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Practical File

Applied Social Psychology

Submitted by
Karishma
Semester III, PSY/23/24
Department of Psychology, Kamala Nehru College

November, 2024
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Table of content

S NO. REMARKS

To study the men and women

perceptions on Feminism
using survey method.
1.
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Aim
To study the men and women perceptions on Feminism using survey method.

Basic Conceptual Understanding

Introduction to Gender

Gender is a social, psychological, and cultural construct that is developed through

socialization. It includes the norms, behaviors, and roles associated with being a male or female
(WHO, 2016).

Gender identity is how individuals perceive themselves, such as identifying as male,

female, non-binary, or transgender. Gender expression involves how a person presents
themselves through appearance and behavior. Modern understandings view gender as a
spectrum, rather than a binary concept, recognizing the diversity of gender experiences and
identities across cultures and time .Butler (1990), in her influential work "Gender Trouble",
argues that gender is not something one is, but something one does. It is performative in the
sense that repeated behaviors, actions, and roles assigned by society shape one's gender identity.
According to Butler, gender is not biologically fixed but is constructed through social and
cultural practices.

Gender equity involves ensuring fairness for both women and men by implementing
measures to address historical and social disadvantages that hinder their ability to compete on an
equal footing (UNESCO, 2003). In contrast, gender equality refers to a state in which women
and men enjoy equal access to human rights, valued resources, opportunities, and goods,
underscoring the role of feminism in promoting equal rights and opportunities. (UN Women,
2010). This underscores the necessity of feminism in tackling systemic inequalities.
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A basic conceptual understanding of feminism

Feminism is a philosophy and ideology centered on promoting the equal roles of men and
women in the advancement and progress of society. It addresses the evolving status of women
throughout human history and challenges traditional gender roles. As both a concept and a
movement, feminism seeks socio-political change by critically examining male privilege and the
subordination of women in different societies. At its core, feminism advocates for gender
equality and stands against patriarchy and sexism (Butler, 1990).

The term ‘feminism’ has its origin from the Latin word ‘femina’, meaning "woman," and
thereby refers to the advocacy of women’s rights, or the "equality of sexes" (de Beauvoir, 1949).
The concept of feminism dates back to the very beginning of patriarchal domination. Age-long
suppression and mental, physical, and emotional torture forced women to lift the cudgels and
stand up to fight male chauvinistic society (Oakley, 1972). Previously, women were deprived of
the privileges to education, whereas men were given all the facilities and prerogatives in this
field (Connell, 1995).

Feminism is a socio-political movement and intellectual framework aimed at advocating

for the rights, equality, and empowerment of women (West & Zimmerman, 1987). It challenges
historical and systemic gender inequalities, particularly those perpetuated by patriarchal
structures, and seeks to dismantle these to achieve equal rights for all genders (Rubin, 1975).
Feminism is not a monolithic movement but encompasses various schools of thought and waves,
each addressing distinct issues related to gender, race, class, and sexuality (Crenshaw, 1989).

Feminism emerged in the late 19th century with a primary focus on legal rights,
especially women’s suffrage, and has since evolved to tackle issues such as reproductive rights,
workplace discrimination, and sexual violence (Crenshaw, 1989). Contemporary feminism also
embraces intersectionality, recognizing that gender oppression often intersects with race, class,
and other social categories, as highlighted by Kimberlé Crenshaw (1989).
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Historical context of feminism

The first wave of feminism (Late 19th Century - Early 20th Century) was primarily
concerned with securing basic legal rights for women, especially the right to vote. This
movement arose in response to women's exclusion from civil rights and citizenship in many
Western nations. It culminated in significant achievements like women's suffrage in the United
States (1920) and the UK (1918). Key figures such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B.
Anthony in the U.S., and Emmeline Pankhurst in the UK, led the charge for women's voting
rights. Additionally, the first wave pushed for property rights, educational access, and legal
reforms that granted women more agency in their personal and economic lives (Stanton &
Anthony, 1881; Purvis, 2005).

The first wave of feminism was followed by the second wave (1960s - 1980s)which
expanded the focus to a broader range of social, economic, and political issues beyond legal
equality. Feminists during this period fought against workplace discrimination, reproductive
rights, and systemic gender-based violence, including domestic abuse and sexual harassment.
Inspired by works like Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique (1963), which criticized the
limited roles offered to women in post-World War II society, and Simone de Beauvoir's The
Second Sex (1949), which challenged women's oppression, the second wave saw the rise of
women's liberation movements advocating for equal pay, reproductive rights (e.g., abortion
access in the landmark Roe v. Wade decision in 1973), and an end to violence against women
(Friedan, 1963; de Beauvoir, 1949).

The third wave of feminism (1990s - 2000s) emerged in response to the perceived
limitations of the second wave, particularly its focus on the experiences of white, middle-class
women. The third wave emphasized intersectionality, recognizing that race, class, sexuality, and
other social identities influence women’s experiences differently. Feminists like bell hooks and
Rebecca Walker criticized the exclusion of marginalized groups in earlier feminist movements
and advocated for a more inclusive feminism that addressed issues like racial and sexual identity.
This wave also sought to challenge traditional notions of gender and sexuality, promoting
individuality and self-expression (hooks, 1981; Walker, 1995).
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The most recent wave of feminism is known as the the fourth wave which is defined by
its focus on intersectionality and the use of digital platforms for activism. Movements like
#MeToo, #TimesUp, and global initiatives such as #HeForShe have focused on sexual
harassment, body shaming, and gender inclusivity. Social media has played a central role in
amplifying voices against gender-based violence and promoting campaigns for workplace
equality and accountability. This wave also stresses the need for inclusivity in terms of race,
sexual orientation, and gender identity, embracing the rights of LGBTQ+ individuals and
challenging traditional gender norms (Ahmed, 2014).

Feminist Movements in India

Feminism in India emerged during the 19th century, closely linked to the social reform
movements of the colonial period. Reformers such as Raja Ram Mohan Roy advocated for the
abolition of practices like Sati (the burning of widows) and child marriage, while figures like
Savitribai Phule and Pandita Ramabai worked to improve women’s access to education and
social reform. Indian feminists of this period focused on addressing deeply entrenched
patriarchal practices and improving the status of women within the confines of a caste-based
society (Kosambi, 2000).

