study,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 29, no. 1,
pp. 453-461, 2014.
[8] Y. Wang, J. Meng, X. Zhang and L. Xu, “Control of PMSG-based wind turbines for system
inertial response and power oscillation damping,” IEEE Trans. Sustain. Energy, vol. 6, no. 2, pp.
565574, 2015.
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FABRICATION OF E-BICYCLE WITH SECURITY SYSTEM
1Dr.M.Sivaramkrishnan, 2 Sivaraj P, 3 Pranesh G, 4 Sree Varshini S, 5 Mohanaprasad R
1
Assistant Professor, Karpagam College of Engineering, Department of Electrical and
Electronics Engineering, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
2345
UG Student, Karpagam College of Engineering, Department of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
Corresponding author E-mail:- 1 sivaram.m@kce.ac.in, 2 sivaraj05171@gmail.com,
3
tgbpraneshff@gmail.com, 4 2003.sreevarshini@gmail.com,
5
supersaiyan45678@gmail.com
Abstract
The increasing demand for eco- friendly transportation options has sparked a renewed
interest in utilizing electric power for personal mobility, reducing our dependence on traditional
automobiles. While bicycles have long served as a cost-effective alternative to cars, their usage
has primarily been limited to short trips and recreational purposes. This report outlines the
development of an electric-assisted bicycle designed to significantly extend the typical rider's
range. Despite the concept of electric bicycles being feasible for quite some time, the rate of
technological advancements has been exponential, providing an opportunity for further
exploration. The human electric bicycle is engineered to offer electromagnetic propulsion to the
bicycle, alleviating the user from the task of generating the energy needed to operate it. The
system's design hinges on mechanically connecting a DC motor as the primary power source for
propelling the bicycle. It involves wiring the motor to a rechargeable DC battery and ensuring
efficient transmission of power from the source to the motor.
Introduction-
An electric bicycle, commonly known as an e-bike or booster bike, is a bicycle equipped
with an integrated electric motor for propulsion. E-bikes come in a wide variety of models
worldwide. They range from those with small motors that assist the rider’s pedalling (known as
peddles) to more potent e-bikes that approach the functionality of mopeds. However, all e-bikes
can still be pedalled by the rider, distinguishing them from electric motorcycles. These bikes are
powered by rechargeable batteries, with lighter versions capable of reaching speeds between 25 to
32 km/h (16 to 20 mph), depending on local regulations. More powerful e-bikes can often exceed
45 km/h (28 mph). In some markets like Germany, e- bikes are gaining popularity and taking
market share from traditional bicycles, while in other regions like China, they are replacing fossil
fuel-powered mopeds and small motorcycles. One significant advantage of hybrid or plug-in
electric vehicles is their ability to recover energy during braking, thanks to regenerative braking,
storing this energy in the onboard battery.
The increasing demand for eco- friendly transportation options has sparked a renewed
interest in utilizing electric power for personal mobility, reducing our dependence on traditional
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automobiles. While bicycles have long served as a cost-effective alternative to cars, their usage
has primarily been limited to short trips and recreational purposes. This report outlines the
development of an electric-assisted bicycle designed to significantly extend the typical rider's
range. Despite the concept of electric bicycles being feasible for quite some time, the rate of
technological advancements has been exponential, providing an opportunity for further
exploration. The human electric bicycle is engineered to offer electromagnetic propulsion to the
bicycle, alleviating the user from the task of generating the energy needed to operate it. The
system's design hinges on mechanically connecting a DC motor as the primary power source for
propelling the bicycle. It involves wiring the motor to a rechargeable DC battery and ensuring
efficient transmission of power from the source to the motor.
What is EV-
An electric vehicle (EV), also known as an electric drive vehicle, relies on one or more
electric motors or traction motors to propel it. EVs can draw power from various sources, either
by collecting electricity from off-vehicle infrastructure or by having an onboard battery or
generator to convert fuel into electricity. These electric vehicles encompass a wide range of
transportation options, including cars, trains, surface and underwater vessels, electric aircraft, and
even spacecraft. What sets electric vehicles apart from their fossil fuel-powered counterparts is
their ability to source power from a diverse range of energy inputs, including fossil fuels, nuclear
power, and renewable sources such as tidal energy, solar power, and wind power, often in
combination. Regardless of the energy source, it's transmitted to the vehicle through overhead
lines, wireless energy transfer like inductive charging, or by directly plugging into an electrical
cable. In the case of electric vehicles, a battery or another energy storage system is used to store
the electricity required to operate the electric motor. These batteries need to be recharged by
connecting the vehicle to a power source. Some EVs have onboard chargers, while others require
external chargers. In both cases, the electricity ultimately comes from the power grid. It's worth
noting that even though electricity production can be associated with air pollution, electric vehicles
are considered zeroemission because their motors produce no exhaust or emissions. In a parallel
hybrid motorized bicycle, like the one designed by Hosea W. Libbey in 1897, the human and motor
inputs are mechanically connected, typically at the bottom bracket, rear wheel, or front wheel. On
the other hand, in a mechanical series hybrid cycle, human and motor inputs are coupled through
differential gearing. In an electronic series hybrid cycle, human power is converted into electricity
and directly supplied to the motor, often with additional electricity from a battery. This electricity
may be stored on board using a battery, flywheel, or super capacitors. Unlike vehicles powered
solely by combustion engines, which are typically limited to a single or a few energy sources, often
non- renewable fossil fuels, hybrid and plug-in electric vehicles offer a significant advantage with
regenerative braking. They can recover energy that is normally lost during braking, storing it as
electricity in an onboard battery. This feature contributes to their energy efficiency and reduced
environmental impact.
Electrical Source-
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There are various methods for powering electric vehicles, each with distinct approaches:
1. Some electric vehicles have a direct connection to generation plants, a common setup seen in
electric trains, trolley buses, and trolley trucks.
2. Online Electric Vehicles acquire power through electromagnetic induction from electric power
strips concealed beneath the road's surface. 3. Onboard generators and hybrid EVs use different
means to generate power: - Diesel engines generate power onboard, as seen in diesel-electric
locomotives. - Fuel cells generate power onboard, a characteristic of fuel cell vehicles. - Nuclear
energy serves as an onboard power source in nuclear submarines and aircraft carriers. - Renewable
sources such as solar power are harnessed in solar vehicles. - Onboard Rechargeable Electricity
Storage Systems (RESS) connect directly to landbased generation plants for on-highway
recharging, providing unrestricted highway range. - Some hybrid vehicles feature an onboard
rechargeable electricity storage system alongside a fuel propulsion power source, typically an
internal combustion engine, in a setup known as a plug-in hybrid.
Lithium-ion battery-Lithium-ion batteries are the predominant choice for most electric vehicles
due to their superior attributes. These batteries boast higher energy density, longer lifespans, and
greater power density compared to many other practical battery types. However, their usage
involves several complex considerations, including safety, durability, thermal stability, and cost.
To ensure safe and efficient operation, it's essential to keep Liion batteries within prescribed
temperature and voltage ranges. Extending the battery's lifespan is crucial for cost-effectiveness,
and one method to achieve this is by selectively operating subsets of the battery cells and switching
between them. When it comes to the power source of electric vehicles, the electric motor's output
is quantified in kilowatts (kW), similar to traditional vehicles. Approximately 100 kW equates to
about 134 horsepower, though electric motors deliver their torque across a wide RPM range,
surpassing the limited torque curve of a 134 horsepower (100 kW) fuel-powered motor. Typically,
direct current (DC) electricity is supplied to a DC/AC inverter, where it undergoes conversion into
alternating current (AC) electricity. This AC electricity is then routed to a 3-phase AC motor for
vehicle propulsion. Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) represent a fusion of conventional fossil fuel
powertrains with electric propulsion. Since their inception in 1997, over 11 million hybrid electric
vehicles have been sold worldwide as of April 2016. Japan stands out as the market leader with
more than 5 million hybrid units sold, followed by the United States with cumulative sales
exceeding 4 million units since 1999, and Europe with roughly 1.5 million hybrids delivered since
2000. Japan's hybrid market penetration is the world's highest, accounting for over 30% of new
standard passenger car sales by 2013, including roughly 20% of new passenger vehicle sales,
encompassing kei cars. Electric vehicles (EVs) have found their place on and off the road in
various roles, spanning electric cars, trolleybuses, electric buses, battery electric buses, electric
trucks, electric bicycles, electric motorcycles, scooters, neighborhood electric vehicles, golf carts,
milk floats, and forklifts. Additionally, off- road applications include electrified all- terrain
vehicles and tractors.
Electric Motor-
Electric Motor The power output of a vehicle's electric motor, much like in traditional vehicles, is
measured in kilowatts (kW). To provide a point of reference, 100 kW roughly translates to 134
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horsepower. However, electric motors distinguish themselves by delivering their full torque over
a broad RPM range, resulting in performance that far surpasses that of a 134 horsepower (100 kW)
fuelpowered motor, known for its limited torque curve. Typically, the process involves supplying
direct current (DC) electricity, which is then channeled into a DC/AC inverter. This inverter
converts the DC electricity into alternating current (AC), which is subsequently connected to a 3-
phase AC motor for vehicle propulsion. V.II. Hybrid EVs Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) blend
a conventional powertrain, usually powered by fossil fuels, with some form of electric propulsion.
As of April 2016, the global sales of hybrid electric vehicles have exceeded 11 million units since
their introduction in 1997. Japan takes the lead in this market, having sold more than 5 million
hybrid vehicles, followed by the United States with cumulative sales exceeding 4 million units
since 1999, and Europe with approximately 1.5 million hybrids delivered since 2000. Notably,
Japan boasts the highest market penetration of hybrids globally. By 2013, hybrid vehicles
accounted for over 30% of new standard passenger car sales and around 20% of new passenger
vehicle sales, including kei cars. V.III. On- and Off-Road EVs Electric vehicles (EVs) are deployed
in various capacities, both on and off the road. They serve purposes such as electric cars,
trolleybuses, electric buses, battery electric buses, electric trucks, electric bicycles, electric
motorcycles, scooters, neighborhood electric vehicles, golf carts, milk floats, and forklifts. Off-
road applications encompass electrified all-terrain vehicles and tractors. V.IV. Energy and Motors
The systems described above primarily rely on rotary electric motors for motion. However, it is
feasible to adapt these motors to drive directly along a specially matched track. It's important to
note that utilizing linear motors for this purpose presents challenges related to highperformance
control systems and the complexity of switching and curving tracks. As a result, linear motors have
typically been reserved for high-speed point-to-point services, limiting their broader applications.
Components-
The selection of components such as the battery type, traction motor type, and motor
controller design varies based on the size, power, and intended use. This can range from small
applications like motorized shopping carts and wheelchairs to larger ones like pedelecs, electric
motorcycles, scooters, neighborhood electric vehicles, industrial forklift trucks, and a variety of
hybrid vehicles. Issues with battery- Issues with batteries An electric vehicle battery (EVB) or
traction battery is a battery used to power the propulsion of battery electric vehicles (BEVs).
Vehicle batteries are usually a secondary (rechargeable) battery. Traction batteries are used in
forklifts, electric Golf carts, riding floor scrubbers, electric motorcycles, full-size electric cars,
trucks, and vans, and otherelectric vehicles.
Efficiency
Efficiency in electric vehicles is assessed through various methods of charging, leading to
different quantifications of emissions. Additionally, plug-in all- electric and hybrid vehicles
exhibit distinct consumption patterns. Charging- Should a significant portion of private vehicles
shift to using grid electricity, it would result in increased demand for electricity
generation and transmission, subsequently affecting emissions. However, the overall energy
consumption and emissions would decrease due to the greater efficiency of electric vehicles
throughout their entire usage cycle. One innovative recharging system, known as Curb Connect
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and patented by Dr. Gordon Dower in 2012, eliminates the need for cables. This system
incorporates electrical contacts within curbs, like those found in angled parking spaces on city
streets. When an authorized vehicle is parked in a way that extends over the curb, the curb contacts
become active, enabling the charging process.
Battery swapping- Rather than recharging electric vehicles through traditional electrical
sockets, an alternative approach involves the swift mechanical replacement of batteries at
specialized stations, a process known as battery swapping. Some batteries with high energy
density, such as metalair fuel cells, are not ideally suited for standard electric recharging methods.
Instead, they require metallurgical processes like aluminum smelting. Promising candidates for
swap batteries include silicon-air, aluminum-air, and other metal-air fuel cells. These technologies
hold potential for efficient recycling, where any source of energy, whether renewable or non-
renewable, can be harnessed to refurbish used metal-air fuel cells.
Future work of electric bicycle- To advance the development of electric bicycles, the
following materials are essential for the design process: - A standard bicycle - A cordless drill (any
voltage is suitable, with higher voltages being more advantageous) - An ample quantity of zip-ties
(the quantity depends on the specific bicycle and drill used) - A small piece of wood (to provide
support for the drill's battery) - A bicycle hand brake (required for the throttle system) - Bicycle
cable (necessary for the throttle system, connecting to the hand brake).And by adding security
system with the bicycle.
Conclusions-
To advance the development of electric bicycles, the following materials are essential for the
design process: - A standard bicycle - A cordless drill (any voltage is suitable, with higher voltages
being more advantageous) - An ample quantity of zipties (the quantity depends on the specific
bicycle and drill used) - A small piece of wood (to provide support for the drill's battery) - A
bicycle hand brake (required for the throttle system) - Bicycle cable (necessary for the throttle
system, connecting to the hand brake).
References
[1]. Sheu, K. B., Hsu, T. H., & Hsu, Y. Y.A novel parallel hybrid motorcycle transmission.In
Materials science forum.Trans Tech Publications.
[2]. Hsu, SuHau., Hsu, D. W., Fu, L. C., & Hsu, Y. P.(2004, June). Novel integrated management
system design of electric motorcycles. In American Control Conference, 2004.Proceedings of the
2004.IEEE.
[3].Huang, K. David.,&Tzeng, Sheng Chung. (2004). A new parallel-type hybrid electric- vehicle.
Applied Energy, 79(1), 51-64.
[4].Yan, Wenguang.,Utkin, V., &Rizzoni, G. (2005, June). Power flow control for a series hybrid
electric vehicle.In Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Industrial Electronics,
2005.ISIE 2005.IEEE.
[5].Quinn, C., Daniel Zimmerle, D., & Bradley, T. H. (2012). An evaluation of state-of-charge
limitations and actuation signal energy content on plug-in hybrid electric vehicle, vehicle-to-grid
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DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF ELECTRIC

BRUSH CUTTER WITH BATTERY MONITORING
SYSTEM
1Dr.M. Sivaramkrishnan,2B. Arunachalam,3A. Karthik,4C. Karthik,5C. Dhinakar
1
Assistant Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
Karpagam College of Engineering, Coimbatore, India. 1sivaram.m@kce.ac.in
2,3,4,5
UG Students, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
Karpagam College of Engineering, Coimbatore, India.
Abstract- This project "Design and Fabrication of Electric Brush Cutter with Battery
monitoring system" introduces a cutting-edge electric brush with a Combined battery
monitoring system. The design places a strong Priority on combining Electrical Engineering
and Mechanical Engineering concepts to produce a lightweight, effective electric brush. The
best performance is ensured by carefully choosing a rotating motor that satisfies requirements
for user comfort and energy efficiency. Rechargeable batteries (Lithium-ion) are used as the
device's power source, which is in line with the current trend of environmentally responsible
technology design. The real-time battery monitoring system (BMS), which contributes to
both longer Product life and sustainable energy practices. Active battery voltage monitoring
is done by the BMS, which provides vital information for operating algorithms and user
awareness. The fundamental component of the system is a microcontroller that
communicates with the BMS to operate the electric brush cutter. A Liquid Crystal Display
(LCD) is integrated into the user interface to show the battery charge levels in real time. The
BMS voltage data is analysed and presented as a percentage, providing a clear picture of the
battery's remaining capacity. Putting these parts together to create a working electric brush
prototype is the prototyping phase. Thorough testing confirms the device's dependability and
durability by confirming its performance under many circumstances.
Keywords: Electric brush cutter, Battery monitoring system, Battery Management System
(BMS), Microcontroller, Portable personal care devices, Sustainable energy, User-centric
design.
1. INTRODUCTION
This paper presents the outcomes of the project, "Design and Fabrication of Electric
Brush with Battery Monitoring System," which aims to bridge the gap between traditional
grooming tools and contemporary technological innovation. The project centres around the
development of an electric brush equipped with a real-time battery monitoring system,
offering users an intelligent and sustainable solution. Emphasizing the synergy between
mechanical and electrical engineering principles, the electric brush incorporates a carefully
chosen rotating motor for optimal performance. The integration of rechargeable batteries
aligns with the growing demand for eco-friendly personal care devices. Personal care devices
have witnessed a paradigm shift with the integration of advanced technologies, addressing
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the need for enhanced efficiency, user experience, and sustainability. A pivotal aspect of this
project is the implementation of a Battery Management System (BMS) that actively monitors
battery health, voltage, and temperature. This not only ensures prolonged device life but also
contributes to sustainable energy practices. A microcontroller serves as the brain of the
system, orchestrating the operation of the electric brush and processing critical data from the
BMS. While conventional wisdom might dictate the use of a printed circuit board (PCB), this
project showcases the adaptability of the design by omitting a PCB, demonstrating the
feasibility of alternative approaches in specific contexts. The decision is based on a careful
consideration of project requirements, further emphasizing the flexibility and versatility of
the overall design. The user interface incorporates a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) to provide
users with real-time feedback on the battery's charge level. Voltage data obtained from the
BMS is processed and displayed as a percentage, offering a clear and easily interpretable
indication of the remaining battery capacity. Throughout the prototyping phase, the
components are integrated into a functional electric brush prototype, and rigorous testing is
conducted to validate the device's performance under various conditions. The documentation
encompasses detailed schematics, code, and testing procedures, providing a comprehensive
resource for researchers and practitioners in the field of smart personal care devices. This
project not only contributes to the ongoing discourse on sustainable energy solutions but also
highlights the potential for technological innovation in personal grooming. The customizable
nature of the design allows for future iterations, encouraging continuous development and
improvement in the realm of personal care devices. The subsequent sections delve into the
detailed design, fabrication, and testing processes, offering insights and lessons learned that
can inform future research and development endeavours.
Components of electric brush cutter - The selection of components for an electric brush cutter
is a critical process that impacts the tool's performance, durability, and safety. When
designing or choosing components for an electric brush cutter
1. Electric Motor- Electric brush cutters are powered by electric motors, which can be corded
or cordless. Corded models are connected to a power source through an extension cord, while
cordless models rely on rechargeable batteries. 2.Cutting Head-The cutting head is where the
cutting action happens. It typically consists of a circular blade or a nylon line (string) that
rotates at high speeds to cut through vegetation. The choice of cutting head depends on the
specific application and the type of vegetation you need to tackle.
3. Handle and Controls-Electric brush cutters have a handle, which may be a loop handle or a
Dhandle, to provide a secure grip and control during operation. There are also controls for
powering the device on and off and adjusting the cutting speed or intensity.
4. Shaft- The shaft connects the motor to the cutting head and provides the length and reach
needed to trim and cut tall grass and overgrown areas. Some models have adjustable shaft
lengths for user comfort.
5. Lithium-ion battery-Lithium-ion batteries are the predominant choice for most electric
vehicles due to their superior attributes. These batteries boast higher energy density, longer
lifespans, and greater power density compared to many other practical battery types.
However, their usage involves several complex considerations, including safety, durability,
thermal stability, and cost. To ensure safe and efficient operation, it's essential to keep Li-ion
batteries within prescribed temperature and voltage ranges. Extending the battery's lifespan is
crucial for cost-effectiveness, and one method to achieve this is by selectively operating
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subsets of the battery cells and switching between them. When it comes to the power source
of electric vehicles, the electric motor's output is quantified in kilowatts (kW), similar to
traditional vehicles. Approximately 100 kW equates to about 134 horsepower, though electric
motors deliver their torque across a wide RPM range, surpassing the limited torque curve of a
134 horsepower (100 kW) fuel-powered motor. Typically, direct current (DC) electricity is
supplied to a DC/AC inverter, where it undergoes conversion into alternating current (AC)
electricity.
6. Safety Features-Electric brush cutters are equipped with various safety features, such as
blade guards, handguards, and safety switches, to minimize the risk of accidents during
operation. 7.Adjustable Height - Many models offer adjustable cutting heights to control the
depth of the cut, making them suitable for various types of vegetation and terrain.
8. Wheeled Base-Some electric brush cutters come with a wheeled base, allowing the user to
push the tool along the ground while cutting, which can reduce the physical effort required.
9.Noise and Emissions- Electric brush cutters are generally quieter and produce fewer
emissions compared to their gas-powered counterparts, making them more environmentally
friendly and suitable for residential.
Outcome of literature survey:
Cutting grass of secondary primary and tertiary field thereby reducing human effort
needed.
Great portion of farmland can easily cut or brushed with lawn mower in one day.
This project reduced number of personnel that needed in a particular farm operation.
To reduce manpower.
To improve the economy of the country.
2. BLOCK DIAGRAM:
i) Block Diagram for Design and Fabrications of Electric Brush Cutter with Battery
monitoring system:
In this block diagram, we explain the workings of the electric brush cutter. The power supply
is given to the motor to turn on. The bevel gear is connected to the motor, and it also
connects the shaft to rotate. When the shaft is rotated, the blade is also rotating itself. The
motor produces high torque and speed to rotate the blade. It helps to cut the grass in the
landscape, and it also maintains gardening. A block diagram provides a clear and concise
overview of the brush cutter's structure and how different parts work together.
figure:no:2.1
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Here's a simplified example of a block diagram for this project. This block diagram
simplifies the system's components and their relationships, serving as a helpful visual aid for
understanding the brush cutter's structure. It can be used as a reference throughout the
project's design and development phases, making it easier to identify the connections
between different parts and their functions, facilitating troubleshooting and design
improvement Shown in Figure 2.1
The Electric Brush Cutter is at the top, representing the entire system. The BLDC Motor is a
key component, and its connection to the Power Supply shows that it receives electrical
power. The Control System includes switches and safety features, indicating its role in
managing the motor and ensuring user safety. The Cutting Mechanism is connected to the
motor and represents the blades, gears, and bearings that are responsible for
vegetation cutting.
ii) Block Diagram for Battery Monitoring System

In this block diagram, we explain the workings of the Battery Monitoring System. The
Voltage sensor is used to sense the voltage and give the output as a percentage for the user’s
identity of battery percentage.
figure:no:2.2
Here's a simplified example of a block diagram for this project. This block diagram
simplifies the system's components and their relationships, serving as a helpful visual aid for
understanding the Battery Monitoring System structure. It can be used as a reference
throughout the project's design and development phases, making it easier to identify the
connections between different parts and their functions, facilitating troubleshooting and
design improvement Shown in Figure 2.2
3. PROBLEM STATEMENTS:
To Run the Electric Brush Cutter for 1 hour and 30 minutes with cost wise efficient and
user’s safety protections
Motor Specifications for this Problem statements:
Rated Voltage V 24
Rated Speed RPM 3000
Rated Torque Nm 1.6
Rated Current A 28
Rated Power W 500
Peak Torque 174Nm 3
Rotor Inertia Kg.c m2 0.8
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Battery Calculations for this Problem Statements:

For this specification motor to run 1 hour 30 min is
Step:1  Find out the Current (in amps) by the Motor to Run
Power = Voltage * Current
500 = 24 * I
I = 20.8 A ~ 21 A
Step:2  Find out watt hour of the battery

= 500 * 1.5 hr = 750Watt hour
Efficiency = 75%(Approx)
=(750/0.8) => 937.5 ~940 Watt-hour
Step:3  Convert watt hour into Ampere hour of Battery

P=V*I
Watt hour = Voltage * Ampere hour
940 = 24 * Ah
Ah = 40
Therefore, 24 V, 40 Ah Lithium-ion battery required to run the Electric brush cutter for 1.5
hours.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:
No of Diameter Rotating Height Weight Time Distance

Blades of the Speed form of run Travel
and blades the collecting
Name of ground waste
the level
Blades
1.Nylon 300 mm 3000 50 mm 70 gram 40 230 cm

wire rpm sec
2.Straight 300 mm 3000 50 mm 30 gram 40 230 cm
Blade rpm sec
3.Large 440 mm 3000 50 mm 40 gram 40 230 cm
Blade rpm sec
5. CONCLUSION
We have presented a detailed description of fabrication of grass cutter. In this we concluded
that the modern grass cutter machine having better efficiency as compare to old machines
because of using the engine and better material of blades and it also reduces the man power.
A lawn mower which is simply called as a grass cutter machine becomes very popular today
and it is very commonly used for furnishing soft grasses. Now it is necessary for cleaning
gardens. Since it is easily operating machine so now it is used for various application.
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6. FUTURE SCOPE
In Future, we develop a web for this battery monitoring system and store the battery
percentage and send the data to the user’s mobile phone by the way of message or normal
text. And alert them if any problems in those machines.
7. REFERENCES:
[1]M. A. Basunia and N. A. F. Narawi, "Improvement of grass cutting machine
commonly used in Brunei," 7th Brunei International Conference on Engineering and
Technology 2018 (BICET 2018), Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei, 2018, pp. 1-4, doi:
10.1049/cp.2018.1565.
[2]Ummesalma Begum, Arghadeep Majumder, Arun Kumar M, Biprajith, P.
Subramani; “Design and Fabrication Of Grass Cutter”. International Journal of Creative
Research Thoughts (IJCRT),2023.
[3]C. -Y. Hung and C. -T. Chi, "Study of a new shoulder-type electric brush
cutter," 2011 Second International Conference on Mechanic Automation and Control
Engineering, Inner Mongolia, China, 2011, pp. 7700-7703, doi:
10.1109/MACE.2011.5988834.
[4] Chi, Chieh-Tsung. "A new electric brush cutter." WSEAS Trans Syst Control 3.7
(2012): 2224-2856.
[5] Aswin, R., et al. "Solar operated brush cutter." International Journal of Mechanical
Engineering 6.3 (2021): 1006-8.
[6] Wójcik, Krzysztof. "The influence of the cutting attachment on vibrations emitted by
brush cutters and grass trimmers." (2015).
[7] László, H. E. "The effect of wear of petrol engine power brush cutters on their
vibration exposure." International Journal of Horticultural Science 13.2 (2007): 37-44.
[8]Sorică, Elena, et al. "Comparative analysis of the noise and vibration transmitted to
the operator by a brush cutter." Acoustics and Vibration of Mechanical Structures—
AVMS-2017: Proceedings of the 14th AVMS Conference, Timisoara, Romania, May
25–26, 2017. Springer International Publishing, 2018.
[9] Carmen Brăcăcescu et al. "Comparative analysis of the noise and vibration transmitted
to the operator by a brush cutter." Acoustics and Vibration of Mechanical Structures—
AVMS-2017: Proceedings of the 14th AVMS Conference, Timisoara, Romania, May
25–26, 2017.
[10] Quendler, E., et al. "Occupational risks related to vibrations using a brush cutter for
green area management." Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine 25.2
(2018).
[11] Qiu Lei, Du, Xiao Wei Jiang, and Li Ai Pan. "Study and design of lawn brush
cutter." Advanced Materials Research 971 (2014): 736-739.
[12] Kawatkar, Sudarshan A., et al. "Design and Fabrication of Solar Brush
Cutter."(2021)
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AUTOMATION IN AGRICULTURE BY USING IOT

1Dr.M.Sivaramkrishnan, 2 Aadith Krishna S, 3 Antony John Paul A, 4 Samuel Morris T,
5 Valarmathi M
1
Assistant Professor, Karpagam College of Engineering,
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
2345
UG Student, Karpagam College of Engineering,
3
Corresponding author E-mail:- 1 sivaram.m@kce.ac.in,
Abstract
Smart farming is a concept which focuses on the use of information and communication
technology in machinery, equipment, and sensors in network based hi-tech farm supervision
cycles. Innovative technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT) and cloud computing are
expected to spur growth and kick start the usage of robotics and artificial intelligence in
agriculture. Such radical departures are upsetting established agricultural practices while also
posing a number of obstacles. This study explores the techniques and equipment utilized in
wireless sensor applications in IoT agriculture, as well as the predicted problems encountered
when integrating technology with traditional farming practices. Furthermore, this technical
knowledge is useful to farmers during crop times ranging from planting to harvest, and
applications in packing and transportation are being researched. Monitoring crops and the
condition of the soil helps in predicting early diseases and pests. Our project analyzes the
temperature of the crop field, measures the Ph level of the soil for using fertilizers, detects the
movement of obstacles using PIR sensor, automates irrigation when the moisture content is low
which helps in saving water and displays the output value through application.
Introduction-
The Internet of Things (IoT) have an important role in present world specially, the internet
of Things (IoT) is remodeling the agriculture business and enabling farmers to modify the big
challenges they face. The business should overcome increasing water shortages, restricted
handiness of lands, tough to manage prices, whereas meeting the increasing consumption desires
of a worldwide population that's expected to grow by seventieth by 2050. New innovative IoT
applications area unit addressing these problems and increasing the standard, quantity, property
and price effectiveness of agricultural production. Sensors offer the primary purpose designed
IoT platform designed to fulfill the distinctive desires of today’s connected world. Because of the
leading IoT platform. It delivers the protection and quantifiability to handle numerous daily
transactions. With Sensors, you'll deliver powerful, new good agriculture IoT solutions in an
exceeding fraction of the time of different approaches. Water could be a restricted resource and
is crucial for agriculture, business and for creature’s existence on earth as well as individuals.
Immeasurable individuals don’t understand truth importance of drinking enough water daily. A
lot of water is wasted by several uncontrolled manners. This drawback is quietly associated with
poor water allocation, inefficient use, and lack of adequate and integrated water management.
Therefore, economical use and water observation area unit potential constraint for home or
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workplace water management system. Internet of Things (IoT) allows to create a system while
not human interference. In different words IoT is an atmosphere that has the power to transfer
knowledge over a network while not human to human or human to laptop interaction. The present
machine controlled methodology of level detection is delineated which is accustomed build a tool
on/off. Moreover, the common methodology of level management for appliances is just to start
out the feed pump at a coffee level and permit it to run till a better water level is reached within
the cistern. The most purpose of a system to figure with four major halves. The primary half is
sensible sensors, second the association mechanism, then the mechanisms that act on the crops
and eventually the good board to supply detector and actuator management interface Internet of
Things (IoT) refers to a platform wherever a wise area network with practical protocols kind
physical and virtual identities for addressing them with ease over the net meant for social
environmental communication. This involves a wise arrange of operations of a range of sensors
and controller’s area unit to be utilized in this proposal to browse these contents. IOT sensors area
unit capable of providing data regarding agriculture fields. We've planned an IOT and good
agriculture system victimization automation. This IOT based mostly Agriculture observation
system makes use of wireless detector networks that collects knowledge from completely
different sensors deployed at varied nodes and sends it through the wireless protocol. This good
agriculture victimization IOT system is battery powered by Node MCU, it consists of
Temperature detector, wet detector, and Rain detector. The farmers will simply acknowledge the
activity by sitting at one place and might operate the pump or motor to irrigate farm remotely
within the convenience of a mobile. And thus, excess water will injury to the crops, with the
assistance of wet detector the adequate quantity of water required for the land is set, there's an
optimum utilization of water and power offer, remotely monitor environmental conditions
frequently, and observation each moment of the farm.
What is SMART FARMING

