BIOLOGY 1 REVIWER

(QUARTER 2)
ATP ENERGY COUPLING AND TRANSFER

ATP
• Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the primary energy currency of all living cells. It acts as a
crucial molecule in the transfer and utilization of energy for various biological processes. This
presentation will delve into the structure of ATP, its role in energy transfer, and the
mechanisms by which it is synthesized and utilized.

ATP STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

1. Adenine A nitrogenous base that forms the core of the molecule.
2.A five-carbon sugar that provides the backbone for the molecule.
3. Phosphate groups Three phosphate groups linked together, forming a chain. The bonds
between these phosphate groups, particularly the terminal bonds, are high-energy bonds.

Why is ATP important?

-Powers essential cellular processes
-Muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, protein synthesis, etc.

ATP as the energy carrier: - Hydrolysis of ATP releases energy:

ATP + H2O → ADP + Pi + energy- This energy can be used to drive endergonic reactions.
- Example: Muscle contraction, active transport, biosynthesis 11

ATP Hydrolysis and Energy Release

The breakdown of ATP into adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi) releases
energy. This process, known as ATP hydrolysis, is catalyzed by enzymes called ATPases.

The energy released during Alp hydrolysis is used to power various cellular processes, including:
Muscle Contraction: ATP provides energy for myosin to interact with actin filaments.
Active Transport: ATP powers pumps that move molecules against their concentration gradient.
Biosynthesis: ATP provides energy for the formation of complex molecules from simpler ones.
ATP Regeneration
ATP is not a static energy source; it is constantly recycled. The primary process for regenerating
ATP is cellular respiration, which occurs in the mitochondria. Glucose is broken down to
generate ATP through a series of chemical reactions.

Other pathways for ATP regeneration include:

Photosynthesis: In plants, ATP is produced during the light- dependent reactions of
photosynthesis. Anaerobic Respiration: Some organisms can generate ATP through anaerobic
respiration, which does not require oxygen.

Energy Coupling
-Energy coupling is the process of linking an exergonic reaction (releases energy) to an
endergonic reaction (requires energy). ATP plays a crucial role in this process, acting as the
energy carrier that facilitates the transfer of energy from one reaction to another.

Examples of Energy Coupling:

Sucrose Synthesis: The synthesis of sucrose from glucose and fructose is an endergonic
reaction. ATP hydrolysis provides the energy required for this reaction to occur. The energy
released from ATP hydrolysis is used to phosphorylate glucose, creating a more reactive
intermediate that can then react with fructose to form sucrose.

Sodium-Potassium Pump:
- is a membrane-bound protein that actively transports sodium ions out of the cell and
potassium ions into the cell.
-This process requires energy, which is provided by ATP hydrolysis.
-The energy released from ATP hydrolysis is used to phosphorylate the pump protein, causing a
conformational change that allows the pump to transport ions across the membrane.
Importance of ATP in Biological Systems Essential for life:
ATP is the universal energy currency of all living organisms.
• Metabolic regulation: ATP levels influence enzyme activity and metabolic pathways.
• Cellular - Essential for life: ATP is the universal energy currency of all living organisms

Summary of Key Points:

ATP is the primary energy carrier in cells Energy coupling allows ATP to drive endergonic
reactions ATP is constantly regenerated through cellular respiration and other pathways ATP is
vital for life and plays a crucial role in maintaining cellular function.

Lesson 2: Importance of Chloropyll and other Pigments

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
-The process by which plants use to light energy into chemical energy in the form of sugar.
Chloroplast- organ where body synthesis happen.
STRUCTURE OF A CHLOROPLAST
1. OUTER MEMBRANE - freely permeable to small molecules
2. INNER MEMBRANE - contains transporters such as integral membrane proteins
3. STROMA
 protein-rich ground substance
 contains enzymes, starch granules, chloroplast DNA and ribosomes
4. THYLAKOID
 membrane-bound flattened disks
 Grana - stacks of thylakoids (singular granum)
 Intergranal lamellae connects granum together.