The Indian feminist movement during this time was also tied to the broader nationalist
struggle for independence, with women such as Sarojini Naidu and Annie Besant participating in
the freedom movement while advocating for women’s rights. These efforts laid the groundwork
for future legal reforms related to marriage, property rights, and education (Chaudhuri, 2005).

Post-Independence Era (1947 - 1970s)

After India gained independence in 1947, the feminist movement shifted its focus
towards legal reforms aimed at securing equal rights for women in both public and private
spheres. The passage of the Hindu Code Bills in the 1950s, spearheaded by B. R. Ambedkar,
codified laws related to marriage, inheritance, and divorce, granting women more legal rights.
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However, despite these reforms, deeply rooted patriarchal norms continued to limit women’s
autonomy and participation in the workforce (Ambedkar, 1955-56).During this period, feminist
organizations such as the Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) began to organize
women from lower socio-economic backgrounds, advocating for their economic rights and
empowerment. These early efforts were critical in shaping the direction of the Indian feminist
movement in the decades to come (Gangoli, 2011).

Second Wave Feminism in India (1970s - 1990s)

The second wave of feminism in India was marked by campaigns against violence towards
women, including dowry deaths, domestic violence, and rape. The Mathura Rape Case (1972)
became a catalyst for nationwide protests, eventually leading to significant changes in India’s
rape laws. During this period, women’s organizations such as the All India Democratic Women’s
Association (AIDWA) took on prominent roles in advocating for women's rights (Kumar, 1993).

In the 1980s, Indian feminists also focused on the issue of dowry deaths, which had
reached alarming levels. Activists pushed for stricter enforcement of the Dowry Prohibition Act,
as well as legal reforms aimed at protecting women from domestic violence. This period saw the
rise of grassroots feminist movements that engaged in public protests, demonstrations, and legal
battles to address gender-based violence (Agnes, 1992).

Modern Feminism in India (2000s - Present)

Contemporary feminism in India has evolved to address the complexities of caste,

religion, and sexual orientation alongside gender-based oppression. Movements like #MeToo
India and the protests following the 2012 Nirbhaya gang rape case have brought issues of sexual
violence and gender inequality into the public consciousness, leading to widespread demands for
legal and cultural change (Basu, 2017).

Feminist movements like Pinjra Tod, which fights against patriarchal norms in
universities, and the rise of Dalit feminism, which emphasizes the intersection of caste and
gender, have highlighted the diverse experiences of Indian women. Digital activism has become
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a powerful tool for modern Indian feminists, allowing them to mobilize and challenge systemic
inequalities in new ways (Rege, 2013).

Feminism and gender roles in different spheres

Feminism has profoundly shaped societal views on gender roles in areas like politics,
economics, education, and leadership. Traditionally, men held dominant public roles while
women were relegated to domestic spheres. Feminist movements have challenged these norms,
advocating for equality and critiquing patriarchal structures that hinder women’s access to
power.

Theories such as liberal feminism, radical feminism, and intersectionality have examined
the intersection of gender, race, and class in perpetuating inequalities, calling for reforms at both
organizational and societal levels. Despite advancements, gender inequality, particularly the
underrepresentation of women and women of color in leadership, persists. Feminist perspectives
continue to advocate for gender equality, emphasizing the need to address the complex interplay
of gender roles within broader systems like neoliberal capitalism and hegemonic masculinity.
(kark and Buengeler , 2024)

Feminism and Education

Education, characterized as the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes

through formal instruction or self-directed learning, is a cornerstone of personal and societal
development. It fosters intellectual growth, critical thinking, and empowers individuals to
participate meaningfully in social, political, and economic spheres. Historically, access to
education has been uneven, particularly along gender lines, where women and girls were often
denied opportunities, limiting their economic independence and political participation
(Unterhalter, 2005). From a feminist perspective, education is a crucial tool for achieving gender
equality, challenging patriarchal structures, and dismantling gender stereotypes (Nussbaum,
1999).

Feminism views education as a powerful mechanism for empowerment, equipping

women with the knowledge and skills to challenge societal norms. By fostering critical thinking,
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education enables women to advocate for their rights and engage in political processes,
promoting broader social change (Stromquist, 1995). Furthermore, access and opportunity are
central to feminist educational theory. Historically, women were excluded from certain fields of
study, particularly in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) areas,
reinforcing gendered career paths (Fausto-Sterling, 2000). Feminism advocates for equal access,
promoting women's participation in all educational disciplines to break these barriers (Harding,
1991). The historical context of women’s educational struggles is particularly vivid in countries
like India, where early feminist movements had to challenge deep-rooted patriarchal systems
(Nanda, 1991; Desai & Thakkar, 2001).

Education also plays a pivotal role in challenging gender norms. Traditional education
systems often reinforce gender expectations, portraying men as dominant figures and women in
submissive or domestic roles.This extends beyond individual empowerment to broader cultural
shifts, as education fosters environments that promote equality and inclusivity (Menon, 2012).

Another critical connection between education and feminism is the drive for economic
independence. Education is directly linked to career opportunities and financial stability, both of
which are essential for women's autonomy. Without access to education, women remain
economically dependent, which perpetuates systemic gender oppression. By enabling women to
gain financial independence through education, societies move toward greater gender parity
(King & Hill, 1993). As Amartya Sen (1999) argues, education is a fundamental capability that
enhances individual freedom, particularly for women, allowing them to fully participate in social
and economic life.