The intelligent farm includes the use of technology such as Sensors for soil scanning and
water, light, humidity and temperature management. Telecommunications technologies such as
advanced networking and GPS. Hardware and software for specialized applications and for
enabling IoT-based solutions,robotics and automation.
Data analytics tools for decision making and prediction. Data collection is a significant
part of smart farming as the quantity of data available from crop yields, soil-mapping, climate
change, fertilizer applications, weather data, machinery and animal health continues to escalate.
Satellites and drones for gathering data around the clock for an entire field. This
information is forwarded to IT systems for tracking and analysis to give an “eye in the field” or
“eye in the barn” that makes remote monitoring possible.
The combination of these technologies facilitates machine-to-machine (M2M) derived

data. This data feeds into a decision support system so that farmers can see what is happening at
a more granular level than in the past. For example, by precisely measuring variations within a
field and adapting the strategy accordingly, farmers can greatly increase the effectiveness of
pesticides and fertilizers and use them more judiciously. Similarly, smart farming techniques,
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help farmers better monitor the needs of individual animals and adjust their nutrition to prevent
disease and enhance herd health.
Electrical Source-
Battery technology has come a long way, and its potential to transform agriculture is being
recognized by farmers, researchers, and industry experts. By harnessing the power of batteries,
electric agriculture can significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions, water consumption, and
reliance on non-renewable energy sources. By transitioning from diesel powered machinery to
electric alternatives, farmers can enjoy numerous advantages. Electric farm machinery produces
zero direct emissions, contributing to a cleaner environment and mitigating climate change.
Electric vehicles have lower fuel and maintenance costs, making farming operations more
economically viable. Electric machines operate silently, minimizing noise pollution and
improving the working environment. Electric machinery offers better control and accuracy,
enhancing farming productivity. Water scarcity is a major concern in agriculture, particularly in
arid regions. Battery powered irrigation systems provide a sustainable solution.
Battery-powered pumps and drip irrigation systems are highly efficient, minimizing water
wastage. Battery-powered systems can be easily deployed in remote areas without access to grid
electricity, enabling efficient water management. Solar powered batteries or grid-charged
batteries eliminate the need for diesel-powered pumps, reducing greenhouse gas emissions and
air pollution.
Consistent and controlled irrigation through battery powered systems promotes healthier
plant growth and higher crop yields.
Node MCU-
Thyields. (Node Microcontroller Unit) is an open source software and hardware
development environment built around an inexpensive System on-a-Chip (SoC) called the
ESP8266. The ESP8266, designed and manufactured by Espressif Systems, contains the crucial
elements of a computer: CPU, RAM, networking (WiFi), and even a modern operating system
and SDK. That makes it an excellent choice for Internet of Things (IoT) projects of all kinds.
However, as a chip, the ESP8266 is also hard to access and use. You must solder wires, with the
appropriate analog voltage, to its pins for the simplest tasks such as powering it on or sending a
keystroke to the “computer” on the chip. You also have to program it in low-level machine
instructions that can be interpreted by the chip hardware. This level of integration is not a problem
using the ESP8266 as an embedded controller chip in mass produced electronics. It is a huge
burden for hobbyists, hackers, or students who want to experiment with it in their own IoT
projects. Similar to Node MCU, the Arduino hardware is a microcontroller board with a USB
connector, LED lights, and standard data pins. It also defines standard interfaces to interact with
sensors or other boards. But unlike Node MCU, the Arduino board can have different types of
CPU chips (typically an ARM or Intel x86 chip) with memory chips, and a variety of
programming environments. There is an Arduino reference design for the ESP8266 chip as well.
However, the flexibility of Arduino also means significant variations across different vendors.
For example, most Arduino boards do not have WiFi capabilities, and some even have a serial
data port instead of a USB port.
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Components-
These four major components are physical structure, data acquisition, data processing, and
data analytics. Physical structure is the most important factor for precision agriculture to avoid
any unwanted happening. The whole system is designed in such a way which controls the sensors,
actuators, and devices. A sensor performs multiple tasks like soil sensing, temperature sensing,
weather sensing, light sensing, and moisture sensing. Similarly devices perform many control
functions like node discovery, device identification and naming services etc. All these functions
are performed by any device or sensor which is controlled through a microcontroller. This
controlling operation is performed by any remote device or a computer which is connected
through the Internet. Data Acquisition is further divided into two subcomponents namely: IoT
data acquisition and standard data acquisition. Whereby, the IoT data acquisition component
consists of seven protocols that are Message Queuing Telemetry Transport (MQTT), WebSocket,
Advanced Message Queuing Protocol (AMQP), Node, Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP),
Data Distribution Service (DDS), and Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP). Depending on the
requirements and condition more protocols can be used for the implementation of smart farming.
Whereas, in the standard data acquisition Zig Bee, WIFI, Long Range Wide Area Network
(Lora Wan), Sig Fox and ISOBUS protocols have been used.
Data processing consists of multiple features that are image or video processing, data
loading, decision support system, and data mining as shown in Figure 2. According to the
system requirements any feature may be added that may work in parallel to provide other
services. Data analytics consists of two main features that are monitoring and controlling.
Monitoring involves three main applications in smart agriculture that are Live Stock
Monitoring, Field Monitoring, and Green house Monitoring. IoT enables farmers to monitor
livestock via multiple sensors which are used to monitor different animal’s diseases like
temperature, heart rate, and digestion etc. Whereas field monitoring applications intend to report
different conditions of field like soil richness, temperature, humidity, gas, pressure (air pressure
and water pressure), and crop disease monitoring. A smart greenhouse design eliminates manual
intervention and measures different climate parameters by intelligent IoT devices and sensors
according to plants requirements.
Efficiency
Crop diversification is the most important agricultural activity providing employment and
food security to millions of people in the country. It can be practiced in two ways i.e.,
temporal/horizontal/crop rotational diversification and spatial/vertical diversification. The
component crops which are less productive or need more inputs is substituted with more
remunerative, less inputs requiring and which sustain the soil fertility. Rice wheat cropping
system is most dominating cropping system and nearly contributes 42 percent to the total food
grains production. The growth in crop productivity of component crops is either stagnating
(Wheat) or declining (rice) despite the use of higher yielding cultivars. Thus, substitution of rice
which require more water with maize or cash crops like sugarcane and cotton will not only reduce
water requirement but also enhance the system productivity which leads to increase farmers
income.
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Conclusions-
The purpose of this smart agricultural monitoring system was to track the current state in
the agriculture field in real time. The concept and execution of our IoT-based monitoring system
are discussed in this study. Smart agriculture will benefit from the Internet of Things. The soil
moisture level and humidity can be predicted using IoT. IoT technology allows for irrigation
system monitoring and control. IoT improves time efficiency, water management, crop
monitoring, and soil management in various aspects of farming. This system is comprised of a
device with sensors, nodes, and a server, as well as a smartphone application. The field data
monitoring device in this project is made up of a DHT11 temperature and humidity sensor, a node
MCU, and a variety of sensors that collect data from an agriculture field and send it to a server
through Wi-Fi. In addition, a smartphone application has been created to see all of the data in a
graphical format, complete with dates and times. In addition, this system is low-cost and simple
to use. It also reduces human work, simplifies farming procedures, and aids in smart farming.
With these capabilities, smart farming can assist farmers in expanding their market with a single
click and no work.
References
[1].Shanbhag Atish Manoj., Shwetha M S., Sneha K Bakale., Sinchana., Vidya. Smart Farming
Using Sensors For Agricultural Task Automation And Fencing System.
[2].Emerson Navarro., Nuno Costa., Antonio Pereira., (2020). A Systematic Review of IoT
solutions for Smart farming.
[3]. Jash Doshi., Tirthkumar patel., Santhosh Kumar Bharti(2020). Smart Farming using IoT, a
solution for optically monitoring farming conditions.
[4]. Dankan Gowda., (2021) Smart Agriculture and Smart farming using IoT Technology
[5]. Srivastava, A., Das, D. K., & Kumar, R. (2020). Monitoring of Soil Parameters and
Controlling of Soil Moisture through loT based Smart Agriculture. 2020 IEEE Students
Conference on Engineering & Systems (SCES).
[6].Hasan, M.. Uddin, K. N. W., Sayeed, A., & Tasneem, T. (2021). Smart Agriculture Robotic
System Based on Internet of Things to Boost Crop Production. 2021 2nd International Conference
on Robotics,
[7] Farooq, M. S., Riaz, S., Abid, A., Abid, K., & Naeem, M. A. (2019). A Survey on the
Role of IoT in Agriculture for the Implementation of Smart Farming.
[8] Kour, V. P., & Arora, S. (2020). Recent developments of the Internet of Things in
Agriculture: A Survey. 21
[9] Sushanth, G., & Sujatha, S. (2018). IOT Based Smart Agriculture System. 2018
International Conference on Wireless Communications, Signal Processing and Networking
(WiSPNET).
[10] Kumar, S., Chowdhary, G., Udutalapally, V., Das, D., & Mohanty, S. P. (2019). G Crop:
Internet- of-Leaf-Things (IoLT) for Monitoring of the Growth of Crops in Smart Agriculture.
2019
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Modular Instruction Driven Vehicle

A.ANCI MANON MARY1, T.DINESHKUMAR2, E.GOKULARAJ3, B.KARTHICK4,
R.SATHYAPRIYAN5
1
Assistant Professor, Department of EEE, Karpagam College of Engineering,
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu.
2345
UG Scholars, Department of EEE, Karpagam College of Engineering,
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
Corresponding author E-mail:- 1 ancimary.a@kce.ac.in,
Abstract
The Automatic Guidance Vehicle (AGV), which uses RFID cards, marks a significant leap
in autonomous transportation systems. Unlike previous approaches that rely on established
courses or sophisticated sensor arrays, this system uses Radio Frequency Identification
(RFID) technology to ensure exact navigation and task execution. Each RFID card includes
unique IDs that correlate to specific instructions or destinations, allowing the vehicle to
communicate seamlessly with its surroundings. The AGV's functioning begins with the
distribution of RFID cards along predetermined routes or zones. These cards act as virtual
markers, directing the vehicle along its intended course and enabling autonomous
navigation. As the AGV moves along its path, onboard RFID scanners detect and analyze
the information stored on the cards, causing appropriate responses such as speed
modifications, direction changes, or job execution. The use of RFID cards provides various
benefits over traditional navigation systems. For starters, RFID technology allows for
perfect localization and path tracking without the need for external infrastructure or GPS
signals, resulting in exceptional precision and dependability. Furthermore, the modular
structure of RFID cards enables rapid modification and adaption to changing operating
requirements, making the AGV extremely versatile and adaptive in dynamic contexts.
Furthermore, RFID technology improves operating efficiency by decreasing the
requirement for continual sensor-based localization and mapping, resulting in lower
computing overhead and energy usage. This increases battery life and overall system
dependability, guaranteeing continuous operation in industrial applications. The use of
RFID cards into the Automatic Guidance Vehicle marks a significant advancement in
autonomous transportation technology. By leveraging RFID technology for accurate
navigation and job execution, this unique system provides unrivaled efficiency,
dependability, and flexibility, ushering in a new age of autonomous mobility across a
variety of sectors.
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ELECTRIC VEHICLE BATTERY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM BY

USING IOT
1Dr.M.Sivaramkrishnan, 2 Aswath Krishna S, 3 Mega R, 4 Praveen Kumar S, 5 Swetha S
1
Assistant Professor, Karpagam College of Engineering,
2345
UG Student, Karpagam College of Engineering,
3
Corresponding author E-mail:- 1 sivaram.m@kce.ac.in,
Abstract
This project introduces an innovative Electric Vehicle (EV) Battery Management System
leveraging the Internet of Things (IoT) through Node MCU and the Blynk application. The
system ensures real-time monitoring of battery voltage and provides users with the ability to
manage battery backup remotely. The integration of IoT technologies enhances the efficiency,
accessibility, and reliability of EV battery management. This research into the integration of
Internet of Things (IoT) technology to enhance the efficiency and reliability of Electric Vehicle
(EV) battery management systems (BMS). With the surge in electric vehicle adoption,
ensuring optimal battery performance, longevity, and safety has become paramount. The study
presents a comprehensive IoT-based BMS framework that facilitates real-time monitoring,
predictive maintenance, and intelligent energy management. Utilizing IoT sensors and
connectivity solutions, the system enables remote monitoring of battery health parameters such
as temperature, voltage, and stateof-charge. The results demonstrate significant improvements
in battery lifespan, performance consistency, and overall EV operational efficiency.
Furthermore, the IoT-enabled BMS offers scalable and adaptable solutions, paving the way for
future advancements in electric vehicle.
Introduction-
Electric vehicles rely on batteries to provide green transportation. In electrified
mobility, lithium chemistry is now widely acknowledged as the preferred power storage
technology. A battery management system is an electrical controller that monitors and manages
rechargeable charging (BMS).
This is essentially battery tracking, which is keeping track of key performance metrics
like the voltage, current, and battery temperature when charging and discharging. The battery
deterioration cycle can be slowed by correctly maintaining the battery and maintaining its
charging discharge under various demanding scenarios. The Internet of Things (IoT) is the
connecting of common devices via a network. It's a wireless electrical link aimed at connecting
everyday objects. The interface connects coding in electrical devices, detectors, and devices to
a Wi- Fi connection. The automobile sector, which includes the selling of electrified vehicles
and, more recently, driverless vehicles is another significant use of IoT equipment.
Temperature tracking during charging improves the safety and performance of electric vehicle
battery packs. Previous battery tracking systems monitored and tracked the battery's state,
alerting the driver via the vehicle's battery display. Because of advancements in network
building alerts, the IoT platform may be used to warn producers and customers about charge
levels. The envisaged IoT- based battery management system consists of two main
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components: tracking tools and user interfaces. According to empirical data, the platform is
prone to detecting deteriorating battery status and sending a notification to users for further
action. Battery Charge Status is a metric that indicates how much charge a battery can hold or,
in another context, how much charge the battery currently has. When the battery is overloaded,
the battery management system 2 uses controllers and detectors to detect the emission of these
poisons. Examine a battery's basic parameters, such as voltage, current, and heat [2, 9]. It also
includes a GPS module for tracking autos. These values are displayed on the cloud, bringing
the Internet of Things concept to life. Man-machine or machine machine interaction is possible
with the Internet of Things. The three fundamental features of IoT are that it is significant,
intelligent, and internet connected. The battery management mechanism keeps the cell running
smoothly and safely, but it also raises the risk of sensory dementia. The state of the battery is
monitored using a variety of metering methods, including voltage, current, and ambient
temperature. The environment is assessed using a variety of detector. In addition, IoT and
Cloud Visualized Asset Research improves the usability, price, responsiveness, security,
durability and versatility of bulk power storage systems by revamping the battery management
system to detect battery pack well-being. Overloads and load variations, on the other hand,
might harm the battery, limit its life, or result in dangerous situations. The Battery Monitoring
Framework is intended to keep battery voltages and temperatures within acceptable operating
parameters .The utilization of clean power is becoming increasingly important in today's
generation. As a result, electric cars have become the most environmentally friendly means of
transportation. The technique presented here was created in response to a demand for a generic
design strategy that can be applied to any case involving battery management requirements
and that can be utilized in conjunction with a battery monitoring system. Electric field vehicles
are gaining popularity since they are less expensive and better for the environment. As gasoline
prices rise, electric vehicles are becoming increasingly popular. Many automakers are seeking
alternatives to petroleum as a source of energy as a result of these possibilities. Electricity
companies have the opportunity to help the environment by lowering pollution.
What is EV-
An electric vehicle (EV), also known as an electric drive vehicle, relies on one or more
electric motors or traction motors to propel it. EVs can draw power from various sources, either
by collecting electricity from off-vehicle infrastructure or by having an onboard battery or
generator to convert fuel into electricity. These electric vehicles encompass a wide range of
transportation options, including cars, trains, surface and underwater vessels, electric aircraft,
and even spacecraft. What sets electric vehicles apart from their fossil fuel-powered
counterparts is their ability to source power from a diverse range of energy inputs, including
fossil fuels, nuclear power, and renewable sources such as tidal energy, solar power, and wind
power, often in combination. Regardless of the energy source, it's transmitted to the vehicle
through overhead lines, wireless energy transfer like inductive charging, or by directly
plugging into an electrical cable. In the case of electric vehicles, a battery or another energy
storage system is used to store the electricity required to operate the electric motor. These
batteries need to be recharged by connecting the vehicle to a power source. Some EVs have
onboard chargers, while others require external chargers. In both cases, the electricity
ultimately comes from the power grid. It's worth noting that even though electricity production
can be associated with air pollution, electric vehicles are considered zero emission because
their motors produce no exhaust or emissions. In a parallel hybrid motorized bicycle, like the
one designed by Hosea W. Libbey in 1897, the human and motor inputs are mechanically
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connected, typically at the bottom bracket, rear wheel, or front wheel. On the other hand, in a
mechanical series hybrid cycle, human and motor inputs are coupled through differential
gearing. In an electronic series hybrid cycle, human power is converted into electricity and
directly supplied to the motor, often with additional electricity from a battery. This electricity
may be stored on board using a battery, flywheel, or super capacitors. Unlike vehicles powered
solely by combustion engines, which are typically limited to a single or a few energy sources,
often non- renewable fossil fuels, hybrid and plug-in electric vehicles offer a significant
advantage with regenerative braking. They can recover energy that is normally lost during
braking, storing it as electricity in an onboard battery. This feature contributes to their energy
efficiency and reduced environmental impact.
Ev Battery Management System-
Battery Management Systems (BMS) play a pivotal role in the electric vehicle (EV)
industry, offering a wide array of functions and benefits to ensure the efficient and secure
operation of the vehicle’s battery pack.
BMS Monitoring: Real-time data allows industries to track and manage the performance and
condition of the battery pack, ensuring optimal operation over time. Safety Assurance:
Ensuring the safety of electric vehicles is paramount for the industry. These features are
essential for safeguarding the vehicle, passengers, and surrounding infrastructure. Thermal
Management: Industries rely on BMS to prevent overheating during charging, discharging, and
extreme environmental conditions, which is critical for the battery’s longevity and safety.
Cell Balancing: In a typical EV battery pack, multiple cells are connected in series and
parallel. BMS takes charge of cell balancing, ensuring that all cells maintain the same state of
charge. This optimization enhances energy storage capacity and extends the battery’s overall
lifespan. Energy Efficiency: Electric vehicles strive for maximum energy efficiency, and BMS
plays a pivotal role in achieving this goal. By preventing over-discharging and effectively
managing energy distribution, BMS helps to reduce energy waste and enhance the overall
efficiency of the vehicle.
Range Estimation: BMS provides real-time data on the battery’s state of charge, which is
used to estimate the vehicle’s remaining range. This information is invaluable for both drivers
and industries, as it aids in trip planning and mitigates range anxiety.
Diagnostics and Proactive Maintenance: BMS offers diagnostic capabilities that enable
early detection and resolution of potential battery issues. Industries 8 use this feature to
minimize downtime and reduce maintenance costs by addressing battery problems before they
escalate.
Regulatory Compliance: Adhering to safety and performance standards is paramount for EV
manufacturers. Industries employ BMS to ensure that their vehicles are fully compliant with
regulatory requirements, securing regulatory approval and market access.
User Satisfaction: BMS contributes to this by maintaining consistent and reliable vehicle
performance, directly impacting user satisfaction and bolstering brand reputation. Data
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Analytics in BMS: Industries leverage this data to enhance future designs, advance battery
technology, and optimize energy management strategies.
Improving Charging Infrastructure: Armed with BMS data, industries can gain a better
understanding of battery charging behavior and preferences in EVs. This information is
invaluable in guiding the development and enhancement of charging infrastructure to meet the
needs of EV owners. In summary, Battery Management Systems (BMS) are indispensable in
the electric vehicle industry. BMS technology continues to evolve to meet the industry’s ever-
changing needs, ensuring the reliability, safety, and performance of electric vehicles as they
become increasingly integral in the transportation sector
Electric Motor-
Electric Motor the power output of a vehicle's electric motor, much like in traditional
vehicles, is measured in kilowatts (kW). To provide a point of reference, 100 kW roughly
translates to 134 horsepower. However, electric motors distinguish themselves by delivering
their full torque over a broad RPM range, resulting in performance that far surpasses that of a
134 horsepower (100 kW) fuelpowered motor, known for its limited torque curve. Typically,
the process involves supplying direct current (DC) electricity, which is then channeled into a
DC/AC inverter. This inverter converts the DC electricity into alternating current (AC), which
is subsequently connected to a 3- phase AC motor for vehicle propulsion. V.II. Hybrid EVs
Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) blend a conventional powertrain, usually powered by fossil
fuels, with some form of electric propulsion. As of April 2016, the global sales of hybrid
electric vehicles have exceeded 11 million units since their introduction in 1997. Japan takes
the lead in this market, having sold more than 5 million hybrid vehicles, followed by the United
States with cumulative sales exceeding 4 million units since 1999, and Europe with
approximately 1.5 million hybrids delivered since 2000. Notably, Japan boasts the highest
market penetration of hybrids globally. By 2013, hybrid vehicles accounted for over 30% of
new standard passenger car sales and around 20% of new passenger vehicle sales, including
kei cars. V.III. On- and Off-Road EVs Electric vehicles (EVs) are deployed in various
capacities, both on and off the road. They serve purposes such as electric cars, trolleybuses,
electric buses, battery electric buses, electric trucks, electric bicycles, electric motorcycles,
scooters, neighborhood electric vehicles, golf carts, milk floats, and forklifts. Off-road
applications encompass electrified all-terrain vehicles and tractors. V.IV. Energy and Motors
the systems described above primarily rely on rotary electric motors for motion. However, it
is feasible to adapt these motors to drive directly along a specially matched track. It's important
to note that utilizing linear motors for this purpose presents challenges related to high-
performance control systems and the complexity of switching and curving tracks. As a result,
linear motors have typically been reserved for high-speed point-to-point services, limiting their
broader applications.
Components-
Inter-Integrated Circuit(I2c)- The I2C protocol involves using two lines to send and receive
data: a serial clock pin (SCL) that the Arduino Controller board pulses at a regular interval,
and a serial data pin (SDA) over which data is sent between the two devices. In I2C, there is
one controller device, with one or more peripheral devices connected to the controllers SCL
and SDA lines. Battery Sensor - To measure the battery parameters such as voltage or current.
Memory-To store previous and current data values. GPS Module - To determine the current
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location accurately.
Communication Module - GSM used for tracking and monitoring the vehicle’s location and
sends data to a display unit.
Display Unit - An output digital display unit to show the EV Battery percentage.
PCB Board-A printed circuit board (PCB), also called printed wiring board (PWB), is a
medium used to connect or "wire" components to one another in a circuit. It takes the form of
a laminated sandwich structure of conductive and insulating layers: each of the conductive
layers is designed with an artwork pattern of traces, planes and other features (similar to wires
on a flat surface) etched from one or more sheet layers of copper laminated onto and/or between
sheet layers of a non-conductive substrate.
System Transitions-
Existing System
Traditional Electric Vehicle (EV) battery management systems exhibit several
limitations. Limited Monitoring Capability: Existing systems often lack real-time monitoring
capabilities, making it challenging for users to promptly identify potential issues with their EV
batteries. Absence of Remote Control: Conventional systems generally do not offer remote
control features, restricting users' ability to manage and optimize battery backup settings from
a distance. Inefficient Data Accessibility: Localized monitoring systems may not provide users
with easy access to comprehensive data on battery health and performance, hindering informed
decision-making. Scalability Challenges: Many existing systems may face scalability
challenges, especially when integrating with emerging technologies or adapting to different
EV models and battery types.
Proposed System
The proposed Electric Vehicle Battery Management System addresses the limitations
of existing systems through an innovative methodology: Real-Time Monitoring with Node
MCU: The integration of Node MCU enables continuous real-time monitoring of EV battery
voltage. This ensures that users receive immediate updates on the battery's status, allowing for
timely responses to any deviations from the optimal range. Remote Control via Blynk
Application: Leveraging the Blynk application, users can remotely control and manage their
EV battery settings. This feature 10 provides unprecedented flexibility and convenience,
allowing users to optimize battery backup settings from any location with internet access.
Enhanced Data Accessibility: The Blynk application serves as a user-friendly interface,
offering comprehensive data visualization and easy accessibility to crucial information about
the EV battery's performance. This empowers users with the knowledge needed for proactive
maintenance. Adaptability and Scalability: The proposed system is designed to be adaptable to
various EV models and battery types, promoting scalability. The integration of NodeMCU and
Blynk allows for flexibility in incorporating emerging technologies and addressing the
evolving landscape of electric vehicles. Improved Efficiency and User Experience: The
methodology ensures a streamlined process for EV battery management, leading to improved
overall efficiency. Users benefit from a more responsive and user-friendly system, facilitating
a positive and proactive user experience. Potential for Predictive Analytics: The architecture
lays the groundwork for future enhancements, such as the integration of machine learning
algorithms for predictive analytics. This could enable the system to anticipate potential issues
and provide users with proactive recommendations for battery maintenance.
Conclusions
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In conclusion, the development and implementation of the IoT-based Electric Vehicle (EV)
Battery Management System using Node MCU and Blynk represent a significant leap forward
in addressing the limitations of traditional EV battery management. Through this project, we
have successfully demonstrated the feasibility and advantages of leveraging Internet of Things
technologies for real-time monitoring and remote control of EV batteries. The existing
challenges in conventional EV battery management systems, including limited monitoring
capabilities, absence of remote control features, and inefficient data accessibility, have been
effectively overcome by the proposed system. The integration of Node MCU
ensures.continuous real-time monitoring, while the Blynk application provides a user-friendly
interfacefor remote control, enhancing accessibility and decision-making.
References
[1].Shanbhag Atish Manoj., Shwetha M S., Sneha K Bakale., Sinchana., Vidya. Smart
Farming Using Sensors For Agricultural Task Automation And Fencing System.
[2].Emerson Navarro., Nuno Costa., Antonio Pereira., (2020). A Systematic Review of IoT
solutions for Smart farming.
[3]. Jash Doshi., Tirthkumar patel., Santhosh Kumar Bharti(2020). Smart Farming using
IoT, a solution for optically monitoring farming conditions.
[4]. Dankan Gowda., (2021) Smart Agriculture and Smart farming using IoT Technology
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PV Based EV Charging Station for Urban areas
Kithiyon Manaase S, Mathan S, Raja Mani K J, Dr.M.Siva Ramkumar