Why light-dependent reaction?

 light-dependent reactions energy from sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll and that
energy is converted into stored chemical energy.

Process of Photosynthesis

Light independent Reactions (Calvin Cycle)

 light-independent reactions the chemical energy harvested during the light-dependent
reactions drives the assembly of sugar molecules from carbon dioxide.
Plant Pigments Function
Skin, color of flowers, leaves, and fruits
 Plays a key role in photosynthesis
Controls growth and development

Types of Chlorophyll

Chlorophyll a
 The most common, found in all photosynthetic organisms. It absorbs blue and red light,
reflecting green.
Chlorophyll b
 Found in plants and green algae. It absorbs mostly blue light, expanding the range of
light captured for photosynthesis.
Chlorophyll C
 Found in diatoms and brown algae. It absorbs blue and green light, making it useful in
deeper water.
Chlorophyll D
 Found in red algae and cyanobacteria. It absorbs far-red light, allowing photosynthesis
in very deep water.

Carotenoid
• polyene chain terminating in rings
• "accessory light-harvesting pigments"

Types of Carotenoids
Carotenes - These pigments absorb blue and green light, reflecting yellow, orange, and
red colors.
Xanthophylls - These pigments absorb blue and green light, reflecting yellow colors.

Lesson 3 (Calvin Cycle)

How do plants and algae use the high energy molecules stored from light dependent reactions?
 ATP and NADPH are the products of light dependent reactions which will be used in the
process called Calvin cycle.
 Calvin cycle is the second stage of photosynthesis, the process by which plants and
other autotrophs capture light energy to manufacture its own food.
 Calvin cycle takes place in the stroma of chloroplast.
 Dr. Melvin Calvin, an American biochemist first identified the process in 1957.

The significant events of the Calvin cycle are organized into the following
1. Carbon Fixation
 Carbon dioxide (CO₂) enters the leaf and then into the stroma of the chloroplast
CO, binds to a 5-carbon compound called RuBP (ribulose-1, 5- biphosphate) with
the aid of an ezyme RuBisCO (ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase). It forms a six-
carbon compound that is immediately converted into two three-carbon
compounds called phosphoglycerate (3-PGA).
2. Reduction
 ATP and NADPH use their stored energy to convert the two molecules of the
three-carbon compound, 3-PGA, into another two molecules of three carbon
compound called GA3P or 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL). Two GA3P or PGAL
may combine to form one six carbon sugar such as glucose (CHO).
3.RuBP Regeneration
 In order for the cycle to continue, RuBP is regenerated from five out of every six
GA3P or PGAL molecules. A molecule of ATP is dephosphorylated into ADP. In
summary, it takes six turns of the Calvin cycle to fix six carbon atoms from CO,.
 These process needs energy input from 12 ATP molecules and 12 NADPH
molecules in the reduction step and 6 ATP molecules in the regeneration step.

Photosynthesis & Light Reaction

CONTENTS
01 Introduction
02 Definition
03 Light dependent reaction
04 Overview of light reaction
05 Z scheme
06 Conclusion

What is Photosynthesis

◆ It is a process in which energy from sunlight is transformed into chemical energy that
is stored in carbohydrates and other organic molecules.
Two phase of photosynthesis.
1)Light reaction or light dependent phase.
– The reaction occurs in thylakoids. The products are ATP and NADPH.
2)Dark reaction or light independent phase – The reaction occur in stroma.
– Product are Trioses, Tetroses, Pentoses, Hexoses &
  Structure of chloroplast It is Double membrane contains thylakoids sacs.
Chlorophyll, the green pigment within chloroplast gives Green color of leaves.
Chloroplast also contains stroma, a dense interior fluid.