In India, the role of education in empowering women has been particularly significant.
While female enrollment in higher education has dramatically increased since independence,
rising from less than 10% to 41.5% by 2010-11, barriers still exist (Government of India, 2012).
Feminism has played a crucial role in advocating for women's rights to education, particularly in
challenging traditional views that limit women's roles to the domestic sphere (Banerjee, 1998).
By promoting equal access to education, feminism in India seeks to dismantle the societal
barriers that prevent women from realizing their full potential, thus fostering gender equality
(Chanana, 2001; Sen, 1999).
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Chanana’s 2001 study, "Interrogating Women’s Education: Bounded Visions, Expanding

Horizons," delves into the nuanced relationship between education and gender in India,
highlighting how women's access to education has been shaped by social hierarchies and cultural
norms. The paper reveals that while there has been a marked increase in female enrollment,
particularly in higher education, the nature and purpose of this education often remain
constrained by patriarchal expectations. For many women, education is seen as a means to
enhance their roles as wives and mothers, rather than as a tool for economic independence or
societal leadership. Chanana argues that these "bounded visions" limit the transformative
potential of education for women, particularly those from lower socio-economic backgrounds,
where caste and class further compound their marginalization.

Moreover, Chanana critically analyzes how the expansion of educational opportunities

for women, though significant, has not fully translated into gender equality in the workforce or in
social participation. She underscores the persistence of gendered subject choices with women
being pushed towards traditionally "feminine" disciplines like humanities and social
sciences—while their participation in STEM fields remains low. This mirrors the feminist
concern about the segregation of educational fields based on gender stereotypes, as discussed by
scholars like Fausto-Sterling (2000) and Harding (1991). Chanana’s findings reinforce the
feminist argument that true empowerment through education requires not just access, but a
dismantling of the cultural norms that confine women to limited roles.By linking education to
broader societal change, Chanana echoes the feminist emphasis on education as a tool for
challenging patriarchal systems. She advocates for an educational approach that encourages
critical thinking and questions traditional gender roles, thus aligning with the broader feminist
goal of using education to foster both individual empowerment and societal transformation.

Education, when viewed through a feminist lens, serves as both a tool for individual
empowerment and a catalyst for societal transformation, challenging patriarchal norms and
promoting gender equality. While access to education has expanded in India, true empowerment
requires not just inclusion in all disciplines, including STEM, but also a fundamental shift in
cultural attitudes and structural barriers that continue to limit women’s potential and roles in both
public and private spheres.
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Feminism and domestic sphere

The proportion of men and women engaging in unpaid household tasks differs greatly.
Men spend only 98 minutes on such tasks, whereas women aged six and above dedicate 301
minutes. Regardless of age, women consistently devote more time to domestic chores, with the
most significant burden falling on those aged 20–49, typically working-age. Rural women spend
even more time—an average of 317 minutes daily on unpaid tasks—compared to their urban
counterparts. Interestingly, women's education levels seem to play a role, with higher education
linked to less time spent on unpaid labor once they enter the workforce.(Ali and Prasad ,2024)

In multigenerational households, women share the load of domestic tasks, reducing the
burden on any single individual. However, this is not the case in single-generation homes where
only a woman and her husband are present. The study also points out that women's substantial
contribution to unpaid work can cause tensions within the household.(Ali and Prasad ,2024)

The research offers valuable insights into how societal expectations shape gender roles,
highlighting the resources women often dedicate to unpaid work. It provides a clear
understanding of the ongoing imbalance between men and women, a concept that could spark a
meaningful shift in how such issues are viewed, both in the workplace and beyond.

Nutritional status

Feminism related to nutritional status focuses on how gender inequalities impact access
to food, nutrition, and overall health. Key aspects include,food distribution,in many cultures,
women and girls often receive less food or lower quality food compared to men and boys,
leading to poor nutritional status (Friedmann, Harriet 1987). Economic Disparities, women,
particularly in lower-income households, often have less control over financial resources,
affecting their ability to purchase nutritious food (Agarwal, Bina 1994).Health and Reproduction,
women’s nutritional needs change throughout life, especially during pregnancy and
breastfeeding. Feminist perspectives highlight the importance of meeting these specific needs to
support both maternal and child health (Friedmann, Harriet 1987),Empowerment and Education:
Educating women about nutrition and providing them with resources and decision-making power
can lead to improved health outcomes for the entire family (Agarwal, Bina 1994).
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Feminist approaches challenge cultural practices that lead to malnutrition among women,
advocating for equal treatment and access to food resources (Sen, Amartya 1999).Overall,
feminism seeks to address these gender-based disparities in nutritional status and promote
equality in health and well-being.

Marriage

Marriage is a socially and legally recognized union that establishes rights and obligations
between individuals, their children, and their in-laws. It is often regarded as a foundational
institution for family formation and societal stability, serving various functions across different
cultures (Anderson, 2013).

However,Marriage is often seen as a contract symbolizing the commitment of two

individuals, typically involving emotional, financial, and social support (Coontz, 2005).
Historically, marriage was viewed as an act of convenience, rooted in practices for the
sustenance of individuals (Cherlin, 2020).In many societies, marriage plays a role in the
continuation of lineage and the establishment of family units. For example, within Indian
customs, marriage is emphasized as a means of continuing lineage (Uberoi, 2006). India had
long-standing practices such as child and forced marriages, which were eventually curbed
through legislative reforms (Srinivas, 1962).

Marriage ceremonies often include rituals symbolizing the union, such as the exchange of
vows or rings in Western cultures, representing a sacred bond (Kalmijn, 2013). Indian traditions,
on the other hand, include customary rituals such as "kanya daan," a symbolic act in Hindu
weddings (Uberoi, 2006).

The institution of marriage has been a focal point in feminist discourse, primarily because
marriage has historically been viewed as patriarchal, where women often had limited rights and
autonomy (Friedan, 1963). Feminists critique these structures for perpetuating gender inequality.
In India, dowry practices and the perception of daughters as burdens were widespread until
social reforms were introduced (Desai, 2005). Feminism advocates for reforms in marriage laws
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to promote gender equality, emphasizing equal rights in areas like divorce, property ownership,
and parental responsibilities (Okin, 1989).Modern feminist perspectives emphasize the
importance of choice in marriage. Feminists argue for the right to marry for love rather than
obligation or economic necessity and advocate for recognizing diverse partnerships beyond
heterosexual norms (Butler, 1990).