Department of EEE, Faculty of Engineering,
Karpagam Academy of higher Education,India
Email id :21lbeeee005@kahedu.edu.in
Abstract: Due to depleting fossil fuel reserves coupled with a climate crisis,
sustainability is gaining ground, and electric vehicles (EVs) are emerging to be the new
face of this field. However, the idea of EVs will be genuinely sustainable only if they
are charged using renewable energy. This paper presents results from the design of a
solar-powered EV charging station for an Indian context. PVsyst 7.2 software has been
used for the system design. The analysis, based on the number of cars charged annually,
the monthly variation in energy generation, the investment cost, and the decrease in carbon
dioxide (CO2) emissions using different module technologies for six Indian cities, has been
deliberated. The results indicate that an off-grid 8.1 kWp system with two days of battery
autonomy has the fewest unused energy losses, with a good performance ratio (PR). It
can completely charge around 414 vehicles of 30 kWh battery capacity annually. This
would help to reduce annual CO2 emissions by approximately 7950 kg. For cities near the
equator, maximum energy is produced during March or January, and for cities near the
Tropic of Cancer, energy production maximizes during May–June. The overall system
has better energy generation and economy when monocrystalline modules are used.
Keywords: solar photovoltaics; electric vehicles; charging stations; monocrystalline;

polycrystalline
1. Introduction
Road transport is undoubtedly the most common and affordable form of commute
for people around the world. However, recently, it has faced much criticism due to its
dependence on fossil fuels and its relatively low operational inefficiency [1]. This has
opened the doors for the electric mobility industry, and the world has witnessed a drastic
surge in the acceptability of EVs.
As India aims to decrease its carbon footprint like other nations and step into the world
of sustainability, the government is consistently introducing transport sector reforms that aim
at the electrification of all effective forms of commute. As a result, according to a study
conducted between 2020–2027, the average annual growth rate for the EV sector in India is
estimated to be around 44% [2].
Articles published by various research scholars and authorities mainly focus on the
importance of shifting towards EVs, the technical aspects of charging stations, and the
governments’ policies to develop the necessary infrastructure for EVs [3–5]. Topics such
as the need for India to move away from its crude oil imports, fighting climate change to
reduce its carbon footprints, and reducing pollution have been discussed in detail, and
conclusions regarding India moving into the EV space following its global peers have
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been made [6]. Moreover, new energy storage and transfer technologies that can be used
to implement the charging infrastructure have been studied according to the necessary
requirements [7–9].
It is essential to differentiate between what ‘looks sustainable’ and what ‘is sustainable’
to implement sustainability. EVs are a formidable example of decreasing instantaneous
emissions, but they shift the energy demand from crude oil to electricity. This ultimately
increases the pressure on the grid infrastructure that is already facing an energy deficit [3]. In
India, nearly 61% of the grid electricity is from coal-based thermal power plants, 15% is
from hydropower, 8% is from solar PV, 5% is from wind energy, 9% is from natural gas,
and 2% is from nuclear energy [10].
Upon considering three categories of vehicles, EVs running on electricity from the grid,
internal combustion engine-based vehicles (ICEVs), and EVs running on electricity from
solar photovoltaics (PV), and calculating their well-to-wheel CO2 emissions, EVs
running on electricity from solar PV turned out to be the least polluting. Such an EV
would lead to only 0.6 kg of CO2 emission per 100 km travelled. In contrast, a 5-seater
gasoline-based ICEV would produce about 13 kg of CO2 in covering the same distance,
and an EV running on grid electricity would cause 10 kg of CO 2 emissions per 100 km
travelled (considering a similar share of the different sources, as listed above). The
unavailability of charging stations at regular intervals is another matter of concern, and
nearly all of the available ones are grid-tied. Hence, grid availability becomes a crucial
point while deciding the location of a charging station.
India is a sun-drenched country, which makes it ideal for the utilization of solar energy
for electricity production. When most of our energy requirements revolve around electricity,
solar PV has proven to be an excellent solution for localized electricity generation, even
for large-scale applications. Although renewables such as solar are climate dependent and the
Indian climate varies with geography, the flexibility of solar PV as stand-alone systems with
battery backup makes them quintessential for remote cities. Moreover, integrating solar
PV with charging stations can help us achieve power autonomy, generate electricity more
responsibly, and spare the land and marine ecosystem from the mining of coal and crude
oil [11].
Utilizing solar energy for charging electric vehicles is an evolving idea and has taken
ground over the past few years [12]. However, EVs have been in the market since the
1990s, and the literature related to charging station designs indicates the concern for grid
availability while designing and siting charging stations [5,7,13,14]. Over the past ten
years, researchers have tried to include solar energy for charging stations to ensure energy
autonomy and reduced emissions. Countries like the Netherlands, Macau, and Romania are
opting for solar energy to charge their EVs [15–17]. This has led to the development of smart
and efficient hybrid PV systems for charging stations that can predict the load requirement
and the energy generation [7,18,19]. However, most of them are for charging two-wheelers,
which have a smaller battery bank than four-wheeler EVs [7,18–21]. Moreover, these plans
and designs are suited to urban commercial buildings [7,12].
In the context of the previous literature reported, it is evident that there is a consid-
erable gap in designing the aspects of a solar-powered EV charging station. Feasibility
analysis has been done on the Indian market for EVs, and it proves the viability of a
renewable-based charging station for the country [22]. This paper aims to fulfill those gaps
and thus specifically focus on the following objectives:
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• To size an efficient, resilient, and sustainable off-grid solar PV system suitable for EV
charging stations in India.
• To analyze & compare its yearly and seasonal performance for six Indian cities. The
operational parameters include the number of cars charged, the monthly variation in
energy generation, PR, the decrease in CO2 emissions, and the investment cost per km.
The novel part of the study includes an attempt to optimize the size of the PV array
capacity based on the PR and the percentage of unused energy.
2. Method
System sizing starts with identifying the standards and regulations for EV charging
stations. This is followed by the selection of cities for which simulation will be performed.
Solar energy is directly related to the location’s climatology; hence, comprehension and
analyses of weather patterns become imperative. Next, a daily load for the charging station is
decided, after which suitable system components are chosen and manual calculations are
done to size the battery bank and the solar array capacity. Then, using simulation, the
system performance is analyzed, and the array capacity is altered to minimize unwanted
losses. Further simulations are performed on the new array capacity, and modifications are
done if required. This is an iterative process, and amendments are made to attain the most
optimized version of the solar PV system. Finally, the performance data, thus calculated,
are recorded and compared for different locations. Figure 1 represents the system sizing
methodology as a schematic.
Figure 1. Methodology for PV system design.
2.1. Standards
EV charging has been regulated by various institutions such as AIS, SAE, and IEC.
The charging level modes and specifications of the connectors have been clearly mentioned
in the guidelines issued by these organizations. Tables 1 and 2 summarize the different
standards for charging EVs.
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Table 1. EV charging levels [22–24].
Charging Type Level 1 Level 2 Direct Current (DC)

Fast
Charging time (h) 20 to 22 6 to 8 0.2 to 0.5
Charger location On-board (1 phase) On-board (1 or 3 phase) Off-board (3 phase)
Voltage supply(V) 10–20 miles/h of charging 60–80 miles in <30
Power level (kW) 1.3 to 1.9 up to 19.2 50 min
to 150
Travel range 2–5 miles/h of
charging
Primary Use Residential charging Residential and public Public charging
charging
(Min 50 kW) Combined charging system (CCS)
200–750 or higher 1 4W
Fast Charge de move (CHAdeMO)

200–500 or higher 1 4W
(Min 50 kW)
Type-2 alternating current (AC)
380–415 1 4W, 3W, 2W
(Min 22 kW) BHARAT DC-001 (15 kW) 48 1 4W, 3W, 2W

Slow/moderate BHARAT DC-001 (15 kW) 72 or higher 1 4W
BHARAT AC-001 (10 kW) 230 3 of 3.3 kW each 4W, 3W, 2W
2.2. Selection of Cities and Climate Analysis
India is located in the northern hemisphere, with the Tropic of Cancer (23.5◦ N) passing
through it. According to the National Building Code (NBC), India is majorly divided
into five major climatic zones: cold, composite, hot & dry, warm & humid, and temperate
[25]. For this analysis, six Indian cities have been selected, each featuring a different
region and belonging to one of these climatic zones. The coordinates and altitudes for
each of these cities are given in Figure 2.
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Figure 2. Selected cities for the analysis [25–27].
All these cities experience different weather conditions throughout the year. This
mainly depends on the latitude and altitude of a place and its distance from the sea.
The significant parameters that indicate a location’s weather condition, pertinent to
solar PV, are maximum & minimum ambient temperatures, cloud cover, total day length,
number of actual sunshine hours, atmospheric turbidity, global radiation, and the number
of ‘full Sun hours.’ These factors vary for each city throughout the year, depending on
the city’s geography and population. Some of these critical parameters have been tabulated
for these six cities in Table 3.
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Table 3. Weather parameters of the selected cities [26,27].
Maximum Minimum Month with Month with Annual

Ambient Ambient Maximum. Maximum Average
City
Temperature Temperature Global Linke Number of Full
(◦C) (◦C) Radiation Turbidity Sun Hours
(kWh/m2) Factor (kWh/kWp)
Ladakh 15 −14 June: 215 April: 2.751 5.2
pril–August,
Delhi 44 5 May: 220 October– 4.0
November: 7.0
Tawang 24 −3 June: 170 April: 4.59 3.6
Jaisalmer 43 8 May: 220 April–August: 4.6
7
Chennai 40 20 March: 197 May: 6.594 4.4
Bengaluru 37 13 March: 210 May: 5.395 4.2
Day length is the time between sunrise and sunset, whereas the ‘actual number of
sunshine hours’ refers to the effective day length without cloud cover. Linke turbidity is
a factor assigned for the level of suspended particles in the atmosphere. This can be
smoke, dust, fog, or small water droplets. The higher the concentration of suspended
particles, the higher the turbidity factor. Due to variations in the instantaneous ambient
temperature, global irradiation, cloudiness levels, and turbidity values, a fixed parameter
known as ‘average full sun hours’ has been computed for every city. This represents the
annual average of the number of units of energy produced by a 1 kWp installation per
day if it is tilted at the latitude angle. This parameter is essential for initial system sizing;
however, it does not mention instantaneous energy generation.
2.3. PV Sizing
Any PV system sizing can be divided into two stages: preliminary calculations and
system optimization. Usually, the client provides an initial value for any specific parameter,
which becomes the base for all prelusive measures and further optimization. This boundary
condition can vary from a budget limit to a spatial limit depending on the situation. Since
this work does not predicate any such restrictions, the preliminary system sizing is initiated
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with the selection of the type of system. Here, off-grid PV system is chosen for the charging
station. The load requirement is fixed and the load profile per day is determined. The entire
battery bank and array have to be designed to sustain peak load demands for off-grid
systems, resulting in extensive systems with high costs. Hence, for the charging station,
the consumption profile is assumed to be constant throughout the day at 2.5 kW per
hour, equivalent to a load of 60 kWh per day. Figure 3 shows the working of the off-grid
PV system.
The PV array generates energy from morning to evening during the sun hours. After
fulfilling the load, the remaining energy is fed to the battery. The charge controller ensures
that the instantaneous energy generation does not exceed the energy requirement of the
consumer and the battery capacity available. The energy is supplied to the EVs from night
to the early morning hours by the battery bank.
Figure 3. Generation vs. requirement profile of the charging station for a day.
The selection of the station structure is another important criterion that depends on the
solar PV application. A carport structure is preferred for the concerned design since this
integrates the parking area with the array installation area. The array also acts as the roof for
the parking zone and the battery room. Since most carport structure manufacturers allow only
a 5–10◦ tilt, a south-facing roof with a 10◦ tilt is opted for the charging station. The azimuth
angle of the solar array is entirely subject to the available space. Figure 4 shows a carport
integrated charging station.
Figure 4. Schematic representation of carport charging infrastructure.

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The determination of the charging criteria is crucial, as it directly affects the system
sizing and economics. Therefore, the system voltages and the charging conditions are
governed by the codes and standards mentioned in Section 2.1. Here, the station design
has been carried out according to Level-2 charging with a BHARAT DC-001 15 kW (240
V) GB/T connector. Following this, the major components of the charging station are
selected, such as the PV array, battery bank, charge controller, EV charger, cabling,
accessories,fasteners, and carport structure. The PV module, charge controller, and
battery are the key elements of any off-grid solar PV plant.
In this case, the aim is to compare two module technologies that would only be fea-
sible if the modules are manufactured by the same company and have the same rated
power. Modules with higher power ratings cost more but are required in less quantity.
Minimizing the station area is also necessary for system optimization; hence, a higher
power rating module has been selected. Two modules from ‘AEG Solar’ (a
monocrystalline and a polycrystalline) of 325 Wp and 72 cells are selected (Figure 5)
and compared for this design. The 325 Wp modules have been chosen since this was the
highest common rated power in the PVsyst database for two different module
technologies from the same manufacturer. Monocrystalline technology is more efficient
and more expensive, while polycrystalline technology is less efficient and cheaper. The
modules’ responses to variations in temperature and irradiation differ, since the actual
conditions are not similar to the ‘Standard Testing Conditions (STC). Therefore, the
polycrystalline module has been used for the initial array optimization part. The system
performance data have been generated with both the modules and are mentioned in
Section 3. Figures 5 and 6 show the efficiency curves for the monocrystalline and
polycrystalline modules, respectively.
As far as the battery is regarded, two main technologies are available commercially:
lead-acid and lithium-ion. Out of these two, lithium-ion is relatively new for large-scale
applications. On the other hand, lead-acid has been used for several years for energy
storage, specifically in large-scale applications, and is cheaper than lithium-ion by a consid-
erable margin. However, there are some advantages of lithium-ion over lead-acid batteries.
For example, they have a higher depth of discharge (DoD), lower maintenance issues, a
longer life, inbuilt safety switches for each battery, a lower C-rating, no exposed wires,
no toxic fumes, and compact.
Figure 5. Single line diagram of the charging station.
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Conclusions and Future Scope of Work

• Out of all the array sizes selected, the 8.1 kWp solar PV system with two days of battery
autonomy (129.6 kWh battery capacity) has the fewest unused energy losses and a good
PR in all six of the cities: Delhi, Chennai, Jaisalmer, Tawang, Ladakh, and Bengaluru.
• An annual average of 12,428.8 kWh of energy can be generated from this system, which
is sufficient to charge 414 vehicles with a battery capacity of 30 kWh. This would help
in decreasing CO2 emissions by around 7950 kg per year.
• For cities near the Tropic of Cancer, namely, Delhi, Tawang, Jaisalmer, and Ladakh,
maximum energy is produced from May–July, and for cities near the Equator, namely,
Bengaluru and Chennai, more energy is produced during November–January and
February–April, respectively. Out of all of the cities, the maximum energy supplied in a
month is 1444 kWh in Bengaluru in January, and the minimum is 685 kWh in Ladakh in
December.
• According to the annual energy supplied by the charging station, the maximum number of
cars can be charged in Bengaluru and the minimum number of cars can be charged in
Tawang.
• The investment cost per km over 20 years of system life for the 8.1 kWp array with two
days autonomy is INR 4.05 if monocrystalline panels are used and INR 4.09 if
polycrystalline panels are used. Therefore, the least possible investment cost per km for a
gasoline station is INR 5, and it can go up to INR 7.
• Despite having the same rated wattage, the monocrystalline panels have a better
performance than the polycrystalline panels in terms of the energy supplied to EVs, CO2
mitigation, and the investment cost per km.
• Compared to grid-tied EV charging stations, this station design does require 16 times more
space. Still, its resilience and sustainability make it a good option for frontier regions
such as Ladakh and Tawang, where grid availability is sparse.
• The current trend is to shift towards swappable batteries, and such a station can also be
designed. Furthermore, chargers that are capable of charging different types of vehicles
can also be used, and the system can be integrated with other forms of renewable energy,
depending on the location.
References
1. Lahiri-Dutt, K. The Diverse Worlds of Coal in India: Energising the Nation, Energising
Livelihoods. Energy Policy 2016, 99, 203–213. [CrossRef]
2. Press Trust of India. Electric Vehicle Market in India Expected to Hit 63 Lakh Units per
Annum Mark by 2027: IESA. Available online: https://yourstory.com/2020/12/electric-
vehicle-market-india-expected-hit-63lakh-iesa/amp (accessed on 8 July 2021).
3. Suzuki, K.; Kobayashi, Y.; Murai, K.; Ikezoe, K. Impact of EV Charging on Power
System with High Penetration of EVs: Simulation and Quantitative Analysis Based on
Real World Usage Data. In SAE Technical Paper Series; SAE International: Warrendale,
PA, USA, 2020.
4. Kostopoulos, E.D.; Spyropoulos, G.C.; Kaldellis, J.K. Real-World Study for the Optimal
Charging of Electric Vehicles. Energy Rep.
2020, 6, 418–426. [CrossRef]
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5. Brenna, M.; Foiadelli, F.; Leone, C.; Longo, M. Electric Vehicles Charging
Technology Review and Optimal Size Estimation.
J. Electr. Eng. Technol. 2020, 15, 2539–2552. [CrossRef]
6. Sharma, A.; Kapoor, A.; Chakrabarti, S. Impact of Plug-in Electric Vehicles on Power
Distribution System of Major Cities of India: A Case Study. Available online:
https://home.iitk.ac.in/~{}ansharma/EV_Report_V1.pdf (accessed on 9 July 2021).
7. Chandra Mouli, G.R.; Van Duijsen, P.; Grazian, F.; Jamodkar, A.; Bauer, P.; Isabella, O.
Sustainable E-Bike Charging Station That Enables AC, DC and Wireless Charging from
Solar Energy. Energies 2020, 13, 3549. [CrossRef]
8. Atmaja, T.D. Energy Storage System Using Battery and Ultracapacitor on Mobile
Charging Station for Electric Vehicle. Energy Procedia 2015, 68, 429–437. [CrossRef]
9. Altaleb, H.; Rajnai, Z. Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure and Charging Technologies.
Haditechnika 2020, 54, 8–12. [CrossRef]
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Implementing a Solar-Powered Water Pump System Utilizing a Zeta

Converter Coupled with a BLDC Motor
R.KRISHNA KUMAR1, R.DHEEPIKA2, G.NISHANTH3,
S.SHAFEER AHAMED4, S.SELVAKUMAR5
1
Assistant Professor, Department of EEE, Karpagam College of Engineering,
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu.
2345
UG Scholars, Department of EEE, Karpagam College of Engineering,
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
Corresponding author E-mail:- 1 Kumaran23011991@gmail.com,
Abstract
These paper shows the incorporation of renewable energy sources into water pumping systems has attracted
considerable interest owing to its capacity to alleviate environmental consequences and curtail dependence on
conventional energy sources. This paper proposes and analyzes a Solar Water Pumping System (SWPS) that
integrates a Brushless DC (BLDC) motor with a Zeta converter. The design and functioning of the system are
examined, with a focus on how well it uses solar energy to power water pumps. Each system component's
implementation specifics and design concerns are covered in length in this document. To enhance energy
conversion efficiency and system performance, special attention is paid to the Zeta converter's design
characteristics, such as the duty cycle, switching frequency, and control approach. To guarantee compliance with
the system requirements and get optimal pump performance, the BLDC motor's selection and size are also
examined. Efficiency, power output, and dynamic responsiveness are only a few of the performance metrics of the
system that are thoroughly examined under various operating scenarios. The suggested system for water pumping
applications has been shown to be both feasible and effective based on simulation findings and experimental
validation. An assessment is conducted on the solar-powered water pump system's environmental advantages and
economic viability. A cost study is carried out to evaluate the system's economic feasibility in comparison to
traditional grid-powered pumps. This analysis takes into account the initial investment, ongoing expenditures, and
payback period. To emphasize the sustainability benefits of the suggested approach, the environmental impact—
which includes decreased carbon emissions and reliance on fossil fuels—is also measured. In conclusion, a viable
option for a sustainable water supply in isolated or off-grid areas is the combination of a Zeta converter with a
BLDC motor in a solar-powered water pump system. The thorough study offered in this paper offers scholars,
engineers, and legislators insightful information on the development and application of water pumping systems
powered by renewable energy.
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IOT based Power flow control in Renewable

Energy Resources with Power Factor
Improvement
M.Nagarajan1, Dr. G.Emayavaramban2
1Research Scholar, Department of EEE,
Karpagam Academy of Higher Education (Deemed to be University), Coimbatore-641021
2Assistant
Professor, Department of EEE,
Karpagam Academy of Higher Education (Deemed to be University), Coimbatore-641021
Abstract: The IoT allows articles to be detected or remotely controlled over existing system
frameworks, opening doors for the unadulterated incorporation of the physical world into PC-based
frameworks and providing improved efficiency, accuracy, and monetary advantage despite reduced
human mediation. This breakthrough has various applications, such as urban communities focused on
solar power, smart cities, micro matrices, and lights on Solar Road, etc. AI is when calculations
decode gigantic knowledge arrangements to the PCs so that they can function without specific
programming. This, for the most part, focuses on the development of different PC programs which
may change when exposed to new information. During this period renewable vitality developed at a
rate faster than some other time in history. These days people groups confronting the issue of
confinement of non-sustainable power sources, so to take care of this issue the best arrangement is to
utilize sustainable power sources like solar oriented vitality. Solar dependence is the planet's fastest-
growing sustainable power source, steadily increasing by a standard of 40 percent in the overall limit.
AI can be utilized in Probabilistic Energy Forecasting. The fundamental reason behind this is to
gauge the likelihood appropriation of solar oriented power age from more than one solar-based ranch
all the while. In this paper, we examined -the study on how IOT assumes a significant job in solar-
powered vitality and how AI approaches are utilized in solar oriented vitality.
1. INTRODUCTION:
The rapid advancement in the Internet of Things (IoT) and Machine Learning (ML) technologies
has revolutionized numerous sectors, prominently including the energy domain. IoT devices, when
integrated with ML algorithms, can facilitate efficient energy generation, storage, and consumption
by ensuring real-time monitoring and predictive analytics.
Hybrid renewable energy systems, combining solar, wind, and hydrogen fuel cells, stand as a
demonstration to this convergence. These hybrid systems offer a sustainable solution for green energy
generation, mitigating the intermittencies associated with individual renewable sources.
Influencing IoT for data acquisition from diverse sensors and ML for data analysis, these systems
can optimize energy production based on environmental factors and consumption patterns, indicating
a new era of eco-friendly and efficient energy management.
The Internet of Things (IoT) is driving the Fourth Industrial Revolution, bringing with it vast
networks of interconnected devices that transform our daily lives. Recent projections suggest that by
2025, there will be over 75 billion IoT devices worldwide. While the adoption rate and technological
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advancements are commendable, they also pose challenges in terms of energy consumption and
supply.
IoT devices, spanning various sectors like smart homes, smart cities, and industrial systems, need
energy solutions that are consistent, sustainable, and green . Traditional energy sources, largely based
on fossil fuels, are rapidly depleting and contribute significantly to global carbon emissions. This
necessitates a transition to more renewable and cleaner energy sources.
Hybrid renewable energy systems, which synergistically combine multiple energy sources such
as solar, wind, and tidal, promise increased efficiency and reliability. The introduction of hydrogen
fuel cells in these systems offers the potential for high-density energy storage, ensuring uninterrupted
energy supply during periods of low renewable energy harvest.
Solar energy, being the most abundant energy source, has been widely used in IoT applications,
but its intermittent nature remains a challenge. Wind energy, on the other hand, offers another vast
resource but its efficiency can be variable based on geographic location and seasonal factors.
The promise of hydrogen as a clean fuel source has gathered significant attention in the last
decade, and its integration into hybrid energy systems is seen as a pivotal advancement for future
energy infrastructures.
2. LITERATURE WITH BENEFITS:
2.1 IoT and Energy Demand The explosion in the number of IoT devices has presented a
pressing challenge in terms of energy consumption. The dynamic energy demands of modern IoT
ecosystems, emphasizing the need for sustainable and consistent power sources.
2.2 Renewable Energy in IoT The role of renewable energy in IoT applications has gained
prominence over the last decade.The potential of solar energy in powering IoT devices, noting the
challenge of intermittency. Meanwhile, the research into wind energy provided insights into its
seasonal and geographic variations and implications for IoT applications.
2.3 Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems Hybrid systems, which combine multiple renewable
energy sources, have been proposed as a solution to the variability of individual sources by
integrating solar, wind, and tidal energy, a more consistent energy output could be achieved.
2.4 Hydrogen Fuel Cells and Energy Storage Hydrogen's potential as an energy medium in
hybrid systems has gained traction.The hydrogen fuel cells, with their high-density energy storage,
can buffer periods of low energy harvest, ensuring a steady supply. The hydrogen was proposed as a
bridge between renewable energy and IoT applications.
2.5 Machine Learning and Energy Optimization The recent integration of machine learning with
energy systems offers avenues for dynamic energy management. The machine learning algorithms
could optimize energy distribution, adjusting to changing environmental and demand conditions .
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The potential for machine learning to refine energy supply dynamics based on real-time data
from IoT devices.
2.6 Gap in the Literature While significant strides have been made in exploring renewable energy
for IoT, there remains a dearth of research focusing on the integration of these technologies into a
cohesive system. Moreover, the role of machine learning in harmonizing energy generation from
solar, wind, and hydrogen sources for IoT applications remains an underexplored domain.
3. PROPOSED SYSTEM DESIGN
Fig 1. Generalized Hybrid Renewable Energy System using IOT
As renewable energy sources are intermittent in nature, it becomes challenging to integrate a

significant number of renewable energy sources with the power grid. Communication infrastructure is
the crucial element and the main building block for future smart grids, which enables the integration
of DERs and bidirectional energy and information flow in the power distribution system.
Figure 1 shows a schematic diagram for the grid integration of renewable energy sources. In
this integration, renewable energy sources will provide many services for electric power utilities
during peak demand by supporting different services such as demand response and demand-side
management. The underlying communication network will play an essential role in enabling the
integration of DERs with improved resilience, reliability, and efficiency.
The renewable energy sources is a cyber–physical system that can be divided into two layers:
the power infrastructure and the communication infrastructure layers, as shown in Figure 1. The
power infrastructure layer consists of different energy sources (e.g., wind turbines, photovoltaics,
diesel generators, and batteries), transformers, feeders, converters, and electrical connections.
The communication infrastructure layer supports the physical infrastructure by an underlying
communication network, linking between sensors and actuators nodes. This enables the local control
center to manage the system operation. In this integration, ICTs play an essential role in allowing the
transition from the conventional power grid to the future smart grid by supporting the integration of
renewable energy sources.
The proposed framework consists of four layers: an infrastructure, a control, a service, and an
application layer. The infrastructure layer covers different smart grid domains, including generation,
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transmission, distribution, and consumption.

The control layer is realized through a supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA)
system, programmable logic control (PLC), substation control, and home/building automation
system. The work highlighted the need for a standardized EMA data model and communication
protocols.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

An IoT-based battery monitoring system in renewable energy sources can provide numerous
benefits, such as real-time monitoring, predictive maintenance, improved battery performance and
longevity, enhanced user experience, and optimized charging patterns.
The system can also enable remote monitoring and control of the battery, which is especially
beneficial for fleet management. However, there are also potential demerits to consider, such as cost,
data privacy and security, connectivity issues, false alerts, and integration with existing systems.
It is important to carefully evaluate the feasibility and effectiveness of the system, and to
implement appropriate security measures to protect the data transmitted wirelessly.
Table 1. Daily Energy Production Rates (kWh/day)

In this study, the efficacy of combining solar, wind, and hydrogen fuel cells to power IoT
applications was substantiated by consistent energy production rates over a span of six months. The
variable energy demands of IoT devices throughout the day, as visualized in Fig. 2, were aptly met by
the hybrid system.
This approach not only aligns with global sustainability goals but also offers promising
implications for diverse IoT domains, championing a shift towards more sustainable and efficient
energy solutions.
Solar Energy Over the six-month period, our photovoltaic solar panels produced an average of 15
kWh/day. Peaks in energy production were observed between 11:00 AM and 3:00 PM, coinciding
with maximum sun exposure.
Wind Energy Wind turbines generated an average of 10 kWh/day. Notably, peak wind energy
production occurred during the early morning and late evening, complementing the solar generation
dips. Hydrogen Fuel Cells These cells consistently provided an average energy output of 5 kWh/day,
serving as a reliable backup during periods of reduced solar and wind generation.
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Fig. 2. Hourly energy consumption patterns of IoT devices in the controlled environment.
Average energy consumption of the IoT devices in our controlled environment was 25 kWh/day.
Peak consumption was observed during early mornings (6:00 AM to 8:00 AM) and evenings (6:00
PM to 9:00 PM).
The LSTM model exhibited a Mean Absolute Error (MAE) of 0.5 kWh in predicting daily energy
consumption patterns of IoT devices, suggesting a high degree of accuracy in forecasting energy
needs.
In this study, the efficacy of combining solar, wind, and hydrogen fuel cells to power IoT
applications was substantiated by consistent energy production rates over a span of six months. The
variable energy demands of IoT devices throughout the day, as visualized in Fig. 3, were aptly met by
the hybrid system.
This approach not only aligns with global sustainability goals but also offers promising
implications for diverse IoT domains, championing a shift towards more sustainable and efficient
energy solutions.
Fig.3. Solar energy prediction using RBNN

In the real-world smart home environment, the proposed hybrid system effectively predicts
the local solar energy using RBFNN machine learning method and its corresponding result shown in
Fig. 3. It indicates that the proposed system prediction accuracy is realistic when compared with
actual solar energy.
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CONCLUSION:
This work presents an IoT-based architecture to support the grid integration of a hybrid
renewable energy system. The communication models for the hybrid energy system consisting of a
small-scale wind turbine, PV system, diesel generator, and battery storage system based on IEC
61850 standard, which is suitable for the isolated and small power system have been designed and
implemented in different scenarios. The integration of hybrid renewable energy sources with IoT, as
presented in this paper, signifies a profound evolution in the quest for sustainable energy solutions
tailored for the Internet of Things (IoT). Our findings indicate that solar, wind, and hydrogen fuel
cells, when optimally harnessed, can not only consistently power IoT applications but also counteract
the typical intermittency associated with individual renewable sources. By leveraging a Long Short-
Term Memory (LSTM) model, the energy consumption patterns of IoT devices were accurately
predicted, which is paramount for the proactive management of energy resources.The future work
aims to complete the prototyping of renewable energy sources, implement the proposed architecture
in a laboratory environment, and comparing the performance of the real prototype with the simulation
models. Furthermore, network security and data transmission are among the most important issues
that need to be considered including, cyber-attacks and false data injection.
REFERENCES:
[1] Munirathinam, Sathyan.: Industry 4.0: Industrial internet of things (IIOT). In: Advances in
computers, vol. 117, pp. 129-164. Elsevier (2020).
[2] Minoli, D.; Sohraby, K.; Occhiogrosso, B. IoT Considerations, Requirements, and Architectures
for Smart Buildings—Energy Optimization and Next-Generation Building Management Systems.
IEEE Internet Things J. 2017, 4, 269–283.
[3] Ku, T.-Y.; Park, W.-K.; Choi, H. IoT energy management platform for microgrid. In Proceedings
of the 2017 IEEE 7th International Conference on Power and Energy Systems (ICPES), Toronto, ON,
Canada, 1–3 November 2017; pp. 106–110.
[4] S. Yonghua, Y. Yuexi, H. Zechun, “Present Status and Development Trend of Batteries for
Electric Vehicles,” Power System Technology, Vol. 35, No. 4, pp. 1-7, 2011.
[5] H.A. Gabbar, A.M. Othman, M.R. Abdussami, Review of battery management systems (BMS)
development and industrial standards, Technologies. 9 (2021) 28,
[6] R. Georgious, R. Refaat, J. Garcia, A.A. Daoud, Review on energy storage systems in
microgrids, Electronics 10 (2021).
[7] H. Wen, W. Xiao, X. Wen, and P. Armstrong, `Ànalysis and evaluation of dc-link capacitors for
high-power-density electric vehicle drive systems,‘’ IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol., vol. 61, no. 7, pp.
29502964, Sep. 2012.
[8] R. Wang et al., `À high power density single-phase PWM rectier with active ripple energy
storage,'' IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 26, no. 5, pp. 14301443, May 2011.
[9] Yushan Liu, Member, IEEE, Haitham Abu-Rub, Senior Member, IEEE, and Baoming Ge,
Member, IEEE,” Front-End Isolated Quasi-Z-Source DC–DC Converter Modules in Series for High-
Power Photovoltaic Systems—Part I: Configuration,Operation, and Evaluation,” IEEE
TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 64, NO. 1, JANUARY 2017
[10] Eltamaly, A.M.; Alotaibi, M.A.; Alolah, A.I.; Ahmed, M.A. A Novel Demand Response
Strategy for Sizing of Hybrid Energy System With Smart Grid Concepts. IEEE Access 2021, 9,
20277–20294.
[11 Tazay, A.F.; Samy, M.M.; Barakat, S. A Techno-Economic Feasibility Analysis of an
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SELF AUTOMATED BOREWELL BARRIER WITH CHILD SAFEGUARD USING