 Ultrastructure of chloroplast Electron microscopic studies reveals that

chloroplast is composed of following two parts:
1) Limiting membrane
2) Stroma
Photosynthetic pigment
These are the coloured complex of organic molecules.
Absorb solar energy in visible range.
Pigments absorb light due to possession of conjugated double bonds.
Types:
1) Chlorophylls
2) Carotenoids
3) Phycobilins
Light or Hill reaction
 The light dependent reactions use photosynthetic pigments (organised into
photosystems) to convert light energy into chemical energy (specifically ATP and
NADPH)
 These reactions occur within specialised membrane discs within the chloroplast
called thylakoids and involve three steps:
 Excitation of photosystems by light energy Production of ATP via an electron
transport chain Reduction of NADP+ and the photolysis of water.
 Excitation of Photosystems by Light Energy Photosystems are groups of
photosynthetic pigments (including chlorophyll) embedded within the thylakoid
membrane.
 Photosystems are classed according to their maximal absorption wavelengths
(PSI = 700 nm; PS II = 680 nm).
 When a photosystem absorbs light energy, delocalised electrons within the
pigments become energised or ‘excited’.
  These excited electrons are transferred to carrier molecules within the thylakoid
membrane.

Production of ATP via an Electron Transport Chain

 Excited electrons from Photosystem II (P680) are transferred to an electron
transport chain within the thylakoid membrane.
 As the electrons are passed through the chain they lose energy, which is used to
translocate H+ ions into the thylakoid.
 This build up of protons within the thylakoid creates an electrochemical gradient,
or proton motive force.
 The H+ ions return to the stroma (along the proton gradient) via the
transmembrane enzyme ATP synthase (chemiosmosis).
 ATP synthase uses the passage of H+ ions to catalyse the synthesis of ATP (from
ADP + Pi).
 This process is called photophosphorylation – as light provided the initial energy
source for ATP production.
Reduction of NADP+ and the Photolysis of Water
o Excited electrons from Photosystem I may be transferred to a carrier molecule
and used to reduce NADP+.
o This forms NADPH – which is needed (in conjunction with ATP) for the light
independent reactions.
o The electrons lost from Photosystem I are replaced by de- energised electrons
from Photosystem II.
o The electrons lost from Photosystem II are replaced by electrons released from
water via photolysis.
o Water is split by light energy into H+ ions (used in chemiosmosis) and oxygen
(released as a by-product).
Photophosphorylation
 The production of ATP by the light dependent reactions is called
photophosphorylation, as it uses light as an energy source
 Photophosphorylation may be either a cyclic process or a non-cyclic process
 Occurs in thylakoid membrane 13
Cyclic Phosphorylation
In cyclic Phosphorylation only photosystem 1 is required.
 Water is not required and oxygen is not evolved.
 It is used to produce additional ATP.
  NADPH is not formed.
Non-Cyclic Phosphorylation
In non-cyclic Phosphorylation only photosystem 1 and photosystem 2 is required.
o Water is required and oxygen is evolved.
o NADPH is synthesis.
o Products can be used for light independent reaction.

Photochemical reaction
Absorption of light is the first step in any chemical reaction.
Absorption of a photon excites chlorophyll II molecules and other(accessory)
pigment, which funnel the energy into reaction centre.
In the reaction centre, photoexcitation results in a charge separation that
produces a strong electron donor and a strong electron acceptor.
Conclusion of Light reaction
 It is used for the production of NADPH and ATP. It takes place in chloroplast and
organic food material.

AEROBIC RESPIRATION

Aerobic respiration
 is a set of metabolic reactions that take place in the presence of oxygen,
occurring in a cell to convert chemical energy into ATPs. During aerobic
respiration, oxygen combines with glucose and glucose is broken down to
create energy. This complex process begins in the cytoplasm and end in
the mitochondria. Water and carbon dioxide are released as waste
products. The energy is used to form 36 molecules of ATP for the cell.

Aerobic respiration takes place in all plants, animals, birds, and

humans, except for some primitive prokaryotes.

In aerobic respiration, oxygen acts as an electron acceptor which

helps produce ATPs more effectively and more quickly.