Marriage perceptions vary across cultures, shaped by historical, social, religious, and
economic factors.In many Western societies, marriage is associated with romantic love,
emphasizing personal choice and individual expression. The white wedding dress, for instance,
symbolizes purity (Cherlin, 2020).In contrast, many Eastern societies, such as India, prioritize
familial arrangements over personal choice. Arranged marriages are common, with families
playing a significant role in selecting partners based on social status and compatibility (Uberoi,
2006).Various indigenous cultures have unique marriage customs reflecting their values. For
example, some Native American tribes incorporate spiritual elements that emphasize community
involvement in their ceremonies (Redsteer, 1997).Globalization has influenced marriage
practices worldwide, blending traditions. Concepts such as cohabitation without marriage or
same-sex unions are gaining acceptance in previously traditional cultures (Coontz, 2005).

A research conducted by Srinivas Goli et al. (2015) explored the impact of early
marriages and early childbearing on the nutritional status of women in India. The aim of the
study was to assess how early marital and reproductive events affect women’s Body Mass Index
(BMI) and nutritional health.Findings revealed that early marriages and childbearing
significantly increased the risk of malnutrition. Women who married and had children early were
more likely to have lower BMI, suffer from undernutrition, and face higher health risks
compared to those who married and bore children later (Goli et al., 2015).

The study concluded that early marriage and childbearing negatively impact women’s
nutritional status in India, stressing the importance of delaying these events to improve women’s
health and reduce malnutrition (Goli et al., 2015). This highlights the need for policy
interventions focused on delaying marriage and promoting better reproductive health practices.
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Childbearing and rearing

Childbearing refers to the process of conceiving, carrying, and giving birth to a child. It
encompasses the entire period of pregnancy and childbirth, and often involves considerations
related to maternal health, prenatal care, and the birthing process (Smith, 2018). In contrast,
childrearing refers to the process of upbringing and nurturing a child after birth. It includes
providing physical care, emotional support, education, and discipline to ensure the child’s overall
development (Johnson, 2020). Childrearing is a long-term commitment that requires attention to
a child’s psychological, emotional, social, and intellectual growth. It often involves imparting
values, social norms, and preparing the child to become a responsible adult (Brown, 2019).

The study by Ann, Susanne, Maria, and Sofi (2019) investigates how childbearing
intentions of couples influence actual childbearing outcomes over the subsequent years, focusing
on whether the intentions of women or men are more significant in predicting childbirth. In their
research, they found that while most couples anticipate sharing childcare responsibilities, a larger
share of women tend to assume they will bear the primary responsibility compared to their male
partners. This disparity is evident even before the birth of a child, as over two-fifths of childless
couples disagreed on how they would divide childcare responsibilities (Ann et al., 2019).

The study also highlights that women often exhibit a stronger child orientation than men.
Among couples where both partners desired children, nearly 80% of childless couples had a
child within five years, and this figure was slightly higher for couples with one child. However,
for couples with two children, only half had additional children within the same timeframe.
Furthermore, the study observed that in some childless couples where neither partner intended to
have children, as many as 20% ended up having a child within five years (Ann et al., 2019).

Ann et al. (2019) provide valuable insights into the dynamics of childbearing intentions
within couples and how these intentions translate into actual childbearing outcomes. Their
findings emphasize the complexity of reproductive decisions and the often unequal distribution
of childcare responsibilities, even among couples who initially express intentions to share these
responsibilities equally.
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Feminism and Working Sector

Equal pay

Gender inequality in the workplace, particularly regarding equal pay, remains a pervasive
issue globally. Research indicates that women continue to earn significantly less than their male
counterparts for similar roles. According to the World Economic Forum (2023), the global
gender pay gap is projected to take over 130 years to close at the current rate of progress. This
disparity not only affects women's financial independence but also their overall economic
stability and well-being (Blau & Kahn, 2017).

Gender inequality in the workplace, particularly regarding equal pay, remains a

significant global issue, with the World Economic Forum (2023) projecting that the gender pay
gap will take over 130 years to close at the current rate. Women continue to earn less than men
for similar roles, influenced by factors such as occupational segregation and systemic biases in
hiring and promotions (Blau & Kahn, 2017; Charles & Grusky, 2004). The "motherhood
penalty" further exacerbates this disparity, as mothers often face lower pay and fewer
advancement opportunities compared to fathers and childless women (Budig & Hodges, 2010).
While efforts to address these inequalities through pay transparency laws and gender quotas are
gaining traction (Dee & Jacob, 2011), a shift in cultural attitudes and institutional practices is
also necessary to create a more equitable work environment (Catalyst, 2020). Comprehensive
strategies are required to tackle both structural and cultural factors to achieve equal pay and close
the gender pay gap.

Women are often underrepresented in high-paying fields such as technology and finance,
which contributes to their lower average earnings (Hegewisch & Hartmann, 2014). Additionally,
systemic biases and discrimination against women in hiring, promotions, and salary negotiations
further exacerbate the pay gap (Kricheli-Katz & Regev, 2020).

Efforts to address gender pay inequality have gained momentum in recent years. Policy
interventions, such as pay transparency laws and gender quotas, aim to promote equal pay for
equal work (Dee & Jacob, 2011). However, cultural attitudes and institutional practices must also
shift to create a more equitable work environment (Catalyst, 2020).
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Equal opportunity

In a study by Vidhya and Mageswari (2024) delves into the issue of the glass ceiling
faced by women professionals in India, highlighting the persistent barriers that prevent them
from advancing into higher management or leadership roles. Despite having the education, skills,
and experience necessary for such positions, women encounter socio-cultural, organizational,
and individual challenges that limit their upward mobility. These include gender stereotypes,
societal expectations of women as homemakers, male-dominated leadership structures, lack of
mentorship, and unconscious biases in the workplace. Additionally, factors such as imposter
syndrome, difficulties with networking, and professional interruptions related to caregiving
responsibilities further impede their progress.

The glass ceiling, as explained, is not merely a barrier at the topmost levels of corporate
hierarchies but exists even at middle management and across industries, particularly affecting
minorities as well. The study identifies how deeply entrenched cultural attitudes and
organizational practices create invisible, yet formidable barriers. In response, it suggests
strategies to overcome these obstacles, including mentorship programs, inclusive hiring
practices, leadership development initiatives, and flexible work arrangements. Moreover, the
study emphasizes the need for organizations to actively promote gender diversity, close pay gaps,
and implement accountability measures to ensure sustained progress toward breaking the glass
ceiling.