IOT
Ms.R.Swaranambigai[1]
Assistant professor1
Jai shriram Engineering College, Tirupur, India.
Anish Ansari M[2]Madhavan S[3] Mohan P[4] Swetha M[5]
Dept of ECE,
Jai shriram Engineering College, Tirupur, India
Email-Id : anishansari3110@gmail.com
ABSTRACT:
Child safety is of paramount concern, especially in scenarios where accidents, such as

a child falling into a bore well, pose grave threats. This project introduces an innovative
solution that harnesses the power of Artificial Intelligence (AI) to ensure the swift and effective
rescue of a child in such a critical situation. This fully automated mechanism eliminates the
need for manual intervention and significantly minimizes risks associated with traditional
rescue methods. In essence, the AIdriven bore well child rescue system provides a
comprehensive solution that combines preventative measures, immediate detection and
response, and intelligent up liftment, greatly enhancing the likelihood of a successful and
timely rescue operation, ultimately safeguarding the children in critical situations.
Keywords : ESP8266, NodeMCU, pH Sensor.
NTRODUCTION :
In critical situations a child falling into a borewell child safety is paramount. Our
innovative solution, structured into three distinct stage, harnesses the power of Artificial
Intelligence(AI) to ensure the rapid and secure rescue of a child Using a 7-feet PVC pipe as its
primary infrastructure, our system begins with strategically placed human sensors in the first
Stage. These detect nearby presence and trigger an automatic gate closure upon detection,
preventing unauthorized access and safeguarding the child. In case of sensors malfunction or
external interference leading to a child’s fall into the second stage, situated 4 feet below the
first, a dedicated sensors detects the child’s presence. This integrated approach greatly
enhances the likelihood of a successful and timely rescue operation, ultimately safeguarding
the lives of children in critical situations.
COMPONENTS USED :
• Humidity sensors
• ESP32 Cam module
• Gear Motors
• Solar panel
• Arduino uno
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• Buzzer
• Ultrasonic sensors
• Strip light
• GSM SIM800LModule
1. PIR SENSORS
Passive Infrared sensors work based on the detection of infrared radiation emitted by objects
in their field of view. Here are the basic working principles of PIR sensors.
1.1. Infrared Radiation Emission: All object with a temperature above absolute zero emit
infrared radiation. This radiation is a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths
longer than visible light.
1.2. Detection of infrared Changes: As a warm object moves within the sensors filed of view,
the pyroelectric material detects the changes in the infrared radiation pattern. The sensor is
designed to be sensitive to this change in radiation, and it responds by generating an electrical
signal.
1.3. Signal Processing: The amplified signal is then processed by additional circuitry to filter
out any noise and to determine the characteristics of he detected movement. This processing
stage helps differentiate between human movement and spike or a digital signal, including the
detection of motion within its range.
1.4. Application in Motion Detectors: PIR sensors are commonly used in motion detectors
for security systems, automatic lighting systems, and other applications where the detection of
human presence or movement is necessary.
1.5. Output Signal: The PIR sensors provides an output signal, usually in the form of a voltage
Stage. These detect nearby presence and trigger an automatic gate closure upon detection,
preventing unauthorized access and safeguarding
2. ESP32 CAM MODULE
The ESPE32-CAM module is a versatile and cost effective solution the combines an
ESP32 microcontroller and a camera module. It is commonly used for projects involving video
streaming, image capture, and other applications that require both wireless connectivity and
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image processing. Here are the key working principles of the ESP32-CAM module.
2.1. ESP32 Microcontroller: The ESp32 is a powerful and versatile microcontroller with built
in wi-fi and Bluetooth capabilities. It serves as the brain of the ESP32-CAM module, handling
tasks such as image processing, communication, and control.
2.2. Camera Module: The ESP32 CAM module typically comes an ov2640 camera module,
which includes an image sensors and other components for capturing still images and videos.
2.3.Streaming Video: The ESP32-CAM can stream live video over wi fi using protocols such
as MJPEG. This enables real time monitoring of the camera feed on a web browser or a
dedicated.
2.4.Power Management: The ESP32 CAM module requires a stable power supply. Power
management is crucial, especially during image capture or video streaming to ensure optimal
performance and prevent issues related to insufficient power.
3. ARDUINO UNO
The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board on the ATmega328P. It has 14 digital

input/output pins, 6 analog inputs a 16 MHz ceramic resonator, a USB connection, a power
jack an ICSP header and a reset button. The Arduino Uno can interface with other Arduino
boards, microcontrollers, and computers. It uses a variant of the C++ programming language
with the code written in C++ with the addition of special methods and functions. The Arduino
Uno has on operating temperature range of -40C to 85C. The board and/or other parts of your
circuit may not function properly when exceeding the operating temperature range and
irreversible damage to the board may occur.
4. ULTRASONIC SENSORS
Ultrasonic sensors work by transmitting and receiving ultrasound. When powered on

the sensors broadcast ultrasound into space for a certain period. The sensor then calculates the
distance based on the time it takes for the sound to be reflected back. Most ultrasonic sensors
measure the propagation time of sound between send and receive. The barrier principle
determines the distance from the sensors to the reflector or to an object. Ultrasonic sensors are
resistant to mist, dust and dirt particles. They have a stable presence detection for complex
shapes like mesh trays and springs.
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5. GSM SIM800L Module
The term "GSM" stands for "Global System for Mobile Communications," and the
SIM800L module supports the quad-band GSM/GPRS network, allowing for the remote
delivery of GPRS and SMS message data. The SIM800LGSM uses a UART port to connect
to the microcontroller and supports commands such 3GPP TS 27.007, 27.005, and SIMCOM
improved AT Commands. Additionally, it features built-in level translation, allowing it to
operate with microcontrollers that have a greater default voltage than 2.8V. Additionally, the
board supports the A-GPS mobile positioning method, which uses a mobile network to
determine its location. With these features, it can also function as a tracker module. It provides
long range connectivity and Low Cost.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:
WORKING METHODOLOGY:
The system is structured into three distinct stage, each with a specific function
dedicated to the safe and rapid rescue of child. A 7-feet PVC pipe serves as the primary
infrastructure for this project.
STAGE 1 :
At the first stage, two strategically place human sensors detect any nearby presence and
upon detection, trigger an automatic gate closure, preventing unauthorized access to the
borewell and ensuring the detection the child’s safety.
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STAGE 2 :
In the ever of sensors malfunction or external interference leading to a child falling into the
second stage, situated 4 feet below the first, a dedicated sensors promptly detects the child’s
presence. This triggers a rapid response, activating a camera for real time monitoring turning
on lights to illuminate the borewell and deploying an oxygen tube to maintain a safe
environment for the child.
STAGE 3
Simultaneously, the third stage plays a pivotal role in child rescue, featuring four
IOTpowered motors. When a child is detected in the second stage, the IOT system intelligently
coordinates with the third stage, activating the motors to function as a lift, facilitating the
child’s safe ascent to the upper surface. This fully automated mechanism eliminates the need
for manual intervention and significantly minimize risks associated with traditional rescue
system provides a comprehensive solution that combines preventative measures, immediate
detection and response and intelligent uplifement greatly enhancing the likelihood of a
successful and timely rescue operation, ultimately safeguarding the lives of children in critical
situations.
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OUTPUT :
Program 1 :
Program 2 :
Program 3 :
CONCLUSION:
This Methodology and its application can be a Great use of Agriculture and related farming.
As Long as the need of food, there will be demand for such Agro-Marketing Products. In such
a way, This Ideology creates a revolution in the case of Economy based on Agriculture
Development.
REFERENCES:
[1] Yaswanth Gangula., Sagi S S Pavan Kumar., T R Suresh Kumar ., “Iot based Borewell
Monitoring and Child Rescue System using Multi Sensors Fusion”. International Conference
on Sustainable Computing and Smart System, July ,
2023.
[2] Poornisha K , Keerthana M R, Sumathi S ”Borewell water quality and motor

monitoring based on IOT gatway”.,IEEE, 2018.
[3] Kavianand G ,Gowri Ganesh K, Karthikeyan P .”Smart Rescue System from

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Borewell”. IEEE,2016.
[4] Jayasudha M, Saravanan .”Efficient Child
Saving Robot from Open Bore Well using Hand Gesture based Robotic Arm and Gripping Belt
Mechanism”.,IEEE,2020.
[5] Arthika S, Chidammbara Eswari S, Prathipa R, Devasena D.”Borewell Child Fall

Safeguarding Robot”.IEEE-2018.
[6] Nish Mohith Kurukuti, Mahesg Jinkala, Purushotham Tanjeri, Somasekhar Reddy
Dantla, Mallikarjuna Korrapati.”A novel Design of Robotic System for Rescue in Bore well
Accidents”.IEEE-2016.
[7] Tanveer Sultana ,Basavarja Patil.”Arduino based Smart Borewell Ambulance

RescueSystem”.IEEE-2020.
[8] Manish Raj, Arpit Bansal, Makhal A, Chakraborty P, G C Nandi .”An Approach
Towards Rescue Robotics In Bore Well Environment”.IEEE-2014
[9] David William Raj, Abinaya R, Brundha N, Durga Lakshmi, Geethapriya S.” Robotic
Arm for Extricate Operation in Bore well”.IEEE ICSCAN -2020.
[10] Aashvj Shenai, Abhijeet Antin, Pallvai R .”Development of In-Pipe Robot for Assisting
Borewell Rescue Operations”.IEEE-2018.
[11] Nandhitha Bala, Maria Anu V, Prashanthi Niharika K.”Smart Borewell Child Rescue
System Through Wireless Monitoring Using Artificial Intellignce”. IEEE-2021.
[12] Balachadar A, Kumaravel R, PradeepRaj R, Gokul M, Gokulakrishnan MM, Jayalakshmi

S.”Borewell kid Evacuation System with Zigbee for Long Range Applications”.IEEE-2021.
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USE OF AI TO LOCATE THE MISSING PEOPLE

A.Arun[1] N. Bhuvaneswari [2]S.Bhuvaneshwari [3]G.Vinitha [4], Abinaya Mohan Raj[5]
Assistant Professor[1,2,3,4,5]
[1,2,3,4,5]Department of Computer Science and Engineering
[1,2,3,4,5]Karpaga Vinayaga College of Engineering and Technology, Chennai, TamilNadu

ABSTRACT:
Face recognition is a biometric technique that maps a person's or individual's unique
facial features statistically and saves the entire set of information as a face print. Through the
use of this method, a person's face data is mathematically or graphically stored in a database
to aid in the identification of that specific face. Our system's facial recognition model will
locate that person's match in the database. If a match is discovered, the guardian of that
individual as well as the police will be informed. In order to locate the missing person, we
will employ the concepts of the AWS facial recognition algorithm, which is based on
artificial intelligence (AI), to identify faces with the highest accuracy.
Keywords: Face recognition, Amazon S3 bucket, AWS Lambda indexer, face recognition,
missing person, and Amazon Web Services (AWS) Recognition
1. INTRODUCTION:
Every day, a great number of people go missing from the globe; these persons include
children, teenagers, the mentally challenged, elderly people suffering from Alzheimer's, etc.
The majority are yet unidentified.
This study suggests a facial recognition system that would expedite the search process
and benefit both the public and law enforcement. The greatest benefit of any face recognition
system is its ability to locate a missing individual. Face recognition techniques are useful for
a variety of purposes. In an effort to expedite the process of locating the missing person, we
intend to develop an application that volunteers can use to locate the missing person quickly.
This will facilitate law enforcement's search for a specific individual.
The process of identifying a certain person by comparing one photograph with
another and recognizing that image needs to be automated in the interim.
In order to determine whether or not the two photos share the same traits. By doing
this, we will be able to determine whether or not the missing person in the photo that was
clicked from that specific location is real, and if it is, police may begin their following
measures to locate that person. The ability to save all of the missing person's data will be
included in our application so that the system can identify the image data and locate the
missing individual.
2. MOTIVATION
Physically, it takes a long time because the process of looking for a missing person is
drawn out and it takes longer to file a police station FIR. Additionally, during the convenient
procedure workforce Because there is a lack of resources for missing person searches, half of
the cases remain unsolved.
The average number of missing children in India is 296 every day, which is a
concerning statistic. And out of the alarming 9,019 people that go missing each month, half
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of them are still unaccounted for Remarkably, the National Crime Records of 2020 reveal
that 1,08,234 children were reported missing in India during the Covid-19 pandemic data
from the Records Bureau. 43,661 of the 33,456 girls and 15,410 boys who were reported
missing were not found by the end of the year. Nonetheless, the data suggests that there isn't
a national database for missing children. An official source stated, "There are no budgets set
aside for tracking missing people."
SYSTEM ANALYSIS:
EXISTING SYSTEM:
The current face matching algorithm system, which includes a user and admin
dashboard, is a technology solution that aids in the identification of missing people through
facial recognition. This system consists of a number of elements that cooperate to make it
easier to find missing people. Face recognition software is the fundamental component of this
system. With the use of this program, people can be recognized from photos by their facial
features. The software recognizes important face landmarks and compares them to photos of
missing people using machine learning algorithms that have been trained on massive
databases of facial photographs.
Another essential part of the system is the user dashboard. Through the dashboard,
people can upload details on those who go missing to a single, central database. Photographs,
descriptions, and any other pertinent information that can aid in finding the missing person
are all included in this information. Additionally, users can monitor the status of their
submissions and get information about any new developments.
The third part of the system is the admin dashboard. Authorized people, including law
enforcement officers, search and rescue teams, and other pertinent authorities, can use this
dashboard to access the centralized database and conduct facial matching searches for those
who go missing. Authorized staff can restrict search results using the dashboard's search
options based on geography, age, and gender, among other characteristics.
All things considered, the face matching algorithm system for missing people with
user and admin dashboard is a noteworthy technological innovation that might make the
search for missing people more efficient both successful and efficient. Even though the
system has its drawbacks, it has shown to be a useful tool in the hunt for people who have
vanished.
As technology advances, we can anticipate more advancements and improvements in
this area in the hopes that they will encourage responsive and reactive behavior, which
predictive monitoring does not. On the other hand, predictive monitoring will help us
understand more about the impact of COVID in the future so that we can appropriately
prepare, implement regulations, and take the necessary steps and allocate resources where
they are most needed.
DISADVANTAGES
1. Dependency on Available Data:

The quality and availability of data pertaining to missing people is a critical
component of the current system's performance. Should the accuracy of the system's capacity
to identify missing persons may be undermined if it does not have access to complete and
current databases or repositories containing pertinent information, such as physical
descriptions, last known locations, or images. Missed chances for recovery, false leads, and
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delays in locating people might result from inadequate or incomplete data.
2. Limited Data Integration and Interoperability:

It could be difficult for the current system to integrate and work with different data
sources and systems. The details pertaining to those who are missing may be dispersed
throughout several databases, public records, social media sites, and law enforcement
organizations.
The smooth integration and flow of information can be impeded by incompatibilities
in data formats, an absence of standard protocols, and issues around data privacy. This can
limit the system's capacity to fully utilize the potential of existing data sources.
3. Dependency on Outside Reports:
To start the search for missing people, the existing system frequently relies on outside
reports or notifications from people, law enforcement organizations, or other interested
parties. This dependence causes a lag in the time it takes for identification and response,
especially if there is inefficiency in the reporting procedure or low public awareness. Any
delay in the reporting process can harm the system's ability to function effectively. Timely
and accurate reporting is essential for prompt and efficient action.
4. Inaccurate or Insufficient AI Algorithms:
Inadequate training or accuracy problems may restrict the capabilities of AI
algorithms used in the current system. The ability of AI algorithms to locate individuals who
are missing depends on their capacity to proficiently evaluate and comprehend accessible
information. The algorithms' ability to locate missing people could be jeopardized if they are
not sophisticated enough, do not take into consideration a variety of demographic factors, or
are not trained on representative datasets. This could result in false positives or negatives,
which would lower the system's dependability.
5. Ethical and Privacy Issues:
Using AI to locate missing people necessitates managing private data, like location
history, photos, and biometric data. The current framework needs to take ethical issues such
to guarantee the ethical and secure use of this information, privacy and data protection are
essential. If these issues are not resolved, people's right to privacy may be violated, public
confidence may be damaged, and people may be less eager to offer the information needed
for the search.
6. Resource Constraints and Scalability:
The effectiveness of the current system may be hampered by a lack of labor, funding,
or technological infrastructure. Finding those who have vanished frequently calls for devoted
staff, cutting-edge data analysis technology, and enough funds to maintain ongoing
initiatives. Lack of these resources or difficulties scaling up operations to address a higher
volume of cases could make it difficult for the current system to locate missing people and
provide prompt aid to communities and families.
To sum up, there are a number of drawbacks and restrictions with the current
"Finding missing persons using AI" approach. These comprise reliance on readily available
data, restricted data integration and interoperability, reliance on outside reports, problems
with AI algorithms' accuracy, ethical and privacy difficulties, and resource constraints.
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Improving the system's efficacy, efficiency, and moral implications in finding missing people
and helping impacted people and their families is dependent on resolving these issues.
PROPOSED SYSTEM:
Image Similarity provides us with a result that shows the degree of visual similarity
between the two images. The lower the value, the more contextually similar the two images
are, with a score of '0' denoting that the two images are identical. Allowing by letting
machine vision handle it for you with the help of this API, you can avoid having to go
through datasets searching for duplicates or figuring out which group of photos are visually
similar.
By analyzing two photographs, the image similarity API calculates the separation
between them. The distance value indicates the degree of visual similarity between the two
photos; a distance value of 0 indicates a perfect match.
The distance value indicates the degree of visual similarity etween the two photos; a
distance value of 0 indicates a perfect match. The distance number allows us to ascertain how
two Photos can change over time or discover duplicates in your user information. The API
returns a visual similarity indicator between two pictures. This allows you to combine related
photographs into collections, find duplicates in a collection, and apply image similarity to
your apps.
The sentence similarity API allows us to perform a lookup using an image. In order to
search the database in this circumstance, the user is asked to provide a picture of the missing
person. There are two uses for this. First, the user will notice details about the missing
person, including location, phone number, age, and name, if the database entry corresponds.
Search by filter: In addition to the two techniques mentioned above, users can also easily
search for records by utilizing the following filters. Filter by name: The relevant data is
pulled from the database whenever a user inputs a name.
Filter by age: A slider is available to choose from a range of ages if the stranger
uploading the case is unsure of the individual's age. The information pertaining to the
selected age group will be displayed.
Filter by location: When utilizing the location filter, the user will be asked to enter the
state in order to obtain the pertinent data.
BENEFITS
1. Data Integration and Analysis:
To collect and compile pertinent data from sources, the suggested system makes use
of sophisticated data integration techniques several sources. It can compile information from
social media sites, public records, law enforcement organizations, and other databases to
produce a thorough profile of those who have vanished. The technology can locate missing
people by using AI algorithms to analyze data and find patterns, correlations, and anomalies.
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Both the speed and precision of the search process are enhanced by this data integration and
analysis.
2. Automated Monitoring and Alert Systems:
The suggested system makes use of algorithms driven by artificial intelligence to
automate the monitoring of many data sources for cases of possible missing persons. It is
capable of analyzing data in real time from social Public reports, news stories, and media
posts can be used to spot clues about missing people. It is possible to use automated alert
systems to notify pertinent authorities, law enforcement units, and assistance providers
regarding possible.
3. Face Recognition and Biometric Analysis:
The suggested system makes use of artificial intelligence (AI)-based facial
recognition algorithms to compare missing people's photos or images with those taken by
security cameras, social news articles or other resources. With the use of this technology,
missing persons can be identified and detectives can obtain useful leads. In order to enable
more accurate identification and raise the possibility of reuniting missing people with their
families, biometric analysis techniques can also be used to compare physical characteristics
or DNA profiles.
4. Predictive Analytics and Hotspot Identification:
The suggested approach makes use of AI-powered predictive analytics to pinpoint
high-risk locations or probable recovery scenarios for missing individuals. Through the
examination of past data, with the use of demographic data, environmental characteristics,
and other pertinent variables, the system can pinpoint possible hotspots for the location of
missing people. The efficiency of search and recovery operations can be increased by using
this proactive method, which enables targeted search efforts and optimal resource allocation.
5. Public Engagement and Crowd sourcing:
To maximize community efforts in locating those who have gone missing, the
suggested system includes procedures for both public engagement and crowd sourcing. AI-
driven platforms that invite information, sightings, or other pertinent data from the public to
help with the search can be built. The system gains from greater awareness, more resources,
and heightened coverage when the community is involved in the search for missing people.
6. Privacy and Ethical Concerns:
The system under consideration tackles privacy and ethical issues related to the
management of confidential personal information. Strong data security protocols,
anonymization strategies, and stringent access restrictions are put in place to guarantee the
confidentiality and privacy of personal data. Adherence to pertinent laws and morals.
In conclusion, the suggested method for "Finding missing persons using AI" has a
number of benefits. These consist of biometrics and facial recognition, automated monitoring
and alert systems, sophisticated data integration and analysis, crowd sourcing and public
participation, hotspot detection and prediction analytics, and careful privacy and ethical
considerations. The suggested approach takes advantage of these benefits to improve the
effectiveness, precision, and responsiveness of the search operations; this raises the
likelihood of a successful recovery and offers assistance to the families and communities
impacted by missing person cases.
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MODULE DESCRIPTION:
Module 1: Acquisition and Preprocessing of Data Obtaining Data
To train our method, we will use a deep learning dataset including comparable image
sets. Numerous photos in the collection may or may not be comparable to one another. In this
project, we'll construct an image similarity API that we can use to check for image similarity.
Data cleaning: Image preprocessing

We pre-processed the collection of images we had collected after obtaining the
images. During pre-processing, the photographs in the dataset went through the following
various procedures.
Picture
A two-dimensional array that is precisely set up in rows and columns can be used to
define a picture. Every element that makes up a digital image is limited in quantity and has a
specific value at a certain location.
We refer to these components as pixels.
Image Types:
● Binary Image
● Image in Black and White
● Color format in 8 bits
● Color format in 16 bits
Zooming
Zoom a photograph entails making it larger than it originally is. Since they better
capture the situation when photos are taken up close, the zoomed version of thermal
photographs can be used for augmentation.
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Turning over
An object is said to be rotated when it is moved about a pivot point at a certain
degree. The image would depict the situation as though it were captured from a different
perspective.
Sounds of salt and pepper
An image can be given salt and pepper noise by arbitrarily setting certain pixels'
intensity to 1 and others to 0. When photographs are taken on a dusty day or when there is
dust on the camera, the noise can be described as salt and pepper.
A few noisy pixels are present. This is referred to as "salt and pepper noise," because
it covers a broad spectrum of techniques that degrade images in this fundamental way. It
looks like black and white dots are being scattered all over the image.
Remove undesired pictures. We must eliminate those photos from our dataset because
it contained a lot of unnecessary information. After deciding on the settings for image
tagging, we can go through each folder one by one, looking for fake photos to delete with
Path. Unlink ().
This allows us, based on the color proportion, to threshold these photos at a different
level than those without text. Photographs with misidentified text should naturally have a
considerably more variable tonal distribution than those with added text (which usually have
one font color).
Resizing the pictures
Our original image size was 1920x1080 pixels, but in order to save processing, we
had to resize them to 128x128 pixels.
Changing Color Channel

After scaling, we will make changes to the color channel so that we can extract the
features.
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An image can have greater contrast and intensities overall than it would have without contrast
enhancement. This was used to improve photos because the same shot can have more contrast on a sunny
or bright day. We selected our training set to encompass a broad range of possible results.
Putting labels on pictures

The photos must now be labeled as authentic or fraudulent in the training dataset. The labeling of
the image is the first and most crucial stage. Our model will be more accurate the more time and effort we
spend labeling the photos, even though it takes a lot of time.
Module 2: Enhancement of the Model

We'll use Deep AI's image similarity model. Image Similarity provides us with a result that shows
how visually similar two photographs are when they are compared.
The more similarly the two images are contextually rated (a score of '0' indicates that the two
images are identical), the lower the score. You can avoid having to sort through by using this API to let
machine vision handle it for you datasets in search of duplication or visually similar collections of photos.
By analyzing two photographs, the image similarity API calculates the separation between them.
The distance value indicates the degree of visual similarity between the two photos; a distance value of 0
indicates a perfect match. We can identify duplicates in your user data or ascertain how two images change
over time with the aid of the distance value.
The API returns a visual similarity indicator between two pictures. This allows you to create
collections of related images, find duplicates in a collection, and apply image similarity to your apps.
The sentence similarity API allows us to:
Utilizing a picture for lookup In this case, in order to search the database, the user is asked to
submit a photo of the missing individual. There are two uses for this. If the record in the database matches,
the user will first view details about the missing person, including name, age, contact information, and
location.
Utilize a filter to search: Using the following criteria in addition to the first two options mentioned
above, users can find records rapidly.
Filter by name: The relevant data is pulled from the database whenever a user inputs a name.
Age filter: A slider is available to choose from a range of ages if the stranger uploading the case is
unsure of their actual age. The information pertaining to the selectedage group will be displayed.
Filter by location: To obtain the pertinent information, the user will be asked to input the state
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details while utilizing the location filter.
Training Models
The model must then be trained on a GPU. We will now train our model using batches of
data. Since photos from the same film may be somewhat comparable, it is desirable that photographs from
the same film be included in the same data set. If the model was trained with photographs, there is a
greater chance that it would correctly predict more images from a given set of images. However, the
objective is to identify components that are similar and appear in multiple photos. Consequently, instead of
using the picture ID to partition datasets, the image ID was used. The duration of the images varied as
well. Consequently, the training data set and test data set contained different amounts of photographs.
MODULE 3: CREATING ADMIN UI

The admin UI will now be developed using Stream lit. With the help of Python, we can construct
UIs for our models without using HTML, CSS, or JS module Streamlit. Most models are ugly and end up
inside of a Jupyter notebook. However, we can create a straightforward user interface with Streamlite to
show your model to other people.
Steps:
1. Install the required libraries, such as Streamlit, Matplotlib, Scikit-Learn, and Pandas.
2. Import the necessary libraries, such as the ones for logistic regression, train test split, and confusion
matrix.
3. Loading of data frames

4. Modification of data
5. Divided equally between the two
6. Make the model.
7. Type streamlite run app.py to launch the streamlit application.
Obtaining a MongoDB database

Our database will be mongoDB, so the first step will be to join the MongoDB cluster. MongoDB is
a document database that is utilized to build web apps that are both extremely accessible and scalable.
NoSQL databases like MongoDB are a good choice when your data is document-centric and doesn't fit
well into the schema of a relational database, when you need to accommodate large amounts of data, when
you need to quickly prototype, and for a few more use cases.
We have used it because agile development teams like its flexible schema approach. To connect,
we require the PyMongo driver. Then take these actions:
1. Press the connect button.
a. In Atlas, select Databases in the upper-left corner.
b. Select the database and click Connect in the Database Deployments pane deployment that you would
like to link to.
2. Click to select a connection method.
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3. Click to connect your application.

4. Select Python and your driver version.
5. A duplicate connection string is made.
6. Configure the given connection string.
7. Import the Mongo Client from PyMongo.
8. Connect to your cluster.
Establishing the Missing Person Registration System
We will now develop a missing registration feature that will allow you to register a missing
individual by giving us their name, contact information, and photo. This feature will provide the name,
image path, and number of the missing individual to add details about them.
The function will print "Report added" when we add the details. In the event that an error prevents
the report from being added, the function might also display. "Error happened while uploading missing
person's data to cloud," it will print.
Handling input
We will now write a function to receive the input data, process it, and save the results in themongoDB
database.
By default, AWS will be selected as the cloud provider and region. By selecting CreateCluster, you are
now able to create and utilize an online database.
2. Next, choose Create your first database user from the dialogue box that appears in the lower-left
corner of the screen.
3. After you click the Add User button and enter the new database user's name and password, the dialogue
box will close.
4. Select the Network Access hyperlink located in the Data Storage section. The page will then be
displayed to you.
5. All you have to do is click Allow Access From Anywhere and Confirm. Now select the Clusters
hyperlink to see the ensuing page.
6. The following appears when you select the Connect your application option.
There will be a dialogue box.
7. In the end, choose the appropriate driver and version, copy the URL, and insert it into your code. The
password that you used to establish a new database user should be entered in place of <password>, and the
name of the database (Remember Database, not Database user) should be entered in place of <dbname>.
8. This is how we created our own storage area for our program using MongoDB Atlas.
Supplying information to verify the resemblance:
We will now give an image of the individual we obtained from the user panel if we obtain their
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information from the phone number, and we will determine whether the two pictures show the same
individual or not.
MODULE 3: CREATING USER UI

Using Streamlit, we will now construct a user interface. Streamlit will now be used to create the
admin user interface. Without the need of JS, CSS, or HTML, we may use the Streamlit Python module to
provide user interfaces for our models. Most models are ugly and end up inside of a Jupyter notebook.
However, we can create a straightforward user interface with Streamlite to show off your model to other
people.
Actions:
1. Install all required libraries, such as Streamlit, Matplotlib, Pandas, and Scikit-Learn.
2. Import the necessary libraries, such as the ones for logistic regression, train test split, and confusion
matrix.
3. Loading of data frames

4. Modification of data
5. Divided equally between the two
6. Make the model.
7. Type streamlite run app.py to launch the streamlit application.
Linking up with a mongoDB database
Users must first establish a connection to the MongoDB database. To connect, we
require the PyMongo driver. Then take these actions:
1. Press the connect button.
a. In Atlas, select Databases in the upper-left corner.

b. Select the database deployment you wish to connect to by clicking Connect in the Database
Deployments pane.
2. Click to select a connection method.