The double bond in the oxygen has higher energy than other
bonds which aids to produce more ATPs.
It is the preferred method of degradation of pyruvate after
glycolysis where the pyruvate then enters the mitochondria to be
fully oxidized during the Kreb's cycle.
 The process of aerobic respiration is utilized for the oxidation of
carbohydrates, but products from fats and proteins are also used
as reactants.

Carbon dioxide gas and water are the two products of aerobic
respiration along with the energy that is used to add a third
phosphate group to ADP and form ATP

Other energy-rich molecules like NADH and FADH2 are converted

into ATP via electron transport chain with oxygen and protons.

In aerobic respiration, most ATPs are produced during oxidative

phosphorylation where the energy of oxygen molecule is used to
pump protons out of the membrane.

 The passage of protons creates a potential that is then

used to initiate ATP synthase and produce ATP from ADP

and a phosphate group .

Ideally, a total of 38 ATPs is produced at the end of the aerobic
respiration. However, some energy is lost due to leaking of the
membrane or the cost of moving py through the cell as a result
of which about 29-30 ATPs are only produced.

II. Background Information for Students

Have you ever wondered what do organisms such as fishes, humans, birds, bacteria and
fungi have in common? All of these organisms, whether they are made up of trillions of
cells like humans or made up of a single cell such as yeast, need to produce energy in
order to survive.
All forms of animals must consume food to live. This food is used by the cells to create
the energy required to fuel the body and perform life functions. The process of
converting the food you eat into a source of energy that can be used by your body is
called cell respiration.

 In your everyday living, many complex reactions are taking place in the body that
require enough amount of energy to carry out the essential functions of life. In
 order for these chemical reactions to happen, specific types of energy molecules
are required. These molecules were formed by the energy released during cell
respiration in the mitochondrion which is considered as the "powerhouse of the
cell". The energy released during cell respiration was packaged by the cells into a
form of chemical energy which is used to fuel chemical reactions inside your
body.

 This type of energy molecule which is known as the "energy currency" of the cell
IS called adenosine triphosphate or ATP for short.

 Cellular respiration is an energy releasing process that happens in two

biochemical pathways, aerobic, and anaerobic. Whether it is aerobic or
anaerobic respiration, the first stage of cellular respiration is a chemical pathway
known as glycolysis

LESSON 6 (Anaerobic Respiration)

Anaerobic respiration
 is a process of cellular respiration where the high energy electron acceptor is
neither oxygen nor pyruvate derivates

Two important types of anaerobic respiration are:

Alcoholic fermentation and Lactate fermentation
 as shown in Figure 2. Both of these types of respiration employ glycolysis (that is,
glucose is broken down in both), but both end
up with different products.

Anaerobic Respiration (Fermentation)

 In anaerobic respiration, the electron
acceptor can be sulfate ion (SO) ог
nitrate ion (NO3-) or a variety of other
molecules.
 Some archaea, called methanogens, are known to use carbon dioxide as the electron
acceptor, producing methane as a by-product.
 Similarly, another group of purple sulfur bacteria use sulfate as an electron acceptor,
thus producing hydrogen sulfide as a by-product.
 These organisms reside in low-oxygen environments and thus opt for anaerobic
pathways to break down the chemical fuels.
 Anaerobic respiration similar to aerobic respiration in that the molecules enter the
electron transport chain to pass the electrons to the final electron acceptor
 The final electron acceptors involved in anaerobic respiration have a smaller reduction
potential than oxygen molecules which results in less energy production.