Equal opportunity to Key Positions

Equal opportunities in the workplace remain a critical issue, with research showing
varied outcomes across different regions. For instance, a study in Lagos suggests that women
have equal chances for employment and career advancement in banking, with recruitment largely
based on qualifications rather than gender biases (Adepoju, 2015). In contrast, a study in Zambia
highlights ongoing barriers, such as societal norms and workplace discrimination, that hinder
women's progression into leadership roles (Chisanga & Chipokosa, 2018).

Organizational structures significantly influence gender disparities by shaping power

dynamics and access to opportunities. Acker's concept of inequality regimes explains how
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systemic patterns of inequality are embedded within organizations, affecting women's career
advancement and representation in leadership roles (Acker, 2006). These structures often
reinforce traditional gender roles and biases, limiting women's access to key positions and
resources. Hierarchical models may perpetuate discrimination, as decision-making processes
tend to favor male perspectives, entrenching gender disparities in professional environments
(Williams, 2013).

Hierarchical structures perpetuate gender disparities in several specific ways. Women

often face barriers to upper management due to fewer mentorship opportunities and networking
connections, which are critical in hierarchical organizations (Ibarra, 1993). Promotion processes
may favor male-dominated traits or behaviors, leading to biased evaluations that disadvantage
women, particularly in traditionally male roles (Rudman & Glick, 2001). Additionally, men
typically hold more decision-making positions in hierarchical setups, which can marginalize
women's voices and contributions, reinforcing gender stereotypes (Ely & Meyerson, 2000).
Rigid hierarchies also may not accommodate flexible work arrangements, disproportionately
affecting women who often juggle professional and caregiving responsibilities (Gatrell et al.,
2013). These structures can uphold traditional gender roles, discouraging women from asserting
themselves or pursuing leadership positions.

Efforts to promote gender equality in the workplace include mentorship programs and
supportive workplace policies (Kalev et al., 2006). Governments are also implementing laws to
protect women's rights, such as those related to property ownership and anti-discrimination
measures in employment (World Bank, 2020). Furthermore, initiatives that encourage women’s
participation in traditionally male-dominated fields, such as law enforcement and construction,
have been established (ILO, 2019). Organizations are also fostering gender equity through
training and awareness programs designed to combat unconscious biases (Dobbin & Kalev,
2016).

While progress has been made in some sectors, challenges remain pervasive across
different industries, indicating the need for continued efforts to address gender disparities.

Method
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This study has been designed to understand the perceptions of people of different age
groups on gender equality with the below objectives –

To understand women and men perceptions on feminism (the role of demographic factors (age,
gender, place, etc.)

To examine women’s and men’s perceptions around marriage, childbearing and child rearing.

To examine women and men perceptions on access /opportunity of resources especially

nutritional and in education.

To understand women and men perceptions at workplace opportunities and discrimination.

Participant

Inclusion criteria

The inclusion criteria consisted of a random population of the age group above 18 years
residing in urban spaces of India. Participation in the process was voluntary.

Sampling Type

Participants were selected through random and convenience sampling. The former is a
method under which each sampling element of a population has an equal probability of being
selected into the sample. A convenience sample consists of research subjects who were chosen
for a study because they could be recruited easily.

Measures

Survey
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Tools

A survey questionnaire was made considering the findings of literature review. It includes
questions on some of the factors that seems to play a role on perceptions on feminism. After
multiple changes a final questionnaire was developed, which was send to two experts from the
field for their feedback and considering that the questionnaire was send for pilot study. Based on
pilot study, a final survey questionnaire was developed for the study.

Hypotheses

Some of the assumptions of the study are as follows:

There is gender inequality with respect to equal access to resources especially education.

Ther are gender-based disparities with respect to nutritional status and the consequent health.

The roles and responsibilities of women and men are distributed as per traditional gender
division of labour.

Women are likely to be discriminated more at workplace with respect to the position and
payment.

The people who identify themselves as feminist are likely to perceive the roles and
responsibilities of domestic sphere to be equally distributed.

Procedure

The data for the present research study was collected by creating a google form. After
survey construction, the form was circulated on online platforms. Random and convenience
sampling was used where informed consent was taken from all the participants. Voluntary
participation of the participants and adequate information was ensured in the consent form.
Descriptive statistics was used to analyse the data, mainly percentage and graphs, pie charts, etc.
were used to analyse and present the data.

Thereafter the results were interpreted, and inferences were drawn.

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Results

The survey reveals significant insights into societal attitudes, gender roles, and workplace
dynamics. The respondents were primarily young adults, with 68% aged between 18-25, 20%
aged 26-35, and 12% aged 36-50. Gender distribution leaned towards men (68%), while women
constituted 32%. Educationally, most participants were undergraduate or graduate degree holders
(40%), with 24% having completed 12th grade and 14.7% holding postgraduate qualifications. In
terms of family structure, 61.3% came from nuclear families, and 32% were from joint families.

A majority of respondents (85.3%) associated feminism with gender equality, while 44%
perceived it as advocating for women’s rights. Only 6.7% believed feminism reduces men’s
rights. Regarding the benefits of feminism, 58.7% felt it benefits women, 21.3% saw its impact
on marginalized communities, and only 8% believed all genders benefit equally. When asked
about feminism’s relevance to social issues, 38.7% viewed it as important, 17.3% as very
important, and 10.7% considered it unimportant. These findings highlight the diverse and
sometimes polarized understanding of feminism among participants.

The survey also explored gender dynamics in public and professional spaces. While 45.3% of
respondents were neutral about discussing feminism publicly, 26.7% expressed a likelihood of
doing so. Notably, 41.3% felt the need to prove themselves harder due to their gender. Workplace
discrimination was commonly reported in forms such as stereotyping (47.8%), lack of respect
(43.5%), unequal pay (30.4%), and sexual harassment (28.3%). Leadership roles for women
were perceived as only slightly represented by 45.3% of participants, reflecting a need for greater
gender parity in leadership positions.