3. Click to connect your application.
4. Select Python and your driver version.
5. A duplicate connection string is made.
6. Configure the given connection string.
7. Import the MongoClient from PyMongo.
8. Connect to your cluster.
Searching the database for a specific person

We develop a program that uses the phone number of the missing individual to see if they are
already in the database. The only distinction between this part with the one described in Module 3 is that
we are requesting data from the User page rather than the Admin page.
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Supplying information to verify the resemblance

We will now give an image of the individual we obtained from the user panel if we obtain their
information from the phone number, and we will determine whether the two pictures show the same
individual or not.
CONCLUSION:
One-shot learning has made image recognition incredibly potent. When used properly, this
technology can be advantageous. It's even applicable in hotels, hospitals, and so forth, to quickly identify
offenders.
The process of locating those who have vanished is sealed. Our technology uses an effective facial
recognition technique that completes the task quickly in favor of the laborious manual scanning approach
that goes through the databases for every image to see if they match. If a match is found with the Google
Charts integration, which also simplifies police work, it will be helpful to obtain the person's precise
position. Making rapid contact with the police would also be beneficial. Our goal with TensorFlow Face
recognition is to attain around 77.99% accuracy using the assistance of a trained model. There is potential
to expand this system even further in the future by linking our system to identify faces in real time using
public cameras.
The public cameras will provide the frames to our system continuously, and our system will keep
an eye on the frames. The system that completes the task quickly will alert the relevant authorities when a
lost person is recognized in any of the frames.
REFERENCE
[1] S. Ayyappan and S. Matilda, “Criminals and missing children identification using face recognition and
web scrapping” IEEE ICSCAN 2020.
[2] Shefali patil, Pratiksha Gaikar, Divya Kare, sanjay Pawar, “Find missing person using AI”,
International journal of Progressive Research in Science and Engineering, Vol. 2, No. 6, June 2021.
[3] Sarthak Babbar, Navroz Dewan, Kartik Shangle, Sudhanshu Kulshreshtra, Sanjeev Patel, “Cross Age
Face recognition using Deep Residual Networks “. IEEE 2019 Fifth International Conference on Image
Information Processing (ICIIP).
[4] Bharath Darshan Balar, D S kavya, Chandana M, Anush E, Vishwanath R Hullipalled, “Efficient Face
recognition system for identifying lost people'', International Journal of engineering and standard
technology (IJEAT), ISSN:2249-8958, Volume-8, Issue-5 S, May 2019.
[5] Birari Hetal, Sanyashiv Rakesh, Porje Rohan, Salve Harish,” Android Based Operation-
Missing Person Finder”, IRE Journals, Volume1 Issue 12, ISSN: 2456- 8880
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EV CHARGING METHODS
Dr. Sharmitha, Dharani S, Lakshmidevi V, Pradeep J
Dept. of EEE, Kumaraguru College of Technology,
Coimbatore, India.
sharmitha.d.eee@kct.ac.in
Abstract
By the year 2030, India will curb its CO2 emissions by one Giga ton by switching to EVs. It
will lead to less air pollution and will keep the present and future generations healthier. Not
just India, but the entire planet is grappling with climate change and global warming. Car
buyers can do their bit to save planet Earth – the only home we know, by investing in EVs.
With zero tailpipe emissions made possible by millions of vehicle buyers will ultimately
benefit us all. One of the major hurdles once responsible for a bleak future of electric cars in
India was that you couldn’t drive them for long distance. You all know that electric vehicles
require an EV charger to keep the battery full. But, charging an EV was difficult due to the
absence of charging hubs and stations fanned across the country. All of this is rapidly
changing now, with the Indian government issuing tenders for private players to establish
permanent, pop-up and mobile EV charging stations. What’s more, all EVs come with fast
chargers that can be seamlessly installed at home. So, you can charge your vehicle while it’s
parked in your driveway within a few hours. Let’s see the overview of EV charging methods
and developing strategy and challenges are presented which is followed by conclusions and
references.
Challenges in EV Charging
While electric vehicle (EV) charging technology has made significant strides, there are still
several challenges that need to be addressed for widespread adoption. Some of the key
challenges in EV charging methods were discussed here. They were:
Charging infrastructure availability and accessibility
In many regions, there is still a shortage of charging stations, especially in rural or less
populated areas. On the other hand, in urban areas there is insufficient space or infrastructure
to accommodate a high volume of charging stations.
Charging speed and convenience
Some of the electric vehicles needed overnight or longer duration for charging. But these days
there are also electric vehicles that can get charged fast. As the number of EVs on the road
increases, popular charging stations may experience queues, leading to inconvenience for EV
owners.
Standardization and compatibility
There are different plug types and charging standards (e.g., CCS, CHAdeMO, Tesla
Supercharger) that can cause compatibility issues for EV owners, especially during long-
distance travel.
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Grid capacity and load management

The existing electrical grid infrastructure may require upgrades to support a large number of
EVs charging simultaneously, particularly in urban areas or regions with high EV adoption
travel. There is also a chance for energy demand during peak charging times.
Cost of charging infrastructure

Installing charging stations, especially Level 3 fast chargers, can be expensive. The costs
associated with grid upgrades, permitting, and installation can be a barrier for businesses or
individuals looking to invest in charging infrastructure.
Technological advancements
Continued advancements in battery technology are crucial for improving the range of EVs and
reducing the need for frequent charging. By improving the efficiency of charging systems,
especially at higher power levels, can reduce energy loss during the charging process.
Environmental impact
The production and disposal of charging infrastructure components, including batteries,
should be managed sustainably to minimize environmental impacts.
Trends and Development

EVs came into existence in the 19th century, and it was not well in the market at their initial
stage due to less speed, high cost, and short-range present, the trend goes on with electric
vehicles as people in the 21st century have technological advancement and concern for the
environment to achieve zero-emission, low cost, higher range, and high-speed EV's. The
involvement of electric vehicles (EVs) is increasing over the past few years due to several
factors including the increasing emission of carbon dioxide (CO2), depletion of fossil fuels,
and promotion of renewable deployment. The growth of charging stations is essential to
support the transition of conventional vehicles to electric vehicles. This research paper
reviews the current and future trends in EV battery charging methodologies and the roadmap
for EV adoption in India. Furthermore, advanced charging architectures for electric vehicles
are:
 fast charging
 smart charging
 wireless charging and
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This paper emphasizes the use of integrated renewable energy (RE) with EV charging
architecture and optimized energy management algorithms to mitigate the uncertainties
caused by transmission power grids. Finally, this paper concludes with the future roadmap for
EV adoption in India and put forth various research roadmaps for power electronics-based
solutions related to RE integration, energy storage, and smart grid technologies.
Fast EV Charging
DC Charging
DC charging, also known as fast charging or quick charging, is a type of electric vehicle (EV)
charging that provides a higher level of power and can charge an EV much faster than
standard AC charging. The voltage and current levels for DC charging are typically higher
than those used in standard AC charging. This allows for faster charging rates. DC chargers
are capable of delivering a high amount of power to the EV's battery, enabling rapid charging.
Depending on the charger's specifications and the capabilities of the vehicle, a DC charger
can charge an EV from empty to 80% or more in under an hour. DC fast chargers are typically
found in urban areas and also at certain commercial establishments. It also reduces charging
time for EV owners. The cost of using a DC fast charger can vary depending on the charging
network and location. Not all EVs are compatible with all types of DC chargers. For instance,
a car with a CHAdeMO port won't be able to use a CCS charger without an adapter. It's
important to know which type of DC charger is compatible with your specific vehicle.
Smart EV Charging
Vehicle to Grid Communication
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Smart charging is the intelligent way forward, where charging can be shifted based on grid
loads and in accordance to the vehicle owner's needs. The electrification of transport in
Europe is in the early stages of a market transformation that has the potential to significantly
cut emissions in both the transportation and energy sectors, while generating wider benefits
for society. The research underpinning this study finds that the greatest value from integrating
electric vehicles (EVs) into the power grid can be generated by charging them when and
where it is most beneficial for the power system, while ensuring consumers’ mobility needs
are met at an affordable cost. An emerging body of research on electric vehicle grid
integration focuses on modelling the cost of integration under various scenarios, but few
studies look at the existing promising practices that are based on policy tools in use today.
The authors of this study conducted a qualitative review of policies for EV grid integration in
the EU and U.S. markets. We found that, in order to unlock the environmental and economic
opportunities associated with market uptake, three policy strategies are most effective: cost-
reflective pricing, intelligent technology, and integrated infrastructure planning.
Wireless EV Charging
Inductive Charging
The transition to electric vehicles (EVs) has gained momentum in recent years as the world
seeks more sustainable transportation solutions to combat climate change. A crucial
component of the EV ecosystem is the charging infrastructure, which is evolving to meet the
growing demand for convenient and efficient charging solutions. Wireless EV charging
systems represent a promising technology in this context, offering several advantages over
traditional plug-in charging methods. It is also known as inductive charging, operates on the
principle of electromagnetic induction. It uses a primary coil (located in the ground or a
charging pad) and a secondary coil (integrated into the EV) to transfer energy without
physical connections. This technology eliminates the need for cords and plugs, making
charging more convenient and efficient. The advantages of wireless ev charging were:
Convenience: Wireless charging simplifies the charging process for EV owners. Drivers can
park their vehicles over a charging pad without the hassle of plugging in, which is especially
beneficial in urban environments.
Wireless EV Charging
Safety: The absence of exposed electrical connectors reduces the risk of electric shock and
minimizes wear and tear on charging equipment, improving overall safety.
Efficiency: Wireless charging systems can be designed with high efficiency, minimizing
energy loss during the charging process. This efficiency can be further enhanced by using
smart grid integration and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology.
Integration with Autonomous Vehicles: As autonomous vehicles become more common,
wireless charging can facilitate hands-free, autonomous parking and charging.
The challenges of this wireless EV charging were:
 Infrastructure Development
 Standardization
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 Cost
Conclusion
In conclusion, the evolution of Electric Vehicle (EV) charging methods represents a pivotal
step towards a sustainable and greener transportation future. The development of diverse
charging technologies, ranging from Level 1 residential chargers to high-speed DC fast
charging stations, has significantly enhanced the convenience and accessibility of recharging
EV batteries. Moreover, the emergence of smart charging systems and grid integration
strategies not only optimize energy usage but also contribute to a more stable and resilient
electrical grid. Government policies and incentives have played a crucial role in driving the
expansion of EV charging infrastructure, encouraging private and public investments in this
critical sector. Initiatives such as subsidies, tax credits, and regulations mandating the
installation of charging stations have accelerated the transition towards electric mobility. As
the global community continues to prioritize sustainability and combat climate change, the
ongoing development and widespread adoption of EV charging methods remain paramount.
Collaboration between governments, private sectors, and communities will be essential in
building a comprehensive and accessible charging infrastructure that empowers individuals to
choose cleaner transportation options, ultimately driving us towards a more sustainable and
environmentally responsible future.
REFERENCES
[1]. L. Szabo, K. A. Biro, C. Nicula and F. Jurca, “Useful Simulation Tool for Induction
Generators Used In Wind Power Plants” IEEE Conference on Clean Electrical Power
(ICCEP). Page(s) 574-579; 21-23 May 2007.
[2]. G. L. Johnson, “Wind Energy Systems” Electronic Edition, Manhattan (USA), 2004.
[3]. Chen Wang, Liming Wang, Libao Shi, and Yixin Ni, “A Survey on Wind Power
Technologies in Power Systems” IEEE World Wind Energy Association (WWEA). World
Wind Energy Report 2008 (Germany). Available at http//www.WWindEA.org
[4]. http://www.windpowerindia.com
[5]. Yi Zhang and Sadrul Ula, “Comparison and evaluation of three main types of wind turbines”
IEEE PES, Vol. 1, Page(s):1-6 April 2008.
[6]. J. G. Slootweg, H. Polinder, and W.L. Kling, “Dynamic modeling of a wind turbine with
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doubly fed induction generator” IEEE PES, Vol. 1, Page(s):644 – 649, July 2001.
[7]. Wei Quio and Roland G. Harley, “Effect of grid-connected DFIG wind turbines on power
system transient stability” IEEE PES, Vol. 1, Page(s):1-7, July 2008.
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A NOVEL DC-DC CONVERTER FOR TELECOM APPLICATIONS EMPLOYS A

HIGH FREQUENCY RESONANT INVERTER-RECTIFIER, AND REGULATOR
R. SETHURAMAN1, T. SELVAGANAPATHI2
1,2,
Assistant Professor, Electrical & Electronics Engineering,
Karpagam Academy of Higher Education, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu-641 021
Abstract
Higher system density and dependability are always required for server/telecom power
systems. For telecom power supplies, a new high speed diode rectifier followed by MOSFET
regulator approach is presented. The pulse generator generates two PWM and sends them to
the LLC resonant inverter. Because of its high-power density, high efficiency, and long holdup
time capability, the series-parallel resonant LLC converter is becoming increasingly popular
in isolated dc-dc applications. It is also widely used for power applications and as a
synchronous rectify building block for the secondary side of DC-DC converters.
A multi-tapped transformer is employed on the DC- DC converter side. The traditional
synchronous rectifier is replaced by a diode rectifier, which is then followed by a MOSFET
regulator. Using a software- based PID controller, the desired three output voltages are
maintained. The pulse width modulation (PWM) approach is applied here, and the results are
simulated using the MATLAB SIMULINK environment. This paper introduces a new high
voltage rapid recovery super junction MOSFET. The high frequency resonant DC-DC
converter produces the requisite three outputs at the varied operating voltages of telecom
applications.
Keywords: long-holdup-time, resonant LLC converter, synchronous rectifier.
1. Introduction
Telecommunications and information power sources have evolved to attain great
efficiency and low energy consumption. The continual development of novel resonant
topologies and excellent power devices enables increased efficiency and power density,
allowing system stability and a higher switching frequency at relatively low switching losses,
resulting in a smaller converter size. To reduce switching losses and device stress while
attaining high power density and increased reliability, several topologies for DC-
DCconverters for telecom power supplies have been devised. Increasing the frequency of
operation of power converters is beneficial because it allows the magnetic and capacitor sizes
in the circuit to be lowered, resulting in cheaper and more compact circuits. However, a higher
operating frequency also results in higher switching losses, which lowers system efficiency. A
resonant switch, which uses the resonances of circuit capacitances and inductances to shape
the waveform of either the current or the voltage across the switching element, is one way to
solve this issue. When switching occurs, there is no current through or voltage across it, and
consequently no power dissipation. A resonant converter is a circuit that uses this principle.
The voltage waveform is shaped by a Zero Voltage Switching (ZVS) circuit, whereas the
current waveform is shaped by a Zero Current Switching (ZCS) circuit. Circuit switching
speeds can be increased using resonant converter topologies, lowering the cost
2. Problems in Synchronous Resonance Driving Scheme
The demand for high-power-density converters is increasing as consumer electronics
and IT equipment prices are skyrocketing. Therefore, high frequencies are needed for the LLC
resonant converter to function. The LLC resonant converter's SR driving strategy becomes
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challenging as a result. To create SR gate driving signal, one solution is to sense secondary
current (iSEC). Although this method is accurate, the enormous secondary side current
necessitates a big current transformer, and the additional resistance of the transformer windings
results in a poorer efficiency.
Sensing current through the primary side winding of the transformer is another option.
The current flowing through the primary side winding is an exact reproduction of the secondary
side current, provided that both the resonant inductor Lr and the magnetizing inductor Lm are
external to the main transformer. Even though there would be less loss than with secondary
side current sensing, three magnetic components would be required, negating the advantages
of combining the transformer, magnetizing inductors, and leakage into a single element.
3. Solution for SR Driving scheme
In order to ascertain the SR gate driving signals, the authors proposed a primary side
resonant current iLr sensing approach. However, it must decouple the magnetizing current
iLm, necessitating the addition of a challenging auxiliary circuit.
This article expands on the digital solution for synchronous buck converters and the
analog solution for LLC resonant converters by proposing a universal adaptive solution for the
SR driving scheme based on sensing Vds SR of the synchronous rectifier.
With this method, the SR gate driving signal Vgs SR can be tuned effectively across
the switching frequency spectrum. The digital implementation is rather straightforward,
needing little time for fine- tuning and simple digital logics. Additionally, the transient
behavior brought on by changes in switching frequency is examined and experimentally
confirmed.
4. LLC resonant converter
Additionally, the LCC resonant converter was unable to be tuned for high input voltage.
The same as with SRC and PRC, this is because the converter will operate at a switching
frequency that is far from the resonant frequency while operating at a high input voltage. There
are two resonant frequencies visible when examining the DC characteristics of the LCC
resonant converter. Series resonant tank Lr and Cs determine one low resonant frequency. Lr
and the series equivalent capacitance of Cs and Cp yield one high resonance frequency. It is
typically true that a resonant converter could achieve high efficiency at resonant frequency.
Although the LCC resonant converter has two resonance frequencies, the lower
frequency is regrettably in the ZCS zone. We are unable to create a converter that operates at
this resonance frequency for this application. Although the LCC resonant converter has two
resonance frequencies, the lower frequency is regrettably in the ZCS zone. We are unable to
create a converter that operates at this resonance frequency for this application. The concept is
how to obtain a resonant frequency at the ZVS region, even though the lower frequency
resonant frequency is not usable. This is possible by switching the LCC resonant tank to its
dual resonant network.
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Figure 2 : Characteristics of LLC resonant converter
A flip of the DC characteristic of the LCC resonant converter may be seen in the DC
characteristic of the LLC converter. Two resonance frequencies remain. The greater resonant
frequency in this instance is determined by Lr and Cr. The series inductance of Lm and Lr
determines the lower resonant frequency. Now that the greater resonant frequency is in the
ZVS area, it is possible to build the converter to work at or near this frequency.
Figure1: LCC and LLC resonant tank
5. Operation of LLC resonant converter

ZVS region and ZCS region make up the DC characteristic of LLC resonant converters.
There are two resonance frequencies for this converter. The resonant elements Lr and Cr
determine one. The other is influenced by Lm, Cr, and the load situation. The resonance
frequency will change to a higher frequency as the load becomes heavier. The two resonant
frequencies are:
fr1 =1/2π√( Lr. Cr)
fr 2=1/2π√( Lr +Lm).Cr
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Figure 3:Three operating regions of LLC resonant converter
Due to this property, it could be positioned at the series resonant tank of Cr and Lr's
resonant frequency, fr1, for 400V operation. More gain can be obtained with a lower switching
frequency as the input voltage falls. The converter might work inside the ZVS zone for load
and line variation with the right choice of resonant tank.
6. Design of LLC resonant converter
6.1 Design of power stage parameters
The DC characteristic of an LLC resonant converter can be calculated. Designing power stage
parameters can be done based on the DC characteristic. The parameters need to be designed
are: • Transformer turns ratio: n
• Series resonant inductor: Lr
• Resonant capacitor: Cr
• Resonant inductor ratio: Lm/Lr

The specifications for the design are:
Input voltage range: 300V to 400V, normal operating region (360-400V) Output voltage: 48V
Maximum switching frequency: 200kHz
7. Block diagram for LLC Resonant multi output converter
Figure 4: Block diagram for LLC Resonant multi output converter
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7.1 Block Diagram Description :
To identify paralleled body diode conduction, the drain to source voltage of the
synchronous rectifier is monitored. The SR turn-OFF time is adjusted in the SR driving scheme
to completely stop body diode conduction. All operating frequency ranges can be tuned for the
SR gate driving signal. In addition, a straightforward digital implementation is presented. It
offers more intelligent and accurate SR control when compared to analog ones, increasing
converter efficiency. The zero-voltage switching for the primary-side main switches and zero-
current switching (ZCS) for the secondary-side rectifiers in the LLC resonant converter
contribute to its high efficiency. Prior to the SR turning on, the paralleled body diode conducts
briefly and there is a significant forward voltage drop. The output is filtered using filter cap
and measured using voltage measurement.
7.2 MOSFET Switch:
The field-effect principle and MOS technology were recently combined to create the
metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET). The MOSFETs are employed as
controlled switches, meaning that control signals can be used to turn them on and off.
MOSFETs have a high input impedance and are voltage-controlled devices. The MOSFET
functions as a switch when the gate receives sufficient voltage. The gate pulses in the
MATLAB simulation are produced by pulse generators.
Figure 5 : Symbol of MOSFET

7.3 DIODE RECTIFIER:
A diode rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which
reverses direction on a regular basis, to direct current (DC), which only flows in one direction.
This is called as correction. Rectifiers have numerous applications, although they are most
commonly encountered as components of DC power supplies and high-voltage direct current
power transmission systems. Rectification can be used for purposes other than generating
direct current for use as a power source. Rectification is the unidirectional behaviour of diodes
that is utilized to convert alternating current to direct current, including the extraction of
modulation from radio signals in radio receivers--these diodes are types of rectifiers.
7.4 LLC Resonant Circuit:
The ZVS and ZCS regions of the LLC resonant converter could be separated. There are
two resonance frequencies for this converter.The resonant elements Lr and Cr determine one.
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The other is influenced by Lm, Cr, and the load situation. The resonance frequency will
change to a higher frequency as the load becomes heavier. The converter might work inside
the ZVS zone for load and line variation with the right choice of resonant tank.
The MOSFET is essentially switched ON at the rising edge of the gate pulse and OFF
at the falling edge of the gate pulse in a ZVS state.When the ZVS, the drain source voltage is
low if the gate source voltage is high, and vice versa. ZCS refers to the situation where the
voltage and current at the drain source are in phase. Thus, the ON/OFF condition is actually
achieved. Either a parallel or a series resonant circuit can be used to generate the ZCS.
7.5 High Frequency Transformer:

A transformer is a power converter that uses inductively coupled conductors, or the
coils of the transformer, to convert electrical energy from one circuit to another. A changing
magnetic flux in the transformer's core and consequently a changing magnetic field across the
secondary winding are produced by a changing current in the first, or primary, winding. In the
secondary winding, this fluctuating magnetic field causes a fluctuating electromotive force
(EMF) or voltage. We refer to this phenomenon as inductive coupling.
Transformers come in a variety of shapes and sizes, from tiny coupling transformers
that fit inside stage microphones to enormous machines that weigh hundreds of tons and are
employed in power plants or to connect different parts of electricity networks. Despite the
broad variety of designs, they all operate according to the same fundamental principles. Long-
distance transmission is economically feasible since transformers are required for the
transmission of high- voltage electric power.
Although the output voltages must be able to match each other through the turns ratio,
the action of storing energy in the transformer before transferring to the output of the converter
allows the topology to easily generate numerous outputs with minimum additional circuitry.
In order for the PWM to open up and give enough energy to the transformer, a controlling rail
must also be loaded before load is applied.
8. SIMULATION REALIZATION Q1 Q2 gate pulse and resonance voltage
characteristics
8.Simulation Results
V-I I/O Characteristics
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Figure 6: Simulation diagram
OUTPUT V/I CHARACTERISTICS:

9. Efficiency Comparisons
Figure 7. Efficiency comparisons

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Conclusion
This research proposes a novel multi output DC-DC converters strategy for LLC
resonant converters and experimentally validates its digital implementation. The body diode
conduction state is determined by measuring the SR drain to source voltage Vds SR and
comparing it to the threshold Vth. To achieve the highest efficiency across the entire operating
frequency range of the LLC resonant converter, the digital logic tunes the SR duty cycle to
eliminate body diode conduction. Through the use of a multi tap transformer, we can obtain
the desired ranges of output voltage for telecom applications. Finally, the DC-DC converter's
efficiency is increased, and we can now receive several outputs from a single source.
Reference
[1] A Universal Adaptive Driving Scheme for Synchronous Rectification in LLC Resonant
Converters Weiyi Feng, Student Member, IEEE, Fred C. Lee, Fellow, IEEE, Paolo Mattavelli,
Member, IEEE, and Daocheng Huang, Student Member, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON
POWER ELECTRONICS,VOL.27,NO.8, AUGUST 2012.
[2] Yohan Park, Byoungkil Jung, and Sewan Choi, Senior Member, IEEE “Non isolated ZVZCS
Resonant PWM DC–DC Converter for High Step-Up and High-Power Applications”IEEE
TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 27, NO. 8, AUGUST 2012.
[3] X.Wu, G. Hua, J. Zhang, and Z. Qian, “A new current-driven synchronous rectifier for series–
parallel resonant (LLC) DC-DC converter,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 58, no. 1, pp. 289–
297, Jan. 2011.
[4] J. A. Abu-Qahouq, H. Mao, H. J. Al-Atrash, and I. Batarseh “Maximum efficiency point
tracking (MEPT) method and digital dead time control implementation,”, IEEE Trans. Power
Electron., vol. 21, no. 5, pp. 1273–1281, Sep. 2006.
[5] “An area efficient digital pulse width modulation architecture suitable for FPGA
implementation,” in Proc. IEEE Appl. Power Electron. Conf. Expo., 2005, pp. 1412–1418.
[6] A. Syed, E. Ahmed, D.Maksimovic, and E. Alarcon “Digital pulse width modulator
architectures,”, in Proc. IEEE Power Electron. Spec. Conf., 2004, pp. 4689–4695.
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Feasibility of Electric Vehicles in Kerala

Raimon P Francis1, Rinil M R2
1
Principal, MET’S Polytechnic College, Thrissur, Kerala, India
2
Principal, St. Mary’s ITI, Thrissur, Kerala, India
Abstract: This study analyses the behaviour of the energy efficiency of an Electric Vehicle
(EV) in Kerala (India), considering factors such as environmental conditions and traffic
conditions. The data of each sample contains different variables of interest, which are then
analysed by correlation to obtain those that affect the energy performance of the EV. With this
information, the efficiency in the different internal energy sub-systems of the vehicle was
determined under controlled and non-controlled operating conditions.
I. INTRODUCTION
Electric vehicles (EVs) are widely considered as a promising solution to reduce air
pollution in cities and a key player to face global warming. Currently, a major technical
challenge of EVs is to improve their autonomy, because batteries still need to overcome
fundamental commitments in terms of energy density, useful life, costs, and safety concerns.
To determining the performance of an EV, it is necessary to know the energy efficiency of
conventional as well as to promote the massification of EV charging stations to have sufficient
infrastructure for this new transportation alternative. The objective of this work is to determine
the efficiency of an EV under real operating conditions and compare its behaviour. The study
explores the main elements that influence energy consumption and their impact on the
efficiency of the EV.
Now, the petroleum based road transportation sector in India is responsible for a good
share of country’s greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs). 87% of India’s CO2 equivalent
emissions of the transport sector comes from road transport. Diesel exhaust contains pollutant
that cause respiratory irritation, heart diseases, lung cancer, causing substantial health risk to
those who frequently exposed to diesel exhaust. The only way to address these issues is to
migrate from existing conventional diesel vehicles to pure electric vehicles. Meanwhile, the
country has seen an increase in infrastructure of renewable energy resources such as solar and
wind on account of improved competitiveness of renewable energy technologies. Keeping
these developments in view, the Govt. of India launched the 2020 plan of the National Mission
on Electrical Mobility [4] wherein government plans to create a potential demand for 5 to 7
million electric vehicles, including buses, light commercial vehicles, two-wheelers and three-
wheelers, as well as electric cars The main drawback of BEVs resides in batteries, which are
still too expensive, too bulky and heavy due to their low energy density. Moreover, they have
an unsatisfactory life cycle and require long recharging times.
II. POLICY ON ELECTRIC MOBILITY IN KERALA
Electric vehicles (EV) or e-mobility is another step forward, Kerala, Known for its
environmental sensitiveness, bio diversity and tourist attractions wishes to maintain its texture
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and ensure a sustainable development for its people. The transition to electric vehicles is a
natural choice for the State in line with its development ethos.
The number of vehicles on the road will get reduced with the introduction of modern
shared transport systems like the air-conditioned Electric Bus and e-Autorickshaw. They will
provide comfortable and fatigue free ride, with no polluting gases, and much reduced vibration
and noise. This will attract vehicle owners to move to shared mobility. An air-conditioned bus
is only 10% more costly than the regular EV bus. Large scale introduction of 3-wheelers (e-
autos) can be made economically viable using battery swapping for the e-autos becoming
similar or less compared to petrol autos. The State Government plans to ensure a robust
infrastructure for electric vehicles that includes adequate power availability, network of
charging points, and favorable power tariff. KSEBL will provide quality power for 24x7
throughout the year for a rate variable based on time of the day and season of the year.
The development of e-mobility must be integrated to the State’s manufacturing
ecosystem, particularly for the EV components. Kerala has developed a large number of start-
ups and some of this talent pool is expected to be utilized for the e-mobility initiative.
To embrace electric mobility as a tool to promote shared mobility and clean transportation and
ensure environmental sustainability, pollution reduction, energy efficiency and conservation
and to create an ecosystem for manufacturing.
A. EV population targets
2022: 1 million EV’s on the road

2020: Pilot Fleet of 200,000 two-wheelers, 50,000 three wheelers, 1000 goods carriers, 3000
buses and 100 ferry boats.
B. Investment Targets
Component Manufacturing: Attract investments and create employment opportunities
around Power Electronics, Battery pack assembly, Battery Management System (BMS),
Electric Motors, Accessories and skilled areas like IT and R & D etc.
Electric Vehicle manufacture in the long term: Create an enabling ecosystem of skilled
manpower, infrastructure, R&D centers, favourable regulations and initial volumes through
Government programs.
Centers of Excellence (CoE) in the EV value chain; build world class training/skilling centers
for EV professionals with niche skills for the global EV industry
Kerala TVM ERKM KZHKD