Anaerobic respiration, however, is essential for biogeochemical cycles of carbon,

nitrogen, and sulfur.
The nitrate that acts as an electron acceptor in anaerobic respiration produces nitrogen
gas as a by-product, and this process is the only route for fixed nitrogen to reach the
atmosphere.
Fermentation is another pathway for anaerobic respiration, where the only energy
extraction pathway is glycolysis, and the pyruvate is not further oxidized via the citric
acid cycle.
 The energy-rich molecule, NADH, is also not utilized during fermentation. Anaerobic
respiration takes place in many environments like freshwater, soil, deep-sea surfaces.
Some microbes in oxygenated environments also utilize anaerobic respiration because
oxygen cannot readily diffuse through their surface.
Anaerobic respiration and fermentation, both take place in the cytoplasm of the
prokaryotic cell
Anaerobic respiration and fermentation processes take place in the muscle cells during
immediate contraction and relaxation.
Fermentation results in a total gain of only two ATPs per glucose molecule.

 If no oxygen is
available,
cells can obtain
energy
through the process of anaerobic respiration.
 A common anaerobic process is fermentation.
 Fermentation is not an efficient process and results in the formation of far fewer ATP
molecules than aerobic respiration.

There are two primary fermentation processes:

 Lactic Acid Fermentation
 Alcohol Fermentation

 Lactic acid fermentation occurs when oxygen is not available.

 For example, in muscle tissues during rapid and vigorous exercise, muscle cells may be
depleted of oxygen. They then switch from respiration to fermentation.
 The Pyruvic acid formed during Glycolysis each gain a hydrogen from NADH.

 The new hydrogen turn the Pyruvate into lactic acid and energy is released (which is
used to form ATP).

Glucose → Pyruvic acid → Lactic acid + energy

o The process of lactic acid fermentation replaces the process of aerobic

respiration so that the cell can have a continual source of energy, even in the
absence of oxygen.

o However this shift is only temporary and cells need oxygen for sustained activity.

o When you exercise vigorously Lactic acid builds up in the tissue causing a
burning, painful sensation.
o You must breath in more Oxygen to replenish the O2 in your muscles.

 Alcohol fermentation occurs in yeasts and some bacteria.

 Pyruvic acid formed during glycolysis is broken down to produce alcohol and carbon
dioxide and is released (which is used to form ATP).
 In Fermentation the Pyruvate made during Glycolysis loses another carbon making
carbon dioxide.
 The two sets of carbons left each gain a hydrogen from NADH. This turns the two carbon
chains into Ethyl Alcohol.
Glucose → Pyruvic acid → alcohol + carbon dioxide + energy
 Fermentation is used in food production.
-Yogurt - Soy Sauce
-Cheese - Vinegar
-Bread - Olives/Pickles
-Beer/ Meade - Wine/ Ale
-Sauerkraut - Malt
LESSON 7 ( THE PROCESS OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION: GLYCOLYSIS )
CONTENT
• Cellular respiration
• Glycolysis:Process and Functions

WHAT IS CELLULAR RESPIRATION?

 Cellular respiration is the process by which biological fuels are oxidized in the
presence of an inorganic electron acceptor, such as oxygen, to drive the bulk
production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), which contains energy. Cellular
respiration may be described as a set of metabolic reactions and processes that
take place in the cells of organisms to convert chemical energy from nutrients
into ATP, and then release waste products.

2 TYPES OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION

Aerobic cellular respiration
Anaerobic cellular respiration
 GLYCOLYSIS: (THE FIRST STAGE OF CELLULAR RESPIRATION)
What is glycolysis?
glyco means sugar
Lysis- means to split apart It is also known as Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway or
EMP pathway.
 It is the process of breaking down glucose to produced energy. Glycolysis is a
series of chemical reactions that convert glucose (a six carbon sugar) into 2
molecules of pyruvate (a three carbon compound). Glycolysis also produces 2
molecules of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and 2 molecules of NADH
(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide 7 (NAD) + hydrogen (H)).
 GLYCOLYSIS is the sequence of 10 enzyme-catalyzed reactions that converts
glucose into pyruvate with simultaneous production on of ATP.
 In this oxidative process, 1mol of glucose is partially oxidised to 2 moles of
pyruvate. This major pathway of glucose metabolism occurs in the cytosol of all
cell. This unique pathway occurs aerobically as well as anaerobically & doesn't
involve molecular oxygen.