In social and cultural contexts, attitudes toward household and economic responsibilities showed
progressive shifts, with 82.7% advocating for shared domestic chores and 81.3% supporting
shared financial responsibilities. Additionally, 64% viewed marriage as an equal partnership, and
72% believed both genders are equally likely to work post-marriage. Open-ended responses
emphasized the importance of education, breaking stereotypes, and fostering inclusivity to
 21

ensure gender equality. Respondents suggested measures like promoting awareness, enforcing
workplace equality laws, and challenging societal norms from an early age.

Visual data representation, including pie charts and bar graphs, effectively showcased opinions
on gender equality, workplace representation, and societal norms, reinforcing the findings with
clarity. The study concludes that while most respondents align feminism with gender equality,
traditional roles and workplace challenges persist. It highlights the need for collaborative efforts,
systemic reforms, and cultural shifts to ensure equitable opportunities .

Interpretation and discussion

A study was undertaken to study the perception of men and women on feminism using
the survey method. The data was collected from 75 respondents, across a range of age groups
and educational backgrounds. The survey predominantly included young respondents , with
70% aged 18–25, 19% aged 26–35, and 12% aged 36–50. The majority of respondents (68%)
were female, while 32% were male. In terms of education, most participants (40%) had
completed high school, while others were at various educational stages: 19% had completed
secondary school, 15% were pursuing undergraduate studies, and 23% were in postgraduate
programs. Family structures were also explored, with 60% living in nuclear families and 33% in
joint families. The survey sought to examine respondents' attitudes on various dimensions of
feminism and gender equality.

When asked if they identify as feminists, 53% (40 of 75 total respondents) affirmed that
they do. This included 59% women (30 out of 51 women) and 42% men (10 of 24 men). This
indicates a strong recognition of feminist identity among respondents, particularly among
women. A majority of respondents identify as feminists, with women showing a stronger
recognition of this identity compared to men. Most participants view feminism as synonymous
with gender equality, although a minority believes it benefits only one gender, predominantly
men.

Respondents were also asked about their perception of feminism, 87% of respondents(65
out of 75) viewed it as gender equality within which, 55% were women(28 out of 51 ), whereas
42% were men (10 out of 24). On the contrary, 12%(9 out of 75) of the respondents gravitated
towards a belief that feminism simply benefits one gender, or reduces rights of men. Within these
 22

respondents, 29%(7 out of 24) men consist of the majority, while 4% of women(2 out of 51)
support the view.When asked who benefits from feminism, 60% (45 of 75 total respondents)
believed that all genders benefit from feminist movements. This included 69% women (35 out of
51 women) and 42% men (10 out of 24 men).

Regarding the role of feminism in tackling contemporary social issues related to gender
equality, 72% of respondents (53 out of 75) considered it to be of great importance.Among these,
78% were women (40 out of 51 women) and 54% were men (13 out of 24 men). There is a
consensus that feminism benefits all genders, reflecting a shared understanding of its societal
advantages. Respondents widely acknowledge the importance of feminism in addressing
contemporary social issues related to gender equality.

Responses reflected a modern approach to family roles and responsibilities.Regarding

household responsibilities, 82% (62 of 75 total respondents) believed that both partners should
share household chores if both are working. This included 82% women (42 out of 51 women)
and 83% men (20 out of 24 men). Conversely, 18% (13 of 75 total respondents) felt that the wife
should primarily handle household chores, comprising 18% women (9 out of 51 women) and
17% men (4 out of 24 men). This suggests a growing inclination towards shared responsibilities
in domestic spheres, although traditional views still persist for some.

When asked about who holds the responsibility to fulfill the economic needs of the
family, the majority of respondents 81% ( 61 out of 75) believed that both partners share this
responsibility.Although 20% of respondents felt that financial responsibility falls primarily on
the husband, the remaining 80% believed it is shared equally. A majority (64%) felt that dual
incomes are necessary to support a family.

From the findings we conclude that the majority supports the idea that financial
responsibilities should be shared, highlighting evolving views on family dynamics.These results
align with a study by Lagomarsino et al. (2020), which highlights a growing societal trend
toward dual-earner households and shared responsibilities, driven by changing economic
pressures and evolving gender norms.
 23

The findings so far highlight a significant shift toward egalitarian views on family roles,
with a majority of respondents advocating for shared responsibilities in both household chores
and financial contributions. This indicates growing acceptance of gender equality in domestic
and economic spheres. However, the persistence of traditional views among a minority suggests
that cultural and societal norms continue to influence perceptions for some individuals. These
insights underscore the importance of fostering dialogue and education around gender roles to
support a more balanced and inclusive approach to family responsibilities.

A significant majority of respondents i.e 69% ( 52 of 75 total respondents) reported

feeling social pressure to marry by a certain age. Among these, 74% of women (38 out of 51)
and 50% of men (12 out of 24) felt pressured.Conversely, 19% (14 out of 75 respondents)
indicated they were unaffected by such pressure, comprising 14% of women (7 out of 51) and
29% of men (7 out of 24).These findings indicate that a significant number of participants
reported experiencing social pressure to marry by a certain age, with the pressure being more
commonly reported among women. Interestingly, a small percentage reported feeling unaffected
by such expectations, with a higher proportion of men aligning with this feeling.

When it came to marriage decision-making, half or 51%( or 38 out of 75 respondents)

believed decisions should be made jointly by both partners. Within this group, 51% of women
(26 out of 51) and 50% of men (12 out of 24) held this view. A smaller segment i.e 7%( or 5 out
of 75 respondents) felt family members should primarily make the decision, consisting entirely
of 10% of women (5 out of 51). Additionally, 43% (32 out of 75 respondents) agreed that
marriage decisions should involve input from all parties, with 41% of women (21 out of 51) and
46% of men (11 out of 24) supporting this idea.

An overwhelming 88% (66 out of 75 respondents) believed that marriage should embody
equal partnership, including 94% of women (48 out of 51) and 75% of men (18 out of 24).