Goods 3W 419857 36478 69643 34296
4W 136938 12188 17124 13984
Buses Stage 42707 13247 4074 3630
Contract 64051 10251 9945 3802
4 Wheeler Cars 2070635 278468 336445 155605
Taxles 107567 9027 17276 9729
3 Wheeler Autorickshaw 610235 70689 58271 51449
Schooter/Moto
2 Wheeler 6472302 834151 1004232 639437
r cycle
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Tractor/Trailer Tractor 14213 741 2117 434
Trailer 699 143 147 35
Others 232609 25211 39996 14987
TOTAL 10171813 1290592 1559270 927388
Table. 1 Registered Vehicle in the State 2016 Economic Review
III. ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE
The road transport sector consumes around 49.70% of oil

derivatives worldwide and is responsible for 24% of CO2
global emissions.
Fig.1 Comparison among different types of electric vehicle

In year 2015, land transport demanded 87% of the total fuels in this sector, where 71%
of these fuels was consumed in light-duty gasoline vehicles (1 to 3 passengers) and 20% in
light-duty diesel vehicle It is well known that the thermodynamic efficiency of both Otto and
Diesel engines is low (i.e., up to 40% and 45%, respectively, for large engines).
Therefore, more than half the fuels consumed in the transport Sector is lost due to the
inefficiency of engines. In order to determine the energy efficiency of the different alternatives
of vehicles available in the market, it is necessary to have the same unit of comparison. In
different studies, fuel consumption is indicated in miles per gallon (mpg) or litres per 100
kilometres travelled (l/100km). For establishing comparison on consumption between
conventional vehicles and hybrid type vehicles (HEV) or EVs, the energy used in the first ones
is determined by the calorific value of the fuel, so that the consumption can be expressed in
(kWh/100km). In this sense, by way of comparison, Fig. 1 groups different vehicle models
from conventional fuels with oil derivatives, through hybrids to fully electric.
In Fig. 1, it is shown that a clear reduction in energy consumption is possible when EV
vehicles are used.
These external impact factors can be classified into the following categories: 1) factors
related to traffic conditions that indirectly influence the dynamic parameters of the vehicle,
such as speed and acceleration; 2) factors related to infrastructure such as the angle of
inclination of the road, the roughness of the road surface; 3) environmental factors such as
external temperature and wind speed; and 4) driving behaviour factors such as driver
aggressiveness, brake pressure, and driving mode selection. The Heating, Ventilation and Air
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Conditioning (HVAC) of the cabin space also consume important amounts of main battery
power. Thus, heating and ventilation must be handled properly; otherwise, EVs will not
succeed in an economic study on storage systems for EV is presented. The price trend of these
storage systems (Lithium, Cobalt, rare earths, among others), nowadays is in the order of
Rs7150/ kWh, and it is estimated that they will present a decrease in their price until reaching
Rs 4950 / kWh in 2025.
IV. PRODUCTION AND DEMAND OF ELECTRICITY IN KERALA
The Kerala State Electricity Board (KSEBL) is looking at EV population as an option

for generating demand during the off-peak hours. It would mean cheap electricity for EVs and
load balancing for the grid. In Kerala nearly 80% of the demand is the variable load from the
domestic sector - unpredictable because a variation in atmospheric temperature can spike the
power consumption. KSEBL will participate in the e-mobility development for ensuring a firm
and optimally high baseload on the grid attractive power tariffs.
Fig. 2Installed Capacity
Installed Capacity 3.8GW

Maximum Energy consumption per day in Kerala 68MU
Table. 2 Demand of electricity in Kerala in 2018
Vehicle Number Avg. Apprx. Total Units

Km/day Units/day for
charging
2 Wheeler 640000 20 0.4 256000

3 Wheeler 61000 50 1.2 73200
4 Wheeler 210000 40 1.6 336000
Bus/Others 10000 80 3.2 32000
0.69MU
Table. 3 Energy consumption of different EVs in 2022
From the table 3, it is observed that the electricity production has to be increased by 1% in
Kerala for achieving 1 million Electric vehicles in 2022.
V. CATEGORIES OF VEHICLE
Electric Vehicles with battery packs of below 120V is considered as Light EV, and in
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India they include the two-wheelers, three-wheelers and some car models also.
A. Two wheelers:
 e-Scooters with a built in 50KM range battery (suitable for charging at home) with
provision for additional 50KM range extension battery (that could be swapped at public
stations as and when required).
 e-scooters with two swappable batteries (as in international models like Gogoro etc).
 e-Bikes to leverage the tourism potential of the state in the coastal and hilly destinations.
B. Three wheelers:
Currently, Auto-rickshaws in the State have base price of Rs. 1.40 to 1.70 Lakhs with
a running cost in the range Rs. 1.30 to 1.40 per KM. converting these as e-autoes can be made
Revenue Neutral, if the EV battery is addressed as a separate component from the base EV.
The cost of an e-Auto without battery can be in the range of Rs 1.40 to 1.70 lakhs, with
sufficient assured numbers to enable the auto manufacturers to go for adequate supply tie ups.
It would be necessary to provide promotional incentives wherever possible in the form of
concessions in road tax, toll fee, parking fee etc. A policy decision has to be taken to give
new/renewed permit only for e-autos leading to a gradual ban on ICE autos. Schemes would
be devised to procure 15,000+25,000+50,000 e-autos year-wise from 2019 onwards, which
could attract local manufacturing. In order to enable the State to realize the transition to e-
Autos, there is a need to start manufacturing facility within the State. For this, discussions have
already initiated on the revival of Kerala Automobiles Ltd (KAL) which will be taken forward.
C. Four Wheelers
Electric Cars can be introduced for government use and as modern, eco-friendly taxi
cars. Technologically the optimal solution would be to have electric cars with built in batteries
with hire-able ‘Range extension batteries’ of different capacities for different models of EV.
 Built in batteries could be charged at home over night and could run for about 80-100
KM distance daily, which would be the normal demand of the car owners, Whereas the
range extension batteries could be hired for longer drives.
 There could also be a number of DC fast charging stations as well as swapping stations
for range-extension batteries established in strategic locations in the cities and along
the national highways and state highways.
 It would also be possible to provide the public the list and geographic location of all
available swapping stations over as mobile app accessible to all.
Once the availability of sufficient electric vehicles and charging-swapping stations are
in place, State may also take up certain environmentally fragile locations-like munnar-and
mandate to convert all four wheelers as electric vehicles, enforcing them as pollution free EV
zones. Small Cargo carriers would be another category that may be converted to EVs through
policy mandates.
D. Heavy Electric Vehicles/Electric Buses
Electric Vehicles with a battery pack of more than 500 Volts is considered as Heavy
EV. Buses are the first preference for conversion to e-vehicle regime, due its large impact on
the on-road vehicle population, potential to reduce pollution and promote shared mobility.
Buses, primarily for public transport shall be of 9 meter and 12-meter length, with an average
driving range of 50 KM to 100 KM. The Bureau of Indian Standards is developing standards
for the following types of Bus Battery charging options, as India specific solutions.
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VI. BATTERY AND CHARGING SYSTEM
A. Fixed battery system
Buses are expected to charge at the bus depots using 3-phase AC connections
dedicatedly connected to each parked bus. In addition, small top up charging done en-route.
This system is currently under consideration in Kolkata.
B. Replaceable Battery Systems
Battery Swapping at Bus Depots/Terminals to cater to trip lengths of up to 35 KM. A

battery pack that provides 50 KM range could be adopted for use across the State. This option
is being closely watched as there are no large scale deployments of it and the robotic arm or
battery switch systems is presently under demonstration stage.
C. Automated Bus Charging Systems
This is an emerging option, currently being deployed and evaluated in Northern Europe.
It involves deployment of pantograph-charger (or “docker”) at the Bus terminal every time the
bus returns to the terminal. The battery size can be configured similar to option 2 or 5 above,
depending on system configuration.
VII. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF ELECTRIC VEHICLE
India’s CO2 emissions grew by an estimated 4.6% in 2017, despite a turbulent year for
its economy. Measured per person, India’s emissions are still very low – at only 1.8 tonnes of
CO2 per capita – which is much lower than the world average of 4.2 tonnes. But those
emissions have been growing steadily, with an average growth rate over the past decade of 6%.
With India being the world’s fourth largest emitter of CO2, it is important to understand what
the country’s emissions are currently and where they might be headed. Given India’s early
stage of economic development, low per-capita emissions and its large population, there is
significant scope for its emissions to increase. India’s pledge under the Paris Agreement is to
reduce the carbon intensity of its economy by 33-35% by 2030, compared to 2005 levels. Given
projections of very strong economic growth over this period, emissions are expected to grow
significantly.
VIII. CONCLUSION
In the near future, as the battery technology becomes cheaper, fossil fuels becomes
costlier, electric vehicle technology becomes cost effectives, government subsidies for
PHEVS, Tax Benefits for V2H, charging station becomes widespread, and GHG emission law
more stringent, it is a natural expectation that the vehicle to home(V2H) methodology will
becomes popular and economically viable. This can happen by bridging the cost margin
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between the existing Diesel vehicles and the PHEVs. The authors in this paper have attempted
to identify and quantify the avenues to the research fraternity and also to improve the
willingness to pay (WTP) [18] of the customer by identifying potential qualitative advantages
of V2H system, and thus making the vehicle mission mobility plan of India, a reality.
REFERENCES
[1]. Amevi A, Essel B H and Mathias B M, “Cost Benefit Analysis ofSelf-Optimized Hybrid
Solar-Wind-Hydro Electrical EnergySupply as compared with HOMER Optimization,”
InternationalJournal of Computer Applications, Vol. 114, No. 18, pp. 32-38,
[2]. D’Amico, Guglielmo, Filippo Petroni and Flavio Prattico,“Performance analysis of second
order semi-markov chains: Anapplication to wind energy production”, Methodology
andcomputing in applied probability, pp. 1-14, 2014.
[3]. Optimal Sizing of Wind/Solar/Hydro in an IsolatedPower System using SMUGF based
FPA.Manohar Potli Assistant Professor Dept. of EEE, KEC, Y. Damodharam Associate
Professor Dept. of EEE, KEC Kuppam, India &Balachandra J C Assistant Professor Dept.
of EEE, KEC Kuppam, India
[4]. Ying-Yi Hong and Ruo-Chen Lian, “Optimal Sizing of HybridWind/PV/Diesel Generation
in a Stand-Alone Power SystemUsing Markov-Based Genetic Algorithm,” IEEE Trans.
Power
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Examining the Rise of Deep fake Technology: An Overview

V Jaswanth1, C Anitha2
1
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
Saveetha School of Engineering,
Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences,
Saveetha University, Chennai, India
jaswanth.veerala@gmail.com
2
Professor, Department of Computer Science and Engineering,
Saveetha School of Engineering,
Saveetha University, Chennai, India
canithathomas@gmail.com
Abstract
Deep fakes present an emerging threat in cyberspace. Recent developments in machine
learning make deep fakes highly believable, and very difficult to differentiate between what is
real and what is fake. Not only humans but also machines struggle to identify deep fakes.
Current speaker and facial recognition systems might be easily fooled by carefully prepared
synthetic media – deep fakes. We provide a detailed overview of the state-of-the-art deep fake
creation and detection methods for selected visual and audio domains. In contrast to other deep
fake surveys, we focus on the threats that deep fakes represent to biometrics systems (e.g.,
spoofing). We discuss both facial and speech deep fakes, and for each domain, we define deep
fake categories and their differences. For each deep fake category, we provide an overview of
available tools for creation, datasets, and detection methods. Our main contribution is a
definition of attack vectors concerning the differences between categories and reported real-
world attacks to evaluate each category's threats to selected categories of biometrics systems.
Introduction:
Deep fake is a term that denotes a subset of synthetic media. The term itself is a
combination of words deep learning and fake. Deep fakes are created using deep neural
networks, and they depict events that never happened to entertain, defame individuals, spread
fake news, and others In addition, deep fakes still grow in popularity. The publication counts
significantly increased in the past years, as well as the popularity of the deep fake keyword in
Google searches The immense popularity and easy accessibility of deep fakes urge
investigating what threats and impacts deep fakes might have on cyberspace, as society is still
unsure.Our survey focuses on the latest development of deep fakes in facial and speech
domains. We divide facial deep fakes into categories according to the level of manipulation
needed, and as an extra category, we incorporate face morphing. We divide speech deep fakes
into categories according to voice transfer technology. For each category, technologies, tools,
datasets, attack vectors, and detection methods are provided. The attack vectors propose how
each of the presented deep fake categories might be misused. Additionally, we focus on
identifying deep fake types that might be used to spoof face or voice biometrics systems.
Literature Collection and Selection Criteria:
This survey reviews existing research papers that focus on techniques for creating and
detecting deep fake media in face and speech domains. A more detailed description of the
approach and protocols employed for the review is given.
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The literature review synthesizes findings from various scholarly works and industry
reports, covering topics such as deep fake generation methods, detection algorithms, ethical
considerations, and legal frameworks. Key insights from previous studies provide a framework
for understanding the evolution of deepfake technology and its ramifications on society.
Methodology:
Deep fake creation (including tools) methods based on the proposed taxonomy.
Deep fake detection methods based on the proposed deep fake taxonomy.
Deep fake creation tools (GitHub (GitLab) repositories, online tools).
Incident reports and online news reporting usage of deep fakes for malicious purposes.
Discussion on future developments, challenges, and limitations of the deep fake area.
Data Collection: Gathering sufficient high-quality data to train your deep fake model is
crucial. This involves collecting a large dataset of images or videos of the target person or
object from various angles, expressions, and lighting conditions. Websites like YouTube, stock
photo repositories, or personal photo collections can be sources for data.
Deep Learning Frameworks: Deep learning frameworks like Tensor Flow, Poarch, or
Kera’s are commonly used for building deep fake models. These frameworks provide the
necessary tools for implementing neural networks and training deep learning models.
Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs): GANs are the primary architecture used in
deep fake creation. They consist of two neural networks: a generator and a discriminator. The
generator creates fake images or videos, while the discriminator tries to distinguish between
real and fake ones. Through iterative training, the generator learns to produce increasingly
realistic outputs.
Preprocessing: Preprocessing steps such as face detection, alignment, and
normalization are applied to the collected images or videos to ensure consistency and quality
in the training data. Techniques like landmark detection and face cropping help in accurately
isolating and aligning faces.
Model Training: Training the GAN involves feeding the pre-processed data into the
network and optimizing the generator and discriminator to improve the realism of the generated
output. This process typically requires powerful hardware such as GPUs due to the
computational intensity of deep learning.
Loss Functions: Various loss functions are used to train GANs, including pixel-wise
loss, feature matching loss, and adversarial loss. These functions help to quantify the difference
between the generated and real images and guide the network towards producing more realistic
outputs.
Fine-tuning and Refinement: After the initial training, fine-tuning and refinement steps
may be necessary to improve the quality of the generated deep fakes. This can involve adjusting
hyper parameters, collecting additional training data, or using more advanced techniques such
as conditional GANs.
Post-processing: Post-processing techniques such as smoothing, colour correction, and
blending may be applied to the generated deep fakes to enhance their realism and coherence.
Ethical Considerations: It's important to consider the ethical implications of deep fake
creation, including potential misuse for spreading disinformation or manipulating individuals'
identities without consent. Responsible use and adherence to ethical guidelines are essential in
the development and deployment of deep fake technology.
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Legal Compliance: Ensure that your use of deepfake technology complies with relevant
laws and regulations, particularly those concerning privacy, defamation, and intellectual
property rights. Misuse of deep fake technology can lead to legal consequences.
The literature review synthesizes findings from various scholarly works and industry
reports, covering topics such as deep fake generation methods, detection algorithms, ethical
considerations, and legal frameworks. Key insights from previous studies provide a framework
for understanding the evolution of deep fake technology and its ramifications on society.
Result Analysis:
The analysis highlights the effectiveness of current deep fake detection methods,
identifying areas for improvement and future research directions. Furthermore, case studies
and real-world examples illustrate the prevalence and consequences of deep fake content
dissemination across different domains.
Visual Realism: How convincing is the deep fake? Assessing whether the generated content
looks realistic or if there are noticeable artifacts, such as strange facial movements, blurry areas,
or inconsistencies in lighting and shadows.
Detection Performance: Evaluate the effectiveness of detection algorithms in identifying deep

fakes. This involves testing various detection methods against a dataset of deep fake and
authentic videos to measure their accuracy, precision, recall, and false positive rates.
Ethical Considerations: Considering the potential misuse of deep fake technology, such as
spreading misinformation, manipulating public opinion, or generating non-consensual adult
content, it's important to assess the ethical implications and potential harm associated with its
proliferation.
Regulatory Framework: Examining existing and proposed regulations aimed at controlling

the creation and dissemination of deep fakes, including laws regarding privacy, intellectual
property rights, and digital impersonation.
Mitigation Strategies: Developing and evaluating techniques to mitigate the negative effects
of deep fakes, including software-based detection tools, watermarking methods, and
educational campaigns to raise awareness about the existence of deep fake technology.
Social Impact: Studying the broader societal impact of deepfake technology on trust, media
literacy, and democratic processes, including its potential to undermine the credibility of audio
visual evidence and fuel conspiracy theories.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, deep fake technology presents a multifaceted challenge with significant
implications for society, technology, and ethics. While deepfakes offer novel opportunities for
entertainment, creativity, and digital manipulation, they also pose serious risks, including the
spread of misinformation, erosion of trust, and infringement of privacy and consent. To
effectively address the challenges posed by deep fakes, a concerted effort is needed from
various stakeholders, including researchers, policymakers, industry players, and the public.
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References:
1. Farid H (2009) A survey of image forgery detection. IEEE Signal Process Mag
26(2):25–26
2. Redi JA, Taktak W, Dugelay J-L (2011) Digital image forensics: a booklet for
beginners. Multimedia Tools Appl 51(1):133–162
3. Julliand T, Nozick V, Talbot H (2015) Image noise and digital image forensics. In: 14th
International workshop on digital-forensics and watermarking (IWDW 2015). vol
9569. Tokyo, Japan, October 2015 pp 3–17
4. Suwajanakorn S, Seitz SM, Kemelmacher-Shlizerman I (2017) Synthesizing Obama:
learning lip sync from audio. ACM Trans Graph 36(4):Article 95
5. Kietzmann J, Lee LW, McCarthy IP, Kietzmann TC (2017) Deepfake: trick or treat.
Elsevier 63(2):1–12
6. Li Y, Chang MC, Lyu S (2018) Exposing AI created fake videos by detecting eye
blinking. In: IEEE International workshop on information forensics and security
(WIFS), pp 1–7
7. Sabour S, Frosst N, Hinton GE (2017) dynamic routing between capsules. In:
Proceedings of conference on neural information processing systems (NIPS), pp 1–11
8. Yang M, Zhao W, Ye J, Lei Z, Zhao Z, Zhang S (2018) Investigating capsule networks
with dynamic routing for text classification. In: Conference on empirical methods in
natural language processing (EMNLP), pp 3110–3119
9. Rössler A, Cozzolino D, Verdoliva L, Riess C, Thies J, Nießner M, (2018) Face
forensics: a large-scale video dataset for forgery detection in human faces. pp 1–21.
arXiv preprint
10. Simonyan K, Zisserman A (2015) Very deep convolutional networks for large-scale
image recognition. In: International conference on learning representations (ICLR), pp
1–14
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Advancing Sustainability in IoT Ecosystems: An Overview

of Green IoT Technologies and Practices
Dr.W. Deva Priya, Virinda Singh V Megana R, Sugavarshini S.
Department of Computer Science and Engineering,Saveetha School of Engineering,
SIMATS,Saveetha University, Chennai
virindasinghv1012.sse@saveetha.com
Abstract—: This research aims to offer a comprehensive overview of Green IoT and its
fundamental components. The paper delves into the key elements of Green IoT, including
Energy-Efficient Hardware Design, Adaptive Power Management, Energy-Aware
Networking, Renewable Energy Integration, and Lifecycle Sustainability. Furthermore, it
explores the transformative impact of Green IoT development on the world and the potential
advancements achievable through its adoption. The paper offers a thorough examination of
case studies and real-world instances, underscoring the successful deployment of Green IoT
technologies across diverse sectors such as smart cities, agriculture, healthcare, and industrial
automation. Moreover, it sheds light on emerging trends, key challenges, and future research
avenues within the realm of Green IoT, fostering inspiration for continued innovation and
collaboration towards a sustainable IoT landscape. Through this comprehensive exploration,
stakeholders are equipped with invaluable insights into the transformative potential of Green
IoT and its pivotal role in shaping a more sustainable and interconnected world
Keywords— Terms— Green IoT, Energy, Renewable, Power, Communication,

Sustainability.
I. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, the proliferation of Internet of Things (IoT) devices has led to a
paradigm shift in various domains, ranging from healthcare and agriculture to smart cities and
industrial automation. However, as the number of IoT devices continues to grow exponentially,
so does their collective energy consumption, posing significant challenges in terms of
environmental sustainability and energy efficiency. In response to these challenges, the
concept of “Green IoT” has emerged as a critical area of research and development. Green IoT
focuses on designing, developing, and deploying IoT solutions that are environmentally
friendly and energy-efficient [1-3]. The goal is to minimize the ecological footprint of IoT
deployments while maximizing their functionality and effectiveness. This involves leveraging
innovative technologies, optimization techniques, and best practices to reduce energy
consumption, promote renewable energy usage, and mitigate environmental impact.
One of the primary motivations behind Green IoT is the growing concern over the
carbon footprint and energy consumption associated with traditional IoT deployments. Many
IoT devices operate on battery power or have limited access to energy sources, making energy
efficiency a crucial factor in their design and operation. By adopting green practices and
technologies, organizations can not only reduce operational costs but also contribute to a more
sustainable and eco-friendly future. Green IoT is increasingly important in recent days due to
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its potential to address pressing environmental challenges, optimize resource usage, reduce
costs, and enhance organizational resilience and competitiveness [4]. By prioritizing
sustainability in IoT deployments, stakeholders can contribute to a cleaner, greener, and more
sustainable future for generations to come.
Key aspects of Green IoT include:
i) Energy-Efficient Hardware Design: Developing IoT devices with low-power components,

energy-efficient processors, and optimized hardware architectures to minimize energy
consumption without sacrificing performance.
ii) Adaptive Power Management: Implementing intelligent power management algorithms and
techniques to dynamically adjust device power states, optimize energy usage, and extend
battery life.
iii) Energy-Aware Networking: Designing energyefficient communication protocols and
networking technologies that reduce transmission overhead, minimize idle listening, and
optimize data routing in IoT networks.
iv)Renewable Energy Integration: Integrating renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, and
kinetic energy into IoT deployments to reduce reliance on traditional power grids and minimize
carbon emissions.
v) Lifecycle Sustainability: Considering environmental sustainability throughout the entire
lifecycle of IoT devices, from design and manufacturing to deployment, operation, and end-
of-life disposal or recycling.
Overall, Green IoT represents a holistic approach to building and managing IoT ecosystems
that prioritize environmental sustainability, energy efficiency, and longterm ecological balance
[5-7]. By embracing the principles of Green IoT, organizations can not only achieve their
technological objectives but also contribute positively to the global effort to combat climate
change and preserve natural resources for future generations.
II. ENERGY-EFFICIENT HARDWARE DESIGN
Energy-efficient hardware design plays a crucial role in minimizing the power

consumption of IoT devices. This involves optimizing the design of electronic components,
circuits, and systems to operate efficiently while consuming minimal power. Here’s an
explanation with a diagram:
A. Low-Power Components:
IoT devices are equipped with various electronic components such as microcontrollers,
sensors, and transceivers. Choosing low-power variants of these components can significantly
reduce overall power consumption. For example, microcontrollers with lowpower modes and
sensors with low standby current can help minimize energy usage during idle periods.
B. Power-Optimized Circuits:
The design of circuits within IoT devices should focus on minimizing power consumption
without compromising functionality. Techniques such as voltage scaling, clock gating, and
power gating can be employed to dynamically adjust power supply voltage, disable clock
signals to idle components, and power down unused circuit blocks, respectively [8].
C. Energy-Aware Architecture:
The architecture of IoT devices should be optimized for energy efficiency. This may involve
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designing systems with modular architectures that allow for selective activation and
deactivation of components based on application requirements. Additionally, using energy-
efficient communication protocols and data compression techniques can help reduce energy
consumption during data transmission.
D. Sleep Modes and Wake-up Mechanisms:

IoT devices often spend a significant amount of time in low-power sleep modes to conserve
energy. Implementing efficient sleep/wake-up mechanisms is essential to minimize power
consumption during idle periods while ensuring timely response to external events. Techniques
such as event-triggered wake-ups and periodic wake-ups can be used to wake the device from
sleep mode only when necessary [14].
E. Power Management Unit (PMU):
A Power Management Unit (PMU) is responsible for managing power supply and
consumption within IoT devices. It regulates voltage levels, monitors power usage, and
implements power-saving features. The PMU may include components such as voltage
regulators, power switches, and battery management circuits to optimize energy efficiency.
III. ADAPTIVE POWER MANAGEMENT
Adaptive power management is a dynamic approach to managing power consumption in

electronic devices, including IoT devices, based on real-time environmental conditions, user
behavior, and application requirements. The goal of adaptive power management is to optimize
energy usage while maintaining or enhancing device performance and functionality. Here’s an
explanation of adaptive power management [9-10]
Fig 1. Energy Efficient Diagram fro Green IOT
A. Dynamic Power Adjustment:

Adaptive power management involves dynamically adjusting power consumption based on
changing conditions. This may include varying the operating voltage and frequency of the
device’s processor, adjusting the brightness of the display, or activating/deactivating peripheral
components as needed.
B. Sensing and Feedback Mechanisms:
Adaptive power management relies on sensing and feedback mechanisms to monitor
environmental parameters and user interactions. Sensors embedded in the device can measure
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factors such as ambient light levels, temperature, motion, and battery voltage. Feedback
mechanisms analyze sensor data and adjust power settings accordingly.
C. Context Awareness:
Adaptive power management systems are context-aware, meaning they adapt power
consumption based on the context of use. For example, a mobile device may reduce power
consumption when the screen is inactive or when the device is in a low-motion state (e.g.,
resting on a table). Conversely, power may be increased when the device is in active use or
when demanding applications are running [17].
D. Optimization Algorithms:
Adaptive power management algorithms are responsible for making intelligent decisions
about when and how to adjust power settings. These algorithms may use machine learning
techniques to predict user behavior and optimize power usage accordingly. For example, an
algorithm may learn user patterns and adjust power settings based on historical usage data.
E. Trade-offs and Performance:
Adaptive power management involves balancing energy efficiency with performance and
user experience. There are often trade-offs between reducing power consumption and
maintaining acceptable levels of device responsiveness and functionality. Adaptive power
management systems aim to find the optimal balance between energy savings and performance
requirements.
F. User Preferences and Customization:
Adaptive power management systems may allow users to customize power-saving settings
based on their preferences and priorities. Users may have the option to adjust power profiles,
set thresholds for power-saving features, or enable/disable specific adaptive power
management features based on their usage patterns and needs [12].
Overall, adaptive power management is a critical component of energy-efficient design in
IoT devices, enabling devices to operate efficiently while adapting to changing environmental
conditions and user requirements. By dynamically adjusting power consumption in response
to real-time data and user interactions, adaptive power management systems help prolong
battery life, reduce energy costs, and minimize environmental impact.
IV. ENERGY-AWARE NETWORKING
Energy-aware networking refers to the design and implementation of communication

protocols and networking technologies that prioritize energy efficiency in IoT (Internet of
Things) and other networked devices. The goal is to minimize energy consumption during data
transmission and reception while maintaining reliable and efficient communication. Here’s an
explanation of energy-aware networking:
A. Low-Power Communication Protocols:
Energy-aware networking often involves the use of lowpower communication protocols
optimized for IoT devices with limited energy resources. These protocols, such as Zigbee,
Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), and LoRaWAN, minimize energy consumption by employing
techniques such as short packet lengths, low-duty cycles, and efficient modulation schemes.
B. Sleep/Wake Cycling:
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Energy-aware networking protocols typically support sleep/wake cycling mechanisms,
allowing devices to enter low-power sleep modes when idle and wake up periodically or in
response to specific events. Sleep/wake cycling helps conserve energy by reducing the power
consumption of networked devices during periods of inactivity [14].
C. Adaptive Transmission Power:
Energy-aware networking protocols may employ adaptive transmission power control
mechanisms to adjust the transmit power of devices based on the distance to the receiver and
the quality of the communication channel. By dynamically optimizing transmission power
levels, energy consumption can be minimized while maintaining reliable communication.
D. Efficient Data Aggregation:
Energy-aware networking protocols often incorporate efficient data aggregation techniques
to reduce the amount of data transmitted over the network. By aggregating multiple data
packets into a single transmission, redundant data can be eliminated, reducing the overall
energy consumption associated with data transmission.
E. Route Optimization:
Energy-aware routing algorithms aim to optimize the selection of communication paths in
the network to minimize energy consumption. These algorithms consider factors such as node
battery levels, link quality, and network topology to select routes that minimize energy
expenditure while meeting quality-of-service requirements.
F. Cross-Layer Optimization:
Energy-aware networking may involve cross-layer optimization techniques that coordinate
energy management across multiple network layers, including the physical, data link, network,
and transport layers. By considering interactions between different layers of the protocol stack,
energy consumption can be minimized more effectively.
G. Energy Monitoring and Management:
Energy-aware networking protocols often include mechanisms for monitoring and managing
energy usage in networked devices. This may involve collecting energy consumption data from
individual devices, enforcing energy-saving policies, and dynamically adjusting network
parameters to optimize energy efficiency.
Overall, energy-aware networking plays a crucial role in the design and operation of IoT and
other networked systems, enabling efficient communication while prolonging device battery
life and reducing energy costs. By prioritizing energy efficiency in communication protocols
and network management strategies, energy-aware networking contributes to the development
of sustainable and environmentally friendly networked systems [13].
V. RENEWABLE ENERGY INTEGRATION
Renewable energy integration refers to the incorporation of renewable energy sources, such
as solar, wind, hydroelectric, and geothermal energy, into the power supply infrastructure of
IoT (Internet of Things) devices, systems, and networks. The goal is to reduce reliance on
traditional fossil fuel-based energy sources and minimize the environmental impact of energy
consumption in IoT deployments. Here’s an explanation of renewable energy integration:
A. Solar Energy: Solar energy is one of the most widely used renewable energy sources for IoT
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applications. Photovoltaic (PV) solar panels are installed on IoT devices or nearby structures
to harness sunlight and convert it into electrical energy. Solar-powered IoT devices can operate
autonomously, without the need for grid connections or battery replacements, making them
suitable for remote and off-grid deployments.
B. Wind Energy: Wind energy can be harnessed using small-scale wind turbines or micro wind
generators installed alongside IoT devices or in nearby locations with suitable wind conditions.
Wind-powered IoT solutions can supplement solar energy generation and provide additional
energy during periods of low sunlight. However, wind energy availability may vary depending
on local wind patterns and terrain.
C. Hydroelectric Energy: In some cases, IoT devices may be deployed in locations with access to
flowing water, such as rivers, streams, or irrigation channels. Micro hydroelectric generators
can be used to harness the kinetic energy of flowing water and generate electricity to power
IoT devices. Hydroelectric-powered IoT solutions offer a reliable and continuous source of
renewable energy, especially in regions with abundant water resources.
D. Geothermal Energy: Geothermal energy utilizes heat energy from the Earth’s subsurface to
generate electricity or provide direct heating. While not as common as solar or wind energy,
geothermal energy can be harnessed for IoT applications in areas with geothermal activity,
such as hot springs or geothermal wells. Geothermal-powered IoT solutions offer a consistent
and stable source of renewable energy with minimal environmental impact.
E. Integration Challenges: Renewable energy integration into IoT deployments poses several
technical and logistical challenges. These include variability in energy availability (e.g.,
fluctuations in sunlight or wind speed), energy storage requirements (e.g., batteries or
capacitors to store excess energy for use during low-energy periods), and system compatibility
issues (e.g., ensuring compatibility between renewable energy sources and IoT devices).
F. Energy Management and Optimization:
Effective energy management and optimization strategies are essential for maximizing the
benefits of renewable energy integration in IoT deployments. This may involve dynamic
energy allocation, load balancing, and predictive analytics to optimize energy usage, minimize
waste, and ensure the reliable operation of IoT systems.
The renewable energy integration plays a crucial role in promoting sustainability and
reducing carbon emissions in IoT deployments. By harnessing renewable energy sources, IoT
solutions can operate more efficiently, reduce reliance on non-renewable energy sources, and
contribute to a cleaner and more sustainable energy future.
VI. LIFECYCLE SUSTAINABILITY
Lifecycle sustainability in Green IoT refers to the consideration of environmental impacts