 Pyruvate is an organic molecule consisting of a 3-carbon atom backbone that

plays a crucial role in both synthesis and breakdown pathways within organisms.
Enzymes needed:
step 1:Hexokinase
step 2: phosphoglucoseisomerase step 3:phosphofructokinase
step 4: aldolase
step 5: triose-phosphate isomerase
step 6: glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase
step 7: phosphoglycerate kinase
step 8: phosphoglyceromutase
step 9: enolase
step 10: pyruvate kinase

 Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of a cell, and it can be broken down into
two main phases: the energy-requiring phase, and the energy-releasing phase.
Process of Glycolysis
 First Half of Glycolysis (Energy Requiring Phase) In this phase, the first half of
glycolysis uses two ATP molecules in the phosphorylation of glucose, which is
then split into two three-carbon molecules.

 STEP 1.PHOSPORYLATION OF GLUCOSE

 In this step, a phosphate group is transferred from ATP to glucose in the

cell cytoplasm by the action of enzyme hexokinase. The product of this
step is glucose -6-phosphate or G6P, which has phosphate group
attached to it’s 6 carbon atom. In this reaction, one molecule of ATP is
consumed and one molecule of ADP is produced.

 STEP 2. ISOMERIZATION OF GLUCOSE

 -6-PHOSPHATE In this step, glucose-6-phosphate is isomerized into fructose-6-
phosphate by the enzyme phosphoglucose isomerase. In this case, moves the
carbonyl oxygen from carbon 1 to carbon 2, forming a ketose from an aldose
sugar.
 STEP 3. PHOSPHORYLATION OF FRUCTOSE-6-PHOSPHATE
 In this step, another molecule of ATP transfers a phosphate group to fructose -6-
phosphate and converts it into fructose-1,6- biphosphate by the action of the
enzyme phosphofructokinase. The product of this step is fructose-1,6-
biphosphate or FBP, which has two phosphate groups attached to it’s first and
sixth carbon atoms.

 STEP 4. CLEAVAGE OF FRUCTOSE

 1,6-DIPHOSPHATE In this step, the enzyme aldolase splits fructose 1,6-
biphosphate into dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde 3-
phosphate (GAP), which are isomers of each other. DHAP has a double bond
between its second and third carbon atoms (a ketone group) while GAP has a
double bond between it’s first and second carbon atoms(an aldehyde group).

 Step 5. ISOMERIZATION OF DIHYDROXYACETONE PHOSPHATE

 In this step, the enzyme triose-phosphate isomerase converts dihydroxyacetone
phosphate into glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate which is the substrate needed for
the next step of glycolysis.
  Energy-releasing phase (The second half of glycolysis In this phase, the second
half of glycolysis involves phosphorylation without ATP investment (step 6) and
produces two NADH and four ATP molecules per glucose.

 Step 6. OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION OF GLYCERALDEHYDE 3-PHOSPHATE

 In this step, each molecule of GAP undergoes two reactions. First it is
dehydrogenated by the enzyme glyceraldehyde 3- phosphate dehydrogenase
(GAPDH) which transfers one of its hydrogen (H+) molecules to the oxidizing
agent nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)to form NADH + H+. Second,
GAPDH adds a phosphate from the cytosol to the oxidized GAP to form 1,3-
biphosphoglycerate. The product of this step is BGP, which has two phosphate
group attached to it’s first and third carbon atoms.

 Step 7. Tansfer of phosphate 1, 3-diphosphoglycerate to ADP

 In this step, the enzyme phosphoglycerokinase transfers a phosphate from 1,3-
bisphosphoglycerate to a molecule ADP to form ATP. The product of this step is
3- phosphoglycerate which has 1 phosphate group attached to it’s third carbon
atom.