Regarding expectations around work after marriage, 70% (53 out of 75 respondents)
anticipated that both spouses would likely work, including 73% of women (37 out of 51) and
67% of men (16 out of 24). In contrast, 28% (21 out of 75 respondents) believed men were more
 24

likely to hold jobs, with this group comprising 25% of women (13 out of 51) and 33% of men (8
out of 24).

The survey findings indicate a significant recognition of feminist ideals among

respondents, with many believing that marriage decisions should be made jointly by both
partners, predominantly supported by women. While a majority advocate for equal partnership in
marriage, a smaller segment feels that family members should primarily make these decisions,
all of whom are women. Regarding work expectations after marriage, many respondents
anticipate that both spouses will work, although some still hold traditional views about men's
roles in the workforce

Among women, 43% (22 out of 51) expressed the view that feminism challenges traditional
expectations surrounding marriage and childbearing. In comparison, a slightly higher proportion
of men, 50% (12 out of 24), shared this perspective. Although Overall, 45% of respondents (34
out of 75) agreed with this statement, indicating that nearly half of the participants recognize
feminism as a force that questions conventional societal norms regarding marriage and
childbearing.The data further reveals that that majority have a neutral opinion Couples without
children are often perceived in varied ways. Some (9%) believe they might be missing out on
certain life experiences, with this view predominantly held by 12% women(6 women out of 51)
and 4% men( 1 man out of 24). Others (educated and independent individuals, including 5
women and 2 men) view them positively, emphasizing autonomy and career focus. A small
minority (1%) acknowledge it as a personal choice, attributing it to differing priorities or a more
occupied lifestyle. These perspectives highlight evolving societal attitudes towards parenthood
and individual freedom.

This highlights how feminist ideas are reshaping traditional gender roles and expectations
across both genders, yet a minority still differs in terms of perceptions. This suggests that while
the topic garners some attention, it is not a primary concern for the majority, reflecting diverse
attitudes towards childfree couples and the evolving societal perspectives on
parenthood.(requires evidence, and from questions)

Studies suggest that early marriages and childbearing contribute to women’s poor
nutritional status, underlining how patriarchal systems within marriage negatively impact
 25

women's health and socio-economic prospects (Goli et al., 2015). Modern feminist perspectives
call for reforms in marriage laws to promote gender equality, particularly in areas like divorce,
property ownership, and parental responsibilities (Okin, 1989).

The findings of our research highlight the enduring influence of societal norms on
marriage, with a majority feeling pressured to marry by a certain age, particularly women. While
most respondents support equal partnership in marriage and joint decision-making, traditional
gender roles remain evident in expectations around work and family life. Feminist critiques
resonate with many participants, as nearly half recognize feminism's role in challenging
conventional norms and promoting gender equality in marriage and family roles. However,
evolving attitudes towards childfree couples and shared responsibilities reflect a gradual shift
towards more inclusive and equitable perspectives, underscoring the transformative potential of
feminist ideas in redefining marriage and gender roles.

When asked about gender equality in educational institutions, 58% of all male
respondents (14 of 24 males) agreed that boys and girls have equal access, while 41% (9 of 24
males) disagreed. 43% of the females (22 of 51 females ) agreed that there exist equal
educational opportunities and the rest of the female respondents (29 of 51 females)
disagreed.This is reflective of the fact that most males perceive that there exists equal access to
education to both the genders. Considering that this study was conducted in an urban
environment,where the literacy rates are much higher, a lot of the male respondents considered
that there exists equal access to education to both genders.

Gender-based educational preferences were also noted, with science perceived to be a

highly male dominated field with 81% of the respondents (61 of 75 total respondents) agreeing,
and mathematics also perceived as a male-dominated field with the agreement of 77%
respondents (58 of 75 total respondents). However, with subjects like Social science and English,
which were comparatively more popularly associated with females, 69 % of the respondents(52
of 75 total respondents) agreed that social science as a field is dominated by females and 75%
(56 of 75 total respondents) agreed that English as a discipline has more women than men at its
forefront.
 26

Our findings are also contrary to the previous researchers because of our demographic
limitations ( urban, highly educated, advantaged group of participants). As mentioned by
Katiyar (2016), it is the patriarchal culture of Indian society which hinders not only the learning
opportunities of girls but also the social, economic and political involvement. Various destructive
(lack of awareness about girls education, social norms, safety aspect, marriage, dowry) and
attractive attributes (assistance in household work, responsibility to care the siblings and earning
hands) are some major causes behind unequal access or opportunities, lower admittance and
higher dropping out of girls from school as compared to boys (Goel and Husain, 2018). From a
feminist perspective, education is a powerful tool for achieving gender equality, challenging
patriarchal structures, and dismantling gender stereotypes .

​ The findings reveal persistent gender biases in educational and professional fields, with
STEM disciplines perceived as male-dominated and humanities and social sciences seen as
female-dominated. While women constitute a significant proportion of STEM graduates in India,
their representation in the workforce remains alarmingly low, reflecting systemic barriers and
societal stereotypes. Historical and cultural factors, as highlighted by researchers such as
Harding (1991) and Chanana (2001), continue to influence educational access and career
choices, reinforcing patriarchal norms. Addressing these biases requires challenging gendered
perceptions of disciplines and advocating for equal opportunities in education and employment,
as emphasized by feminist scholarship. Empowering women to pursue diverse fields without
societal constraints is essential for achieving true gender equity in education and professional
spaces.

Based on our findings pertaining to educational opportunities and preferences, we can

conclude that females are reflecting a more skeptical view (only 43% females agreed, which is
22 out of 51 female respondents ) than males regarding gender equality in educational
opportunities, influenced by social and cultural barriers. The study also found strong gender
biases in educational preferences: science and mathematics were perceived as male-dominated,
while social science and English were seen as female-dominated fields.
 27

The data indicates varying levels of agreement with the statement that feminism
advocates for equal access to nutritional and health resources regardless of gender. Among
women, 43% (22 out of 51) expressed agreement, showing stronger support for the idea. In
contrast, 29% of men (7 out of 24) agreed, reflecting comparatively lower alignment. Overall,
39% of all respondents (29 out of 75) shared their views on this statement, suggesting that while
there is notable recognition of feminism's role in promoting health equity, the degree of
agreement differs between genders.