and sustainability principles throughout the entire lifecycle of IoT devices, systems, and
deployments. It involves minimizing the ecological footprint of IoT technologies from their
design and manufacturing stages through their operation, maintenance, and end-of-life disposal
or recycling. Here’s an explanation of lifecycle sustainability in Green IoT:
A. Design and Manufacturing:
Lifecycle sustainability begins with the design and manufacturing of IoT devices.
Sustainable design practices aim to minimize resource consumption, reduce waste generation,
and optimize energy efficiency during the production process. This may involve using eco-
friendly materials, designing for recyclability, and adopting energyefficient manufacturing
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techniques[14].
B. Energy Efficiency:
Throughout the operational phase, lifecycle sustainability involves optimizing energy
efficiency to minimize the energy consumption of IoT devices. This includes implementing
energy-efficient hardware design, adaptive power management techniques, and energy-aware
networking protocols to reduce energy usage while maintaining performance and functionality.
C. Resource Conservation:
Lifecycle sustainability in Green IoT also encompasses resource conservation measures

aimed at reducing resource consumption and promoting circular economy principles. This may
involve using recycled materials in device construction, implementing repairable and
upgradable designs to extend device lifespan, and facilitating component reuse or
refurbishment.
D. Eco-friendly Packaging and Logistics:
Sustainable packaging and logistics practices are essential for minimizing the environmental
impact of IoT deployments. This includes using eco-friendly packaging materials, optimizing
packaging sizes to reduce waste, and adopting efficient transportation methods to minimize
carbon emissions during product distribution [15].
E. End-of-Life Management:
Proper end-of-life management is crucial for ensuring the sustainability of IoT deployments.
Lifecycle sustainability involves implementing strategies for responsible disposal, recycling,
or refurbishment of IoT devices at the end of their operational lifespan. This may include
designing devices for easy disassembly, establishing take-back programs, and partnering with
recycling facilities to recover valuable materials.
F. Regulatory Compliance and Certification:
Lifecycle sustainability in Green IoT also involves compliance with environmental
regulations and certification standards. IoT manufacturers and service providers must adhere
to relevant environmental regulations, such as restrictions on hazardous substances and
electronic waste disposal. Additionally, obtaining certifications such as EPEAT (Electronic
Product Environmental Assessment Tool) or ENERGY STAR® demonstrates a commitment
to sustainability and environmental responsibility [16].
G. Continuous Improvement and Innovation:
Green IoT embraces a culture of continuous improvement and innovation to advance
lifecycle sustainability practices. This involves ongoing research and development efforts to
identify new technologies, materials, and processes that further enhance the environmental
performance of IoT deployments and contribute to a more sustainable future [20-22].
By integrating lifecycle sustainability principles into every stage of the IoT lifecycle, from
design and manufacturing to operation and disposal, Green IoT initiatives can minimize
environmental impact, conserve resources, and promote a more sustainable and resilient future.
VII. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, Green IoT represents a crucial paradigm shift towards building sustainable
and environmentally friendly Internet of Things (IoT) ecosystems. Green IoT holds immense
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potential to address environmental challenges, promote energy efficiency, and pave the way
for a more sustainable and resilient future. By embracing the principles of Green IoT,
stakeholders can work together to create a world where IoT technologies coexist harmoniously
with the environment, benefitting both present and future generations.
REFERENCES
[1] Li, X., Ma, J., Xu, L., Xiang, Y., & Zhang, H. (2022). A Green Internet of Things Design for
Smart Agriculture. IEEE Access, 5, 2227-2238.
[2] Liu, Y., Zhang, Y., Xue, L., & Ma, H. (2022). Survey of wireless energy harvesting for the
Internet of Things. China Communications, 15(5), 46-64.
[3] Masood, A., Khan, S. U., & Akram, S. (2022). A survey on energyefficient techniques in
wireless sensor networks. Journal of Network and Computer Applications, 50, 197-217.
[4] Li, X., Ma, J., Xu, L., Xiang, Y., & Zhang, H. (2017). A Green Internet of Things Design for
Smart Agriculture. IEEE Access, 5, 2227-2238.
[5] Zhang, Y., Wang, J., Han, J., & Zhou, X. (2015). Green Internet of Things architecture and
applications. IEEE Communications Magazine, 53(9), 72-78.
[6] Wang, J., Zhang, Y., & Han, J. (2016). Green Internet of Things for Smart World. IEEE
Access, 4, 120-128.
[7] Salehi, M. A., Ali, B., Kim, K. H., & Cho, G. H. (2019). Green Internet of Things (GIoT): A
review on energy-efficient protocols and architectures. Sustainable Cities and Society, 45, 413-
432.
[8] Cai, H., Zhao, H., & Dong, L. (2016). Green IoT: A sustainable paradigm of wireless
communications and networking. IEEE Wireless Communications, 23(1), 102-108.
[9] Guo, S., Zhou, J., Han, J., Zhang, Y., & Zhou, X. (2016). Energy harvesting in green wireless
Internet of Things. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, 12(6), 2181-2190.
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Review On IoT based Renewable Energy

Systems
Agenya Ramakrishnan, Dr.M.Siva Ramkumar,
Coimbatore, India
agenya27@gmail.com
Abstract
Renewable energy systems, such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric power, offer abundant,
clean energy sources that can significantly reduce reliance on fossil fuels and mitigate
environmental impact. When coupled with IoT devices and smart grid technologies, these
systems can be optimized for improved performance and reliability. IoT enables real-time
monitoring, data collection, and analysis of energy production and consumption patterns,
allowing for dynamic adjustments and predictive maintenance. IoT facilitates seamless
communication and coordination among various components of the energy infrastructure,
including renewable energy generators, storage systems, and end-user devices. This
interconnectedness enables intelligent energy management strategies, such as demand-
response mechanisms and energy trading platforms, fostering a more resilient and adaptive
energy ecosystem.
Keywords: Renewable energy system, IoT devices, energy production and consumption
patterns.
1 INTRODUCTION
A renewable energy system with a monitoring system typically refers to a setup that
incorporates renewable energy sources such as solar panels, wind turbines, or hydroelectric
generators, along with devices for real-time monitoring and analysis of energy production and
usage.
These monitoring systems often consist of sensors, data loggers, and communication
devices that gather data on various parameters such as energy generation, storage levels, and
consumption patterns. [1]. The collected data is then transmitted to a central control unit or a
cloud-based platform for analysis and decision-making.
The main objectives of integrating monitoring systems into renewable energy setups are to:
Optimize Performance: By continuously monitoring energy production and consumption,
operators can identify inefficiencies or anomalies and take corrective actions to optimize
system performance.
Ensure Reliability: Monitoring systems help in early detection of equipment malfunctions or
failures, enabling timely maintenance and repairs to ensure the reliable operation of the
renewable energy system.
Enhance Efficiency: Data collected from monitoring systems can be analyzed to identify
opportunities for improving energy efficiency, such as adjusting operating parameters or
optimizing energy storage and distribution.
Enable Remote Management: With remote monitoring capabilities, operators can manage
and control renewable energy systems from a centralized location, facilitating remote
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troubleshooting and control.
The efficient operation and optimization of renewable energy systems, the integration
of monitoring systems has become indispensable.[2].This comprehensive overview delves into
the intricacies of renewable energy systems with monitoring capabilities, exploring the
components, functionalities, benefits, and emerging trends shaping this field.
Renewable Energy System Components:
Renewable energy systems harness natural resources to generate electricity, offering a
sustainable alternative to traditional fossil fuels. Solar panels, wind turbines, and hydroelectric
generators are among the most commonly deployed technologies in these systems.
Solar Energy Systems:
Solar energy systems utilize photovoltaic (PV) panels to convert sunlight into
electricity. PV panels consist of solar cells that generate direct current (DC) electricity when
exposed to sunlight.[3].In solar energy systems, monitoring devices are integrated to track
parameters such as solar irradiance, temperature, panel voltage, and current output. These
sensors, typically installed within or adjacent to the solar panels, provide real-time data on
energy production and panel performance.
Wind Energy Systems:
Wind energy systems harness the kinetic energy of wind to generate electricity through
wind turbines. Monitoring systems in wind energy setups employ an array of sensors to
measure wind speed, direction, turbine rotor speed, and power output. These sensors are
strategically positioned on wind turbines and meteorological masts to capture comprehensive
data on wind resource availability and turbine performance.
Hydroelectric Energy Systems:
Hydroelectric energy systems utilize flowing water to drive turbines and generate
electricity. Monitoring systems in hydroelectric setups monitor parameters such as water flow
rate, turbine speed, water level, and power output. Sensors and data loggers are installed at
various points along the water conveyance system, including intake structures, penstocks, and
turbine generators, to ensure efficient operation and optimize energy production.
Monitoring System Components and Functionality:
Monitoring systems in renewable energy setups are comprised of sensors, data loggers,
communication devices, and data analysis software. These components work in tandem to
collect, transmit, analyze, and visualize data related to energy production and usage.
Sensors:
Sensors are fundamental components of monitoring systems, responsible for measuring
physical parameters such as solar irradiance, wind speed, temperature, humidity, water flow
rate, and electrical variables (voltage, current, power). These sensors may employ various
technologies, including photovoltaic cells, anemometers, thermocouples, pressure transducers,
and Hall effect sensors, to accurately capture data from renewable energy systems.
Data Loggers:
Data loggers are electronic devices that record and store data collected by sensors over
time. These devices are equipped with built-in memory and interfaces for connecting to
multiple sensors simultaneously. Data loggers facilitate continuous monitoring and logging of
sensor readings at predetermined intervals, ensuring comprehensive data capture for analysis
and decision-making.
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Communication Devices:
Communication devices enable the transmission of collected data from sensors and
data loggers to a central control unit or cloud-based platform for analysis. Common
communication protocols used in monitoring systems include Ethernet, Wi-Fi, cellular, and
radio frequency (RF) communication. These devices facilitate real-time data streaming, remote
monitoring, and integration with existing network infrastructure for seamless data access and
management.
Data Analysis Software:
Data analysis software plays a critical role in processing, interpreting, and visualizing
data collected from renewable energy systems. These software solutions employ algorithms,
statistical techniques, and visualization tools to extract actionable insights from raw sensor
data. Advanced analytics capabilities enable trend analysis, anomaly detection, predictive
maintenance, and performance optimization, empowering operators to make informed
decisions and maximize system efficiency.
Benefits of Monitoring Renewable Energy Systems:
The integration of monitoring systems into renewable energy setups offers a myriad of
benefits, ranging from enhanced performance and reliability to improved efficiency and cost
savings. Key advantages include:
Performance Optimization:
Monitoring systems provide real-time insights into the performance of renewable
energy systems, allowing operators to identify inefficiencies, diagnose issues, and optimize
system parameters for maximum energy output.[4].By fine-tuning operating conditions based
on actionable data, performance optimization can significantly enhance the overall
effectiveness of renewable energy installations.
Predictive Maintenance:
Continuous monitoring of renewable energy systems enables the early detection of
equipment faults, wear and tear, or performance degradation. Predictive maintenance strategies
leverage data analytics to forecast potential failures and schedule maintenance activities
proactively, minimizing downtime, reducing repair costs, and extending equipment lifespan.
Fault Detection and Diagnostics:
Monitoring systems facilitate rapid identification and diagnosis of system faults or
abnormalities, such as underperformance, component failures, or environmental factors
impacting energy production.[5].
Energy Efficiency:
Data-driven insights provided by monitoring systems enable operators to optimize
energy usage, storage, and distribution within renewable energy systems. By analyzing
consumption patterns, peak demand periods, and energy losses, operators can implement
energy-saving measures, load management strategies, and demand-response programs to
enhance overall system efficiency and reduce energy costs.
Remote Monitoring and Control:
The remote monitoring capabilities of monitoring systems allow operators to monitor
and control renewable energy systems from anywhere, at any time. Cloud-based platforms and
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mobile applications provide real-time access to system data, alerts, and performance metrics,
empowering operators to remotely manage operations, troubleshoot issues, and implement
corrective actions without physical intervention.
INTERNET OF THINGS IN RENEWABLE

ENERGY SYSTEMS:
IoT in renewable energy systems involves the integration of interconnected devices,
sensors, and data analytics capabilities into renewable energy infrastructure. These IoT-
enabled components enable real-time monitoring, control, and optimization of energy
generation, distribution, and consumption processes. By collecting and analyzing data from
renewable energy assets, IoT technologies empower stakeholders to maximize energy
efficiency, minimize operational costs, and enhance overall system performance.
Fig. IoT-based smart energy meter reading and monitoring system.

The system uses a smart energy meter to collect data on energy consumption, and then
transmits this data to a cloud server for monitoring and analysis. The system also includes a
theft detection unit, which can be used to detect and report unauthorized energy use.
The main components of the system are:
Smart energy meter:
This meter collects data on energy consumption, such as voltage, current, and power factor. It
can also communicate with other devices in the system.
Microcontroller:
This unit processes the data collected by the smart energy meter and transmits it to the cloud
server.
Wi-Fi module:
This module allows the microcontroller to connect to the internet and transmit data to the cloud
server.
Cloud server:
This server stores the data collected by the smart energy meter and provides a platform for
monitoring and analysis.
AMR Unit:
This unit is used to collect meter readings automatically and send them to the utility company.
LCD:
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This display shows the current energy consumption and other relevant data.
Theft Detection Unit:
This unit can detect and report unauthorized energy use.
The system can be used to monitor energy consumption in homes, businesses, and
industries.[6].It can also be used to detect and prevent energy theft.
The benefits of using an IoT-based smart energy meter reading and monitoring system:
Reduced energy consumption:
By monitoring energy consumption, users can identify areas where they can save energy.
Improved energy efficiency: The system can be used to optimize energy use and improve
energy efficiency.
Cost savings:
By reducing energy consumption and improving energy efficiency, users can save money on
their energy bills.
Theft detection: The system can be used to detect and prevent energy theft.
Remote monitoring:
The system allows users to monitor their energy consumption remotely from anywhere in the
world.
FUTURE SCOPE AND OPPORTUNITIES
The future scope of renewable energy with IoT integration is vast and multifaceted,
encompassing a wide range of applications, technologies, and business models. Some key areas
of opportunity include:
Smart Grids and Energy Management: IoT-enabled smart grid technologies facilitate
real-time monitoring, control, and optimization of energy distribution networks, enabling
dynamic demand-response mechanisms, grid balancing services, and renewable energy
integration. Smart meters, sensors, and data analytics platforms empower utilities and
consumers to manage energy usage more efficiently, reduce peak demand, and optimize grid
stability and resilience.
Predictive Maintenance and Asset Management: IoT-driven predictive maintenance
solutions leverage sensor data and analytics to anticipate equipment failures, schedule
proactive maintenance activities, and optimize asset performance in renewable energy
systems.[7].By detecting anomalies and identifying potential issues early, operators can
minimize downtime, reduce maintenance costs, and extend the lifespan of renewable energy
assets, enhancing overall system reliability and availability.
Energy Optimization and Demand Response: IoT technologies enable dynamic energy
optimization and demand-response strategies that adjust energy production, consumption, and
storage in real-time based on grid conditions, energy prices, and environmental factors. Smart
appliances, energy management systems, and IoT-enabled devices empower consumers to
participate in demand-response programs, optimize energy usage, and reduce electricity costs
while supporting grid stability and renewable energy integration.
Renewable Energy Forecasting and Integration: IoT-driven renewable energy
forecasting solutions leverage weather data, sensor observations, and predictive analytics to
forecast energy generation from renewable sources such as solar and wind power.[8].These
forecasts enable utilities and grid operators to anticipate fluctuations in renewable energy
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output, optimize grid operations, and balance supply and demand in real-time, facilitating
seamless integration of renewable energy into the grid.
Decentralized Energy Systems and Peer-to-Peer Trading: IoT-enabled decentralized
energy systems empower consumers to generate, store, and trade renewable energy locally
through peer-to-peer energy trading platforms. Blockchain technology, coupled with IoT
sensors and smart contracts, facilitates secure, transparent, and automated energy transactions,
enabling consumers to buy, sell, or share excess renewable energy directly with neighboring
households or businesses, fostering a decentralized energy economy.
Challenges and Considerations:
While the future scope of renewable energy with IoT integration holds immense
promise, it also presents several challenges and considerations that must be addressed to realize
its full potential:
Data Security and Privacy:
IoT deployments in renewable energy systems raise concerns regarding data security,
privacy, and vulnerability to cyber threats.[9].Safeguarding sensitive sensor data, securing
communication channels, and implementing robust cybersecurity measures are essential to
mitigate risks and protect against unauthorized access or data breaches.
Interoperability and Standards: The lack of interoperability standards and compatibility
among IoT devices, protocols, and platforms can hinder seamless integration and data
exchange in renewable energy systems. Standardization efforts and interoperability
frameworks are needed to ensure compatibility, scalability, and interoperability across diverse
IoT deployments.
Scalability and Complexity:
Scaling IoT deployments in renewable energy systems requires addressing scalability
and complexity challenges associated with managing large-scale deployments, heterogeneous
devices, and data integration across disparate systems.[10].Designing modular, scalable
architectures and adopting interoperable solutions can help manage complexity and scale IoT
deployments effectively.
Regulatory and Policy Frameworks:
Regulatory and policy frameworks play a crucial role in shaping the future of renewable
energy with IoT integration, providing incentives, guidelines, and regulations to support
innovation, investment, and deployment of IoT-enabled renewable energy solutions. Clear
policies, standards, and incentives are needed to foster a supportive ecosystem for IoT
innovation in the renewable energy sector.
CONCLUSION:
The integration of the Internet of Things (IoT) with renewable energy systems marks a
significant milestone in the pursuit of sustainable energy solutions. This symbiotic relationship
between IoT technologies and renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, and hydroelectric
power has the potential to revolutionize the way we generate, distribute, and consume energy.
Throughout this exploration, we have uncovered the profound implications, applications,
benefits, and challenges associated with this convergence, underscoring its transformative
impact on the global energy landscape.
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REFERENCE
1. Alireza, K and Mohamed, YARI 2014, ‘Robust Single-Loop Direct Current Control of LCL-
Filtered Converter-Based DG Units in GridConnected and Autonomous Micro-grid Modes’,
IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 29, no. 10, pp. 484-493.
2. All India Installed Capacity (In Mw) of Power Stations 2018. Power Capacity Information.
Available from: http://www.cea.nic.in/reports/ monthly/installed
capacity/2018/installed_capacity-12.pdf [31 December 2018]
3. Andrii, C, Oleksandr, H, Andrei, B and Dmitri, V 2015, ‘Power management of an isolated
hybrid AC/DC micro-grid with fuzzy control of battery banks,’ IEEE Transactions on
Industrial Electronics, vol.9, no. 5, pp. 484-493.
4. F. Yanine, A. Sánchez-Squella, A. Barrueto, A. Parejo, F. Cordova, and H. Rother, ‘‘Grid-
tied distributed generation systems to sustain the smart grid transformation: Tariff analysis and
generation sharing,’’ Energies, vol. 13, no. 5, p. 1187, Mar. 2020, doi: 10.3390/en13051187.
5. Chen,Y, Zhao, J, Wang, J, Keqing Qu, Ushiki, S and Ohshima, M 2015, ‘A decupled PQ
control strategy of voltage-controlled inverters’, 9th International Conference on Power
Electronics and ECCE Asia (ICPE-ECCE Asia), 1-5 June 2015, Seoul, South Korea.
6. T. Ahmad, H. Chen, J. Wang, and Y. Guo, ‘‘Review of various modeling techniques for the
detection of electricity theft in smart grid environment,’’ Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., vol.
82, pp. 2916–2933, Feb. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2017.10.040.
7. Christidis, GC, Nanakos, AC and Tatakis, EC 2016, ‘Hybrid Discontinuous/Boundary
Conduction Mode of Flyback Microinverter for AC–PV Modules’, IEEE Transactions on
Power Electronics, vol. 31, no. 6, pp. 4195-4205.
8 S. Chakraborty and S. Das, ‘‘Application of smart meters in high impedance fault detection
on distribution systems,’’ IEEE Trans. Smart Grid, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 3465–3473, May 2019,
doi: 10.1109/ TSG.2018.2828414.
9. Eftekharnejad, S, Heydt, GT and Vittal, V 2015, ‘Optimal Generation Dispatch with High
Penetration of Photovoltaic Generation’, IEEE Transaction on Sustainable Energy, vol. 6, no.
3, pp. 1013-1020. 142
10.S. Misra and S. Bera, ‘‘Advanced metering infrastructure,’’ in Smart Grid Technology: A
Cloud Computing and Data Management Approach. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge Univ.
Press, 2018, pp. 118–146, doi: 10.1017/9781108566506.011.
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Solar based Manhole Surveillance System:

Innovating Manhole Management for
Healthier Communities
D. Kani Jesintha1 S. Ramalakshmi 2 S. Deviyani 3 A.Vishali 4 M. Suba Parvathi 5 A. Suvetha 6
Department of Computer Science and Engineering,SCAD College of
Engineering and Technology, Tirunelveli, India
kanijesintha@scadengineering.ac.in
Abstract—In a country like India, the maintenance of manholes emerges as a critical concern
with implications for public health and safety. Regular monitoring and proper upkeep of
manholes are essential to uphold hygiene standards in our communities. Neglecting
maintenance can lead to severe consequences, including loss of life, the spread of diseases,
and various other issues. Unfortunately, the death toll among sewer workers facing poisonous
gases during cleaning is on the rise. Addressing these challenges, we propose the
implementation of a Solar-based Manhole Surveillance System (SMSS). This innovative
system aims to enhance safety and efficiency in manhole maintenance. The SMSS
continuously monitors the gases within the manhole, promptly sending alert messages to the
municipality through a cloud server. Additionally, the system closely observes sewage levels,
relaying this information to both the municipality and the nearby public. To mitigate
accidents, the SMSS detects any unauthorized movement of the manhole lid, promptly
notifying the municipality. An environmentally conscious solution, the entire system operates
on solar power, significantly reducing reliance on conventional electricity sources. Through
the integration of the SMSS, we aspire to not only prevent accidents and loss of life but also
contribute to sustainable and efficient manhole maintenance practices.
Keywords —Manhole management, Solar, Arduino, Wi-Fi, Near Field Communication,
Cloud Server, IoT
I. INTRODUCTION
A set of physical objects that encompasses software and sensors which are skilful in
collecting and sharing data with the succour of the internet is termed IoT (Internet of Things).
IoT has by now has created the impression in various sectors such as manufacturing,
agriculture [10], [12], [29] retail, health care [8],[13] transportation [3], [4], [6], [7], [9], [27],
[28], [30], [31] and many more [1], [2], [5], [11], [32], [33]. As per the statistics [14], there is
a drastic shift in device usage during the last decade (i.e., from 2010 to 2020). The IoT devices
used by people was 9% in 2010 and by 2020 it was drastically improved to 54.2%. This is
depicted in Figure 1. Hence IoT will play a significant part in all emerging sectors. As per the
survey taken by the Times of India [15], 2 individual expires a day due to open pits and
manholes. This survey is taken between the periods of 01.01.2015 and 31.12.2020. Figure 2
enlightens the year-wise number of death details.
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Figure 1- Comparison between IoT and Non-IoT users
Figure 2- Year wise death comparison

The number of scavenger death from 2015 to 2019 is shown in figure 3 [16]. The top 5 states
that led in scavenger death count between 2015 to 2019 are depicted in figure 4 [16].
igure 3- Year wise scavenger death details
Figure 4- Top 5 states in India with high scavenger death rate
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Since the number of deaths keeps on accumulating at a constant rate, we need a system which
provides the best solution to reduce the death rate caused by various issues associated with
manhole maintenance. Hence we go for SMSS System which has the following advantages
 SMSS is proficient in ascertaining the poisonous gases and intimating it to the Municipal
authorities
 SMSS also prevents the normal public from removing the manhole lid and it also provides
authorised access only for the municipal sewage cleaners.
 SMSS also notifies the municipal authorities about the level of the sewage-filled whenever
the sewage reaches the threshold limit.
II. RELATED WORKS
A. Mankotia et.al [17] proposed a system which contains a tilt sensor to monitor the
manhole lid position. In addition to it, level sensors, gas sensors and temperature sensors are
used. The level sensor monitors the sewage level whereas the gas sensor spots the toxic gas
inside the manhole. The temperature sensor identifies the sudden rise in temperature inside the
manhole due to any fire accident inside the manhole. All these pieces of information are
delivered to a web server via a Wi-Fi module. A similar sort of system is designed by N.
Nataraja et.al [24] where GSM is used to alert the authorities. R. Ranjana et.al [21]
formulated a similar system where sewage flow is monitored using a water flow sensor.
N. N. Kasat et.al [18] projected a scheme where the Air Quality is checked using the
MQ-135 sensor.MQ-4 sensors and MQ-7 sensors are used to sense toxic gases like Methane
and Carbon Monoxide. The movement of the Manhole lid and level of sewage is measured
using an Ultrasonic sensor.
Z. Chongbiao et.al [19] suggested a system which monitors the movement of a
manhole lid using a MEMS accelerometer sensor. R. S. Ganesh et.al [20] proposed a nifty
system which gathers all the information about the toxic gases using various sensors like MQ-
2, MQ-3, MQ-5 and MQ-7.
M. Venkata Sudhakar et.al [22] have designed a system which consists of an IR sensor
to identify the manhole breakage. In addition to this, the system also prevents the overflow of
sewage water by using the ultrasonic sensor. Moreover, a gas sensor is also utilized to detect
toxic gases. Roa et.al [23] designed a similar system where the email is sent to authority
whenever the lid movement is identified or toxic gas is leaked. A manhole lid monitoring
system using a Recurrent Neural network is developed by U. Andrijasevic et.al [25] where the
system detects the movement of the lid using machine learning technique. A similar sort of
machine learning technique is implemented by S. Sayyad et.al [26]. The comparison of an
existing system with the proposed scheme is given in Table - I
III. PROPOSED SYSTEM.
The Block Diagram of our SMSS system comprises numerous hardware such as
Arduino Uno, Solar Panel, NFC Reader, Magnetic Float Sensor, MQ4 Sensor, MQ7 Sensor,
Limit Switch, Wi-Fi, Relay, Magnetic Door lock and piezo buzzer. This is clearly shown in
figure 5. The whole system is operated on solar power. The power generated using solar is
stored in a Battery for further use. The Arduino gets the power from a battery. Arduino reads
the data from all sensors. There are two sensors namely MQ7 and MQ4 to detect toxic gases
like CO and Methane. Once the toxic gases are detected inside the manhole, the Arduino
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updates that info to the cloud server via a Wi-Fi module. Further, a piece of alert information
is passed on to municipal authorities by the server. Similarly, two float sensors are used to
detect the sewage water level. The first float sensor is used to detect the sewage water when it
reaches 70% of the total capacity. After detecting this Arduino sends alert info to authorities
for cleaning the sewage water inside the manhole. In addition to this, our system also
incorporates another float sensor to detect 90% of the sewage-filled status. During this case,
an alarm will be activated in addition to that of the previous case to alert the citizen around
that area. Our system also incorporates an NFC reader, which reads the NFC card available
with the scavengers.
On reading the card, the system deactivated the magnetic door lock system and gives
access to scavengers for cleaning the manhole. When an ordinary public apart from
scavengers tries to open the manhole lid without the proper NFC card then, our system will
prevent them from accessing the manhole. When they try to break the manhole lid the limit
switch gets activated, which in turn informs Arduino to activate the buzzer and notify the
authorities regarding the theft of the manhole lid.
The overall flow diagram of our SMSS system is presented in figure 5. The overall
working of SMSS is explicated using the following steps
Step 1: The SMSS system began to collect the data from all sensors as soon as the system is
turned on
Step 2: The SMSS checks for data from the NFC reader. If Arduino receives the signal then
the MQ4, MQ7, Limit Switch and Buzzer modules are deactivated first. Then the
Electromagnetic Door lock is also deactivated so that the scavengers can clean the manhole.
Step 3: If the SMSS system does not receive any data from the NFC reader, then it starts
looking for data from the MQ7 sensor. If the data is received from data from this sensor,
Arduino alerts the authorities regarding the availability of CO gas via Wi-Fi and Cloud
Server.
Step 4: Next our SMSS system will check for data from the MQ4 sensor. If the data is
received from the MQ4 sensor, then the availability of Methane gas in the Manhole is
intimated to corporation authorities via a cloud server.
Step 5: Our system checks for the input from Float sensor 1. If the input is received from the
float sensor, then our system sends alert information to the corporation regarding the sewage
level inside the manhole reaching 70% of the total manhole capacity.
Step 6: Our system checks for the input from Float sensor 2. If the input is received from the
float sensor, then our system sends alert information to the corporation regarding the sewage
level inside the manhole reaching 90% of the total manhole capacity. In addition to this, our
system also alerts the public through a buzzer.
Step 7: If any public is trying to remove the manhole lid, the electromagnetic buzzer will
prevent them from opening the lid. When they try to break the manhole lid, then the limit
switch will get activated. This in turn sends a piece of information to Arduino regarding
unauthorized access to the manhole. On receiving this signal, our SMSS system will alert the
authorities via a cloud server. In addition to this, the people around the manhole lid will also
be alerted via a buzzer.
Thus our system provides automatically secured surveillance which facilitates in reduction of
the workload of the corporation authorities.
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Figure 4: Block Diagram of SMSS