 Step 8. ISOMERIZATION OF 3-PHOSPHOGLYCERATE

 In this step, the enzyme phosphoglyceromutase relocates the phosphate group
from the third carbon atom of 3- phosphoglycerate forming 2-
phosphoglycerate.

 Step 9. DEHYDRATION
 In this step, the enzyme enolase removes a water molecule from 2-
phosphoglycerate, forming a double bond between the second and third carbon
atoms. This reaction produces phosphoenolpyruvate, which has a high-energy
phosphate bond that can be used to generate ATP in the next step.

 Step 10. SUBSTRATE-LEVEL PHOSPHORYLATION

 In this step, the enzyme pyruvate kinase transfers a phosphate from
phosphoenolpyruvate to ADP, forming ATP and pyruvate. The product of this
step is pyruvate which has 3 carbon atoms and can be further processed
depending on the availability of oxygen.

CONCLUSION
 The purpose of cellular respiration is simple: it provides cells with the energy they need
to function. If living things could not get the energy they need out of food, it would be
absolutely worthless. All living things would eventually die, no matter the quality and amount of
food.

The Krebs Cycle: A Journey Through Cellular Respiration

What is the Krebs Cycle?
 The Krebs cycle, also known as the citric acid cycle, is a series of chemical
reactions that occur in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells. It’s the second stage
of aerobic respiration, following glycolysis, and precedes the electron transport
chain.
The Key Players
 Acetyl-CoA: The starting point of the cycle, a molecule formed from the
breakdown of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.- Citric Acid (C6H8O7): The first
product formed in the cycle, created by the combination of Acetyl-CoA and
oxaloacetate.- Oxaloacetate (C4H4O5): A four-carbon molecule that regenerates
at the end of the cycle, ready to accept another Acetyl-CoA.- NAD+ and FAD:
Electron carriers that capture high-energy electrons released during the cycle.

The steps of the cycle

1. Acetyl-CoA joins with oxaloacetate to form citrate.
2. Citrate is converted to isocitrate.
3. Isocitrate is oxidized to α-ketoglutarate, releasing CO2 and reducing NAD+ to NADH.
4. α-ketoglutarate is oxidized to succinyl-CoA, releasing CO2 and reducing NAD+ to
NADH.
5. Succinyl-CoA is converted to succinate, generating GTP (guanosine triphosphate), a
high-energy molecule.
6. Succinate is oxidized to fumarate, reducing FAD to FADH2.
7. Fumarate is hydrated to malate.
8. Malate is oxidized to oxaloacetate, reducing NAD+ to NADH.
The Significance of the Krebs Cycle:
 Energy Production: The cycle generates ATP, the primary energy currency of
cells.
 Electron Carriers: It produces NADH and FADH2, which carry electrons to the
electron transport chain for further ATP production.
 Metabolic Intermediates: The cycle provides essential building blocks for
biosynthesis, such as amino acids and fatty acids.

Visualizing the Cycle:

 To better understand the Krebs cycle, imagine a circular pathway where
molecules are constantly transformed and rearranged. Each step is catalyzed by
a specific enzyme, ensuring the efficient flow of energy and the production of
vital molecules.

CONCLUSION:
 The Krebs cycle is a vital metabolic pathway that plays a central role in cellular
respiration. It generates energy, provides essential building blocks, and links the
breakdown of different fuel sources. By understanding this intricate cycle, we
gain a deeper appreciation for the complexity and efficiency of life at the cellular
level.

ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN

 Electron Transport Chain The electron transport chain (ETC), also known as the
respiratory chain, is a series of protein complexes embedded in the inner
mitochondrial membrane of eukaryotic cells and the plasma membrane of
prokaryotic cells. Its primary function is to generate a proton gradient across the
membrane, ultimately driving the synthesis of ATP, the cell's primary energy
currency. This process, called oxidative phosphorylation, is the final stage of
cellular respiration and is crucial for life.