The findings highlight the ongoing gender disparities in access to nutritional and health
resources, with women demonstrating greater recognition of feminism's role in advocating for
health equity compared to men. Despite general support for equal access, gender-based
differences in agreement reveal varying perceptions of the issue.Researches, such as that by
Friedmann (1987) and Agarwal (1994), underscores the systemic roots of these disparities,
particularly in low-income contexts where women's limited financial control exacerbates
nutritional inequities. Addressing these issues requires a multidimensional approach that
incorporates both cultural and socioeconomic considerations to promote health equity for all
genders.

The survey found mixed opinions regarding gender-based discrimination in the

workplace. 30% (22 respondents out of 75) felt it was prevalent. This included 33% women (17
out of 51 women) and 21% men (5 out of 24 men). Another 30% (22 respondents out of 75)
believed it rarely occurred. This included 31% women(16 out of 51 women) and 25% men (6 out
of 24 males). Interestingly, many felt that gender discrimination was absent in their workplaces.
33% (25 out of 75 respondents) felt that it never occurred. This included 25% women (13 out of
51 women) and 50% men (12 out of 24 men).

Stereotyping (47%) and lack of respect (45%) were cited as the primary causes of
workplace discrimination. Regarding leadership roles, 45% (34 out 75 respondents) observed
female representation. This included 43% women( 22 out of 51 women) and 54% men (13 out of
24 men). Although, 44% (33 out of 75 respondents) felt women were only moderately
represented in such positions. This included 43% women ( 22 out of 51 women) and 45% men (
11 out of 24 men).
 28

The research findings indicate a diverse range of perceptions regarding gender-based

discrimination. A significant portion feels that discrimination is prevalent, particularly among
women. A notable number believe it rarely occurs, with a slightly higher percentage among
women compared to men. Interestingly, a substantial group perceives that gender discrimination
is absent in their workplaces, with a higher percentage of men feeling this way compared to
women. The higher percentage of men believing that discrimination never occurs may indicate
differing experiences or awareness levels between genders.

Studies show that women face systemic biases in hiring, promotions, and salary
negotiations, contributing to a persistent wage gap (Blau & Kahn, 2017; Kricheli-Katz & Regev,
2020). This may be due to systemic patterns of inequality that are embedded within
organizations, affecting women's career advancement and representation in leadership roles.
Promotion processes may favor male-dominated traits or behaviors, leading to biased evaluations
that disadvantage women, particularly in traditionally male roles.Moreover, the "motherhood
penalty" exacerbates this disparity, as mothers often face lower pay and fewer advancement
opportunities compared to fathers and childless women (Budig & Hodges, 2010).

Lastly, the respondents provided recommendations to foster gender equality, emphasizing

the need for equal access to education, breaking stereotypes, and creating inclusive work
environments. Suggestions included engaging young people in discussions on gender issues,
enforcing laws to ensure equal workplace representation, and redefining feminism to focus on
equal rights for both men and women, without diminishing one gender over another.
Respondents also noted the importance of defining feminism accurately to dispel
misconceptions, such as the belief that it solely advances women at men’s expense.

This survey highlights the evolving perceptions of feminism among young adults and
sheds light on persistent gender stereotypes in education, family roles, and workplace dynamics.
While there is a strong endorsement of equal responsibilities in both household and professional
settings, disparities in perceived access to resources and workplace equity indicate areas for
continued dialogue and reform. Addressing these issues may foster a more inclusive society that
promotes equal opportunities across genders.
 29

The research on perceptions of feminism among men and women offered valuable
insights into societal attitudes, gender roles, and the understanding of feminist ideologies. A
significant outcome of the study was the diverse understanding of feminism. While most
respondents associated it with gender equality, others viewed it as advocating for women’s rights
specifically, and a small portion misunderstood it as reducing men’s rights. This diversity in
perspectives highlights the need for awareness campaigns to promote feminism’s inclusive and
intersectional goals. The study also brought attention to persistent gender-based discrimination in
workplaces, such as stereotyping, unequal pay, lack of respect, and exclusion from
decision-making roles. These findings emphasize the importance of addressing systemic biases
to create equitable professional environments for all genders.

Responses further reflected a gradual shift in societal attitudes toward gender roles in
families and workplaces, with many participants advocating for shared household chores and
economic responsibilities. However, traditional expectations still influence certain perceptions,
underscoring the need for continued advocacy and education. Additionally, the research
highlighted the underrepresentation of women in leadership roles, revealing a pressing need for
initiatives that promote female leadership and equal opportunities in decision-making positions.

Open-ended responses emphasized the importance of societal and educational

interventions to achieve gender equality. Participants suggested measures such as education,
breaking stereotypes, legal enforcement, and equitable access to resources. These interventions
were seen as vital for advancing feminist principles and fostering an inclusive society.
Furthermore, the study identified a need to address misconceptions about feminism, particularly
its perceived negative impact on men. Educating individuals about the inclusive and empowering
nature of feminism can help mitigate resistance and foster greater collaboration.

The research underscores the importance of systemic reforms, cultural shifts, and
awareness campaigns to challenge traditional norms and advance the goals of feminism. By
promoting understanding, addressing biases, and encouraging inclusivity, society can work
towards achieving equality for all genders
 30

Conclusion

The survey highlights both progress and ongoing challenges in achieving gender equality.
While most participants recognize feminism as a movement for gender equality, misconceptions
and traditional biases persist, particularly regarding its impact on men and its relevance to
societal roles. The study underscores the need for systemic reforms to address workplace
inequalities, promote representation in leadership roles, and challenge ingrained cultural norms.
Open-ended responses emphasized education, stereotype-breaking, and inclusive policies as
critical tools for fostering equality. Ultimately, the findings reveal that societal progress depends
on collective efforts to clarify the inclusive essence of feminism, dismantle discriminatory
practices, and create a world where opportunities and responsibilities are shared equally among
all genders.
 31

Appendix
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