Table I – Comparison of proposed work with existing systems
Refere Authors Metha ne Carbon 2 Manhole lidmovement

Secured manhole
detection
nce gasdetecti Dioxide gas stag lid accessto
Numb on detection esewage scavenge
er level rs
monitoring
[17] A. Mankotia et.al   X  X
[24] N. Nataraja et.al   X  X
[21] R. Ranjana et.al   X  X
[18] N. N. Kasat et.al   X X X
[19] Z. Chongbiao et.al X X X  X
[20] R. S. Ganesh et.al   X X X
[22] M. Venkata Sudhakar et.al X X X  X
[23] Roa et.al   X  X
[25] U. Andrijasevic et.al X X X  X
[26] S. Sayyad et.al X X X  X
Proposed Methodology     
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Figure 5- SMSS System Flow diagram
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The sensor placement on the system is depicted in figure 6. The overall system setup is
shown in figure 7. The manhole monitoring system has 4 sensors namely float sensor1, float
sensor 2, MQ4 sensor and MQ7 sensor respectively. Float sensor 1 and Float sensor 2 monitor
the 70% and 90% filled status of the sewage level. Whereas the MQ4 sensor detects the
availability of methane gas and finally MQ7 sensor detects the availability of carbon
monoxide gas inside the manhole. The limit switch is used to indicate whether unauthorised
access to the manhole has taken part or not. In addition to it, an Electromagnetic Door Lock
module is available which is capable of providing access to authorized persons from the
municipality.
V. CONCLUSION
Proper maintenance and periodical monitoring of manholes can be done with the
support of our system which helps us in maintaining good hygiene in the society. Our SMMS
system monitors the gases inside the manhole and forwards an alert message to the
municipality via a cloud server. Similarly, the level of sewage is closely observed and that
information will be passed to the municipality and the nearby public will also be alerted. The
unwanted movement of the manhole lid is also identified and that information will be passed
to the municipality.
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REFERENCE
[1] Krishnan, R., Krishnan, R.S., Robinson, Y.H. et al. An Intrusion Detection and
Prevention Protocol for Internet of Things Based Wireless Sensor Networks. Wireless Pers
Commun (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11277-022-09521-4
[2] Krishnan, R.S. et al. (2022). A Secured Manhole Management System Using IoT and
Machine Learning. In: Balas, V.E., Solanki, V.K., Kumar, R. (eds) Recent Advances in
Internet of Things and Machine Learning. Intelligent Systems Reference Library, vol 215.
Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-90119-6_3
[3] Lakshmi Narayanan, K. et al. (2022). Internet of Things Based Smart Accident
Recognition and Rescue System Using Deep Forests ML Algorithm. In: Balas, V.E., Solanki,
V.K., Kumar, R. (eds) Recent Advances in Internet of Things and Machine Learning.
Intelligent Systems Reference Library, vol 215. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-
3-030-90119-6_4
[4] Krishnan, R.S. et al. (2022). Machine Learning Based Efficient and Secured Car Parking
System. In: Balas, V.E., Solanki, V.K., Kumar, R. (eds) Recent Advances in Internet of
12]Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-90119-6_11
[5] R. S. Krishnan, K. L. Narayanan, S. M. Murali, A. Sangeetha, C. R. Sankar Ram and Y.
H. Robinson, "IoT based Blind People Monitoring System for Visually Impaired Care
Homes," 2021 5th International Conference on Trends in Electronics and Informatics

(ICOEI), 2021, pp. 505-509, doi: 10.1109/ICOEI51242.2021.9452924.
[6] K. L. Narayanan, C. R. S. Ram, M. Subramanian, R. S. Krishnan and Y. H. Robinson,
"IoT based Smart Accident Detection & Insurance Claiming System," 2021 Third
International Conference on Intelligent Communication Technologies and Virtual Mobile
Networks (ICICV), 2021, pp. 306-311, doi: 10.1109/ICICV50876.2021.9388430.
[7] R. S. Krishnan, S. Manikandan, J. R. F. Raj, K. L. Narayanan and Y. H. Robinson,
"Android Application based Smart Bus Transportation System for Pandemic
Situations," 2021 Third International Conference on Intelligent Communication
Technologies and Virtual Mobile Networks (ICICV), 2021, pp. 938-942, doi:
10.1109/ICICV50876.2021.9388625.
[8] R. Thirupathieswaran, C. R. T. Suria Prakash, R. S. Krishnan, K. L. Narayanan, M. A.
Kumar and Y. H. Robinson, "Zero Queue Maintenance System using Smart Medi Care
Application for Covid-19 Pandemic Situation," 2021 Third International Conference on
Intelligent Communication Technologies and Virtual Mobile Networks (ICICV), 2021, pp.
[9] Harold Robinson, Y., Santhana Krishnan, R., Raja, S. (2020). A Comprehensive
Study for Security Mechanisms in Healthcare Information Systems Using Internet of Things.
In: Balas, V., Solanki, V., Kumar, R. (eds) Internet of Things and Big Data Applications.
Intelligent Systems Reference Library, vol 180. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-
3-030-39119-5_15
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ANTI-DRONE TECHNOLOGY FOR SAFETY AND MILITARY APPLICATION

ARPUTHA ALLWIN R, NAGUL M, RAMVIKESH V
Faculty of Engineering
KARPAGAM ACADEMY OF HIGHER EDUCATION
COIMBATORE-21
ABSTRACT
The proliferation of drones in civilian and military airspace has necessitated the
development of anti-drone technology to ensure safety and security. This abstract provides an
overview of the key aspects of anti-drone technology in both safety and military applications.
In the realm of safety, anti-drone technology primarily focuses on detecting and

mitigating the risks associated with unauthorized or rogue drones. Detection systems employ
various sensors, including radar, radio frequency, acoustic, and optical sensors, to identify and
locate drones in the vicinity.
In contrast, military applications of antidrone technology involve a more robust

response to hostile drones. These systems can employ jamming and hacking techniques to
disrupt communication between the drone and its operator or employ GPS spoofing to
misdirect the drone. For more aggressive threats, directed energy weapons and kinetic
solutions, like drones equipped with nets or interceptors, are used to physically disable or
capture hostile drones.
INTRODUCTION
The rapid evolution and widespread adoption of drones have transformed the modern
landscape, offering numerous benefits across various sectors, including surveillance, logistics,
and entertainment. however, the proliferation of drones has also raised significant concerns
related to safety, security, and privacy. To address these concerns, anti-drone technology has
emerged as a crucial tool in both civilian and military contexts.This introduction provides an
overview of the multifaceted landscape of anti-drone technology, which serves two primary
purposes: safety and military application.
Safety Applications:
In the realm of safety, anti-drone technology is deployed to safeguard critical

infrastructure, public events, and sensitive locations from the potential risks posed by
unauthorized or rogue drones. These risks encompass unauthorized aerial intrusions, privacy
violations, collisions with manned aircraft, and the illicit use of drones for nefarious
purposes.To mitigate these threats, anti-drone systems employ a range of sophisticated
sensors and countermeasures. Detection systems utilize radar, radio frequency (RF) sensors,
acoustic sensors, and optical systems to identify and track drones operating in restricted or
sensitive areas. Once detected, these systems can further employ computer vision algorithms
to classifythe type and intent of the drone.
Military Applications:
In military contexts, anti-drone technology assumes a more robust role in countering
hostile drones and UAS (Unmanned Aerial Systems). These systems are designed to protect
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military installations, forward operating bases, and assets from the threat posed by adversarial
drones.Anti-drone measures for military applications may involve more aggressive tactics,
such as jamming and hacking to disrupt the drone's control systems and communication with
its operator.
One of the primary methods of detecting drones is using sensors. There are several
types of sensors that can be used for this purpose, including acoustic sensors, radar systems,
and optical sensors. Once a drone has been detected, it is necessary to neutralize the threat.
There are several types of effectors that can be used for this purpose, including jamming
systems, directed energy weapons, and nets.
Fig.1 Security and privacy threads of UAV’s
DRONE TECHNOLOGY
Drone means an unmanned remotely controlled flight that is not carried by any person.
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), which are also used in the military, also fall into the
category of drones. Drones are aircraft that operate without a human pilot on board. They can
be remotely controlled by a human operator or autonomously programmed to follow a pre-
defined flight path or perform specific tasks.
Fig.2 Drone
Drone Driving Principle
Drones fly by propeller rotation through a motor. The motor requires power to operate
and uses a rechargeable battery. Most RC multi copters have four propellers, and the motor
also has the same number of propellers to drive each propeller. These propellers can adjust
their rotational speed and can change direction or angle of flight by varying the speed.
Electronic speed controls (ESC) control this rotation speed. This part decides the
rotation speed by adjusting the power of the motor. There is also a flight control (FC) that
sends a signal to the transmission and controls it, and there is a transceiver that can receive
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user commands. These basic parts are present in the drone and can be controlled by the user
by sending commands through the transmitter.
CONSTRUCTION OF DRONE
To construct such a dynamic unmanned aerial vehicle we need to attach many complex
electronic devices. In this implementation, we have used many intelligent electronic devices
like brushless DC motor, KK2.1.5 Multi-Rotor board, ESC (electronic speed controller),
digital servo motor and 3300 mA Lithium Polymer battery.
ANTI-DRONE TECHNOLOGY
Anti-Drone System is a technology that blocks or tracks Unmanned Aerial Devices
(UAVs). This technology can detect enemy drones and destroy them using radio frequency.
Anti-drone technology, also known as counter-drone technology or counter-UAS (Unmanned
Aircraft Systems) technology, is a set of systems and methods designed to detect, track, and
mitigate the threat posed by unauthorized or hostile drones. These technologies can be
employed in both civilian and military contexts to protect critical infrastructure, public events,
and sensitive areas.
Fig.3 Anti-drone Technology

DETECTION TECHNOLOGIES
Detection technology are a crucial component of anti-drone systems, enabling the

identification and tracking of drones in various environments. These technologies are essential
for providing early warning of drone threats and facilitating an appropriate response. Here are
some common detection technologies used in anti-drone systems.
RESULTS ON DETECTION
We evaluate the performance of our system on a challenging dataset that includes
multiple types of drones flying under various condition. It contains many realworld challenges,
such as complex backgrounds and occlusions. The audio in the data set is synchronized with
the image sequence. We divide the data sets into two groups, one for the training set and one
for the test set.
MITIGATION TECHNOLOGY
Mitigation technologies in the context of drones, also known as counter-drone
mitigation or counter-UAS (Unmanned Aircraft Systems) technologies, are systems and
methods designed to neutralize or mitigate the threat posed by unauthorized or hostile drones.
These technologies are crucial for ensuring safety, security, and privacy in areas where drones
could be misused or pose a risk. Here are common mitigation technologies used to counter
drones Radio Frequency Jamming: This method disrupts the communication between the drone
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and its operator by emitting radio frequency interference on the same bands used for drone
control and navigation. Jamming can cause the drone to lose its connection to the operator,
forcing it to land or return to its starting point.
GPS Jamming: GPS jamming interferes with the drone's ability to receive GPS signals
accurately. This can cause the drone to lose its position and disrupt its navigation.
SIMULATION
Fig,4 The height position of detonation signal
Fig.5 The success rate of detonation under different intensity
CONCLUSION
The direct task of simulating the process of counteracting UAV raids can be solved
employing the developed computer model. The discrete-event approach provides greater
calculating performance and better scalability of the computer model. The events of recent
years, especially armed conflicts and terrorist attacks, show that the number of incidents with
intentional destructive use of drones is increasing. Incidents of unintentional harmful drone
activity are also frequent. This results in potential threats to human health and life and to the
critical infrastructure facilities of countries. These trends are triggering the dynamic
development of C‐UAS systems, which are used to protect military units, airports, public
facilities, or the countryʹs critical infrastructure. The survey of anti‐ drone solutions is shown
in this paper. We want to continue research in designing and implementing C‐ UASs for the
protection of military units, state administration, and critical infrastructure facilities. We also
plan to consider in our future works aspects of command and control of C‐ UAS.
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REFERENCES
[1] IEEE, “Search Results ‘anti drone,’” IEEE
Xplore.https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/search/searchresult.jsp?query Text=anti drone &
highlight=true &re turnType=SEAR CH&matchPu bs=true&returnFacets=ALL (accessed
Mar. 12, 2023).
[2] S. Park, H. T. Kim, S. Lee, H. Joo, and H. Kim, “Survey on anti drone systems:
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[3] [3] X. Shi, C. Yang, W. Xie, C. Liang, Z. Shi, and J. Chen, “Anti drone system with
multiple surveillance technologies: Architecture, implementation, and challenges,” IEEE
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[4] Dedrone, “Best antidrone solution uses multilayer approach for complete solution.”
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drones that use GNSS based localization,” Rohde & Schwarz GmbH & Co. KG, Munich,
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[10] DRS RADA Technologies, “Military Radar Solutions: Hemispheric Coverage,”
DRS RADA Technologies. https://www.drsrada.com/radars (accessed Mar. 15, 2023).
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Revolutionizing Two-Wheeler Safety: An

Integrated Rescue System
R. Vijay Prakash 1 M. Saraswathi 4 Sam Alaric 2 M. Aarthy 5 Sheeba Devashanthi 3 P. Anisha 6
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,SCAD College of
Engineering and Technology, Tirunelveli, India
vijayprakash@scadengineering.ac.in
Abstract—Despite the popularity of two-wheelers, safety remains a significant concern, as
they are considered less secure than four-wheelers due to the absence of numerous sensors and
security systems. Two-wheeler accidents pose a higher risk of fatalities compared to four-
wheeler accidents. To address this issue, there is a growing demand for an efficient rescue
system tailored for two-wheeler users involved in accidents. To meet this demand, a
comprehensive setup has been developed. This system ensures the availability of helmets and
incorporates features such as detecting the rider's state of intoxication. Additionally, it promptly
notifies nearby medical facilities and police headquarters about the accident. Furthermore, the
system updates the insurance agent with detailed information about the two-wheeler collision
and its precise location, facilitating a faster insurance claiming process. The integration of these
features aims to enhance the safety of two-wheeler users and streamline response
mechanisms in the event of accidents. The ultimate goal is to make the use of two-wheelers a
safer and more secure mode of transportation by improving overall safety measures and
response coordination.
Keywords—Internet of Things, Helmet, Accident detection, Wi-Fi, Insurance, Two wheeler
I. INTRODUCTION (HEADING 1)
By June 2022, two-wheeler sales exceeded 12,45,000, reflecting a remarkable 20.6%

increase compared to the previous year [1]. The prevalent use of two-wheelers has become a
necessity for middle and upper-middle-class individuals in the current scenario, leading to a
surge in two-wheeler accidents. According to a report from The Hindu magazine [2], road
accidents claimed the lives of nearly 70,000 people in India, constituting approximately 44.5%
of the total deaths in 2021. An India Today article [3] reveals that four riders lose their lives
every hour due to two-wheeler accidents, primarily attributed to the lack of helmet usage.
Consequently, there is an urgent need to develop a mechanism capable of preventing such
accidents, coupled with the ability to alert authorities promptly to attend to those involved.
Figure 1 highlights the top 5 states in India with the highest death toll resulting from not
using helmets while riding two-wheelers [4]. Tamil Nadu leads the count with 6,105 deaths. In
light of these alarming statistics, it becomes imperative to implement measures that enhance
safety and prevent the tragic consequences of two-wheeler accidents.
The Internet of Things (IoT) is characterized as the gathering of data through physical
objects, subsequently exchanging and processing this information utilizing internet connectivity
and compatible software. The versatility of IoT extends its influence across various sectors,
including the food industry [5,6], retail industry [7], healthcare industry [8,9], and transportation
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[10,11]. Leveraging IoT technology becomes particularly advantageous in implementing the
proposed system, "IoT-based smart helmet for safe driving," which encompasses the following
key functionalities:
i. Ensuring the availability of helmets for riders.
ii. Verifying the sobriety of the rider to prevent drunk driving.
iii. Providing real-time alerts to the rider in the event of a collision with an object.
iv. Detecting the accident spot post-collision and promptly transmitting location information
to the pertinent entities, including the insurance agent, nearby medical facilities, police
headquarters, and a designated family member.
By seamlessly integrating IoT capabilities into this smart helmet system, it aims to
significantly enhance safety measures for riders, making driving experiences more secure and
efficient.
Fig. 1. Top 5 states with the highest death toll
II. RELATED WORKS
Mahesh S Gour et al. suggested a system that uses an MQ3 sensor to find out the drunken
state of the rider. In addition to this, the two-wheeler accident location info is sent to relatives
as soon as it has met with an accident [12]. Sayanee Nanda et al. devised a system that contains
a vibration sensor and proximity sensor to observe the occurrence of an accident [13]. It also
comprises a GPS to exactly locate the collision spot and forward it to a medical centre for
accidental care. The system also uses an RFID-based engine start-up mechanism which neglects
the option of an unauthorised person accessing the vehicle. Dhruvesh H. Patel et al suggested a
method to prevent the drunk and drive situation with the aid of an alcohol detection sensor [14].
In addition to this concept, GPS and GSM modules are introduced to exactly detect the accident
location and inform the same to their relatives and doctors.
M. Lokeshwaran et al [15] proposed a smart helmet which consists of a force-sensing resistor
to detect the accident and a heartbeat sensor to detect the condition of the patient involved in the
accident. A similar sort of system is implemented by N Nataraja et al., [16]. S. Ram Prasath et
al., [11] introduced a method which comprises of vibration sensor and GPS module. This
method detects the accident via a vibration sensor and sends the location information to rescue
personnel via a GPS module.
The demerits of the existing system is that it does not inform the infirmary and the insurance
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agent about the occurrence of accident. These problems will be rectified using our system
III. PROPOSED WORK
The proposed system includes Arduino, GPS, GSM, RFID reader, MQ 3 sensor, Wi-Fi
module and a push button. Initially the Arduino checks for the input from the push button. The
push button is placed inside the helmet. While wearing the helmet the top layer of the head will
contact with push button which will turn on the push button. This confirms that the Rider's
helmet is on.
After this, the system looks for a response from the MQ 3 sensor. If the threshold level is
crossed then this provides an alert indication signal to Arduino regarding the intoxicated
condition of the rider. If no input is acquired from MQ 3 Sensor then the rider is in a stable state.
After ensuring these two constraints only the two-wheelers engine will be turned on. Apart from
this, an ultrasonic sensor is positioned at the anterior end of the vehicle. This monitors the other
vehicle's position which is travelling in front of our vehicle. Once any object or vehicle is
witnessed within the striking range an alarm will be engendered and passed to the rider. This
will prevent the collision to an extent. In addition to this, our system also has a vibration sensor
which notices the collision of vehicles and conveys the signal to Arduino. Then Arduino collects
the location of the collision spot and propels those data to the relative via the GSM module. The
nearby infirmary will also receive the location details for handling the rider who was involved
in the accident. The same info will also be passed to the police headquarters to preclude the hit
and case. The insurance agency will also receive the location data to ensure the collision and to
fasten the insurance claiming process. The architecture of this system is presented in figure
2.
The flow diagram of the proposed system is presented in figure 3. The whole operational
setup is elucidated using the following steps.
Step 1: Upon system initialization, the Arduino Uno initiates data sensing from various sensors.
Initially, it evaluates information from the push button. If the push button is engaged, confirming
the rider is wearing the helmet, the system allows engine activation. If the push button is
disengaged, engine activation is prohibited.
Step 2: Following helmet verification, the system assesses the rider's stability. The MQ-3 sensor
detects intoxication, triggering an alert to the Arduino if liquor consumption is detected.
Absence of such detection ensures the rider's stable state.
Step 3: After the dual verification stages, the system proceeds to validate the authorized user.
The RFID reader identifies an RFID tag, granting permission to start the engine.
Step 4: Upon engine activation, the Arduino monitors input from the ultrasonic sensor. If an
object or vehicle within the threshold range is detected, an alert is sent to the Arduino, triggering
an alarm for the rider. Absence of detected obstacles allows the system to advance to the next
stage.
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ISBN: 978-81-956215-6-9
Fig. 2. Block diagram of IoT based Smart Helmet System
Step 5: In the event of a rider's accident, identified by the vibration sensor, the system retrieves
location data from the GPS module. This data is first transmitted to the rider's relative via the GSM
module. Subsequently, using the Wi-Fi module, the system updates the same details on acloud server.
The collision location data from the cloud server are then forwarded to nearby medical facilities and
police headquarters. Simultaneously, the insurance agent is notified to expedite the claiming process.
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Fig. 3. Overall flow diagram
IV. RESULT & DISCUSSION
Whenever the two-wheeler encounters an accident, the system immediately retrieves the
location details and shares them with their relative with the support of the GSM module. This is
represented in figure 4.
Arduino takes 956ms to receive the data from vibration sensor. After receiving the
information it is passed to the relatives within 55 seconds with the support of GSM.
Fig. 4. SMS to rider’s relative
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ISBN: 978-81-956215-6-9
Similarly, this system also refers the location details to the Insurance Agency (IA),
nearby Infirmary (I) and nearby Police Headquarters (PH) with the support of a cloud server.
It is represented using figure 5
Fig. 5. Message transferred with the support of Cloud server

The two-wheeler collision details can also be witnessed on the website which is also
shown in figure 6. A distinct two-wheeler database is maintained to enroll the particulars of the
two-wheelers that have undergone an accident. The two-wheeler database is interpreted in
Table I.
TABLE I. TWO WHEELER DATABASE
BIKE_ID BIKE_NAME BIKE_NO USER_NAME USER_
CONTACT
1 Hero Passion Pro TN 72 AJ 3872 Mr. Gautham 9789341098
2 Honda Activa TN 65 AB 4567 Mr. Mani 9486075146
3 Honda Shine TN 72 BC 7499 Mr. Ram 9566509646
Fig. 6. Accident update process

A unique database is also maintained for Infirmary and Police Headquarters which
contains the details of the information passed by the cloud server. It is given in Table II and
Table III
TABLE II. INFIRMARY DATABASE
HC_ID INFIRMARY_PLACE HC_CONTACT
1 Pattamadai Primary Health Centre 04634250380
2 Government General hospital, Cheranmahadevi 04364260650
3 Kallur primary health Centre 04634292272

TABLE III. POLICE HEADQUARTERS DATABASE
PD_ID PH_PLACE PH_CONTACT
1 Pattamadai Police Headquarters 04634260165
2 Cheranmahadevi police Headquaters 04634260 125
3 Sudhamalli Police Headquarters 04622342625.
Thus compared to the existing methods the system seems to be more effective in
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ISBN: 978-81-956215-6-9
preventing the hit and run cases and it also sends the alert to insurance agent for quickening
the insurance claiming process
V. CONCLUSION
This system affords a superior solution to avert the theft of automobiles. In addition to this,
the system also guarantees the safety and stability of the drivers before preparing for the drive.
Our system also delivers a solution for avoiding collision with other vehicles. Moreover, our
system also guides the health care representatives and policemen to be present at the accident
spot on time whenever the two-wheeler has witnessed an accident. The collision spots are also
communicated to the relatives within a short time of the occurrence of the accident. This system
also fastens and simplifies the insurance claiming progress.
REFERENCES
[1] https://www.financialexpress.com/express-mobility/vehicles/2-wheelers/two-wheeler-
sales-report-june-2022-hero-leads-followed-by-honda-and-tvs/2584620/
[2] https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/two-wheelers-claimed-highest-number-of-lives-
in-accidents-in-2021-ncrb-report/article65829329.ece
[3] https://www.indiatoday.in/diu/story/two-wheeler-death-road-accidents-helmets-states-
india-1602794-2019-09-24
[4] http://indpaedia.com/ind/index.php/Road_accidents:_India
[5] N. Kumar, A. K. Dahiya, K. Kumar and S. Tanwar, "Application of IoT in

Agriculture," 2021 9th International Conference on Reliability, Infocom Technologies and
Optimization (Trends and Future Directions) (ICRITO), 2021, pp. 1-4, doi:
10.1109/ICRITO51393.2021.9596120.
[6] R. Niranjana, R. S. Krishnan, K. L. Narayanan, X. A. Presskila, E. G. Julie and S.
Sundararajan, "Intelligent Itinerant Robot [IIR] for Agricultural Farm Monitoring using
IoT," 2022 Second International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Smart Energy
(ICAIS), 2022, pp. 1346-1351, doi: 10.1109/ICAIS53314.2022.9742895.
[7] S. O. Kediya and S. Kumar, "An Analysis of Factors Affecting IoT Adoption by Indian
Retail Industry," 2021 International Conference on Computational Intelligence and
Computing Applications (ICCICA), 2021, pp. 1-3, doi:
10.1109/ICCICA52458.2021.9697253.
[8] R. Thirupathieswaran, C. R. T. Suria Prakash, R. S. Krishnan, K. L. Narayanan, M. A.
Kumar and Y. H. Robinson, "Zero Queue Maintenance System using Smart Medi Care
Application for Covid-19 Pandemic Situation," 2021 Third International Conference on
Intelligent Communication Technologies and Virtual Mobile Networks (ICICV), 2021, pp.
1068-1075, doi: 10.1109/ICICV50876.2021.9388454.
[9] U. Umar, M. A. Khan, R. Irfan and J. Ahmad, "IoT-based Cardiac Healthcare System for
Ubiquitous Healthcare Service," 2021 International Congress of Advanced Technology and
Engineering (ICOTEN), 2021, pp. 1-6, doi: 10.1109/ICOTEN52080.2021.9493478.
283
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7th National Conference on Clean and Green Energy

10th Feb 2024

10th Feb 2024

Edited by: Dr. K. Balachander, Dr. M. Siva Ramkumar, Dr. G. Emayavaramban

First Edition: 2024

Printing: Online Edition

Organizing Committee – NCCGE 2024

About the University ……………………………………………………………………… ii

About the Department …………………………………………………………………..... iii

Previous Conference Details …………………………………………………………… iv

About the Conference …………………………………………………………………….. vi

Keynote Speaker …………………………………………………………………………... vii

Dr. Ravi Samikannu M.E., PhD.,,

Use of Ai to Locate the Missing People

Simulation of Cascade Cockcroft–Walton Voltage

using an AC power source with a square or triangular waveform. By driving the CW

Fig 1 CW Voltage Multiplier Circuit

8 Capacitance of CW Voltage Multiplier

Figure 2 simulation diagram

Figure 3 output diagram

10. Simulation and Experimental Results

IoT Based Low Cost Smart Irrigation System with

Figure 1. Block diagram.

2. Sending SMS messages.

2.3. Solenoid Control Valve

2.4. LCD Display

2.5. RF Transmitter and Receiver

2.10. Power Supply Block

Figure 2. Power supply circuit diagram.

2.12. Keyboard Interface

Figure 3. Three terminal voltage regulator.

2.13. Single Phase Preventer

2.14. Driver Circuit

2.15. Temperature and Humidity Sensor

Figure 5. Circuit diagram of soil sensor.

Simulation Circuit Diagram

Figure 6. Simulation diagram.

Figure 7. Main circuit diagram.

Block Diagram-Well Side

Figure 8. Block diagram of well side.

Figure 9. Block diagram of land side.

Quality issues associated with Transformer

Keywords—power quality, equipment, manufacture test data, hysteresis losses,

II. EVALUATION OF TRANSFORMER LOSSES

Max. Total Losses at 50% load at 750C 2790 Watts

Max. Total losses at

Efficiency = 10000KW/10038.9 X100=99.6%

III. EVALUATION OF PERCENTAGE IMPEDANCE.

Percentage Impedance of 10MVA, 33KV/11KV, 3 Phase Power transformer

IV. EVALUATION OF WINDING TEMPERATURE RISE

[1] Fire risks in electrical installations: The review

[2] IS 2026 (Part 1) Power Transformer Part 1 General

A Comparative Study of Automatic Number Plate Recognition

Region-based Convolutional Neural Networks (R-CNNs) have emerged as a powerful

Zhang et al (2023) introduced an adaptive framework for multi-model LP recognition

Data Collection and preprocessing

Table 1: R-CNN hyperparameters

For accurate recognition purposes, data augmentation approaches like scaling,

Figure 2: Prediction results for tilted blurred images

An Innovative Approach based Cost-Benefit