Component of Electron Transport chain

  The ETC consists of four major protein complexes (I-IV), along with two mobile
electron carriers: ubiquinone (Q) and cytochrome c.
 Complex I (NADH dehydrogenase):
 Complex II (Succinate dehydrogenase)
 Complex III (Cytochrome bel complex):
 Complex IV (Cytochrome e oxidase):

Complex I (NADH dehydrogenase):

 Accepts electrons from NADH, a high- energy electron carrier produced during
glycolysis and the citric acid cycle. These electrons are then passed down the
chain.
Complex II (Succinate dehydrogenase):
 -Accepts electrons from FADIH2, another electron carrier produced during the
citric acid cycle. Note that FADH2 enters the chain at a lower energy level than
NADH, resulting in less ATP production.

 Ubiquinone (Q): A lipid-soluble molecule that acts as a mobile electron carrier,

shuttling electrons between Complex I/II and Complex II
Complex III (Cytochrome bc1 complex):
 Receives electrons from ubiquinone and passes them to cytochrome c. This
complex also contributes to proton pumping.
 Cytochrome c: A water-soluble protein that acts as a mobile electron carrier,
transporting electrons from Complex III to Complex IV.

Complex IV (Cytochrome c oxidase):

 The terminal electron acceptor complex. It receives electrons from cytochrome c
and transfers them to oxygen (O2), reducing it to water (H2O). This step is crucial
as it prevents the build-up of

PYRUVATE OXIDATION

WHAT IS PYRUVATE OXIDATION?

 PYRUVATE OXIDATION
 Pyruvate oxidation is a biochemical reaction that involves the oxidation of
pyruvate to create acetyl CoA. Oxidation is defined as either the loss of electrons
or the gaining of oxygen. In this case, pyruvate loses electrons in the process of
creating acetyl CoA.

 Pyruvate is the end product of a biochemical pathway called glycolysis, a series

of reactions that converts one molecule of glucose into two molecules of
pyruvate. Pyruvate then undergoes pyruvate oxidation to produce acetyl CoA, an
intermediate in the Krebs cycle.

 The Krebs cycle, also known as the citric acid cycle, is another biochemical
pathway that produces high-energy intermediates. Both glycolysis and the Krebs
cycle are pathways that exist for the overarching purpose of producing
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is the premiere energy molecule in the body.
It is used to power multiple biochemical reactions because it contains enough
energy to push those reactions forward.

Where does Pyruvate Oxidation Occur?

The pyruvate oxidation location is the mitochondria matrix of eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotes (i.e.
humans, other mammals, plants, fungi, etc) are organisms that contain a nucleus, nuclear
envelope, and membrane-bound organelles.
Organelles, like mitochondria, are distinct structures within the cell that perform specific jobs.
Mitochondria are most notable for their role in energy production because everything from
pyruvate oxidation to ATP synthesis occurs there. The mitochondrion is, arguably, the most
complex organelle in the cell.

3. Pyruvate Oxidation Equation

As mentioned, pyruvate oxidation converts pyruvate into acetyl CoA. The pyruvate oxidation
equation is:
Pyruvate + NAD+ + CoenzymeA→ CO2 + NADH + acetylCoA
Pyruvate Oxidation Products
Pyruvate oxidation contains the following steps:
1. Pyruvate releases a carboxyl (C=O) group in the form of carbon dioxide as the first
product.
2.The remaining portion of pyruvate, now called an acetyl group, is oxidized (loses
electrons) so that NAD+ is reduced (gains electrons) to become NADH (the second product).
The addition of a hydrogen atom is considered the same as gaining electrons because hydrogen
donates its lose electron to the molecule with which it forms a bond.
3. The newly oxidized acetyl group binds with coenzyme A to form acetyl CoA (the third
product).
What does pyruvate oxidation produce?
-The oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl CoA forms the following pyruvate oxidation products:
• Carbon dioxide: a remnant of pyruvate
• Reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, also known as nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide plus hydrogen (NADH)
• Acetyl CoA: Coenzyme A bound to the acetyl group remnant from pyruvate