1 Trigonometric Functions

1.1 Geometry: Circles and Radians

circumf.
= 2πr
­
r ­ r
­
­
r ­ θ
r

Area = πr2

An angle of 1 radian is defined to be the angle which makes an arc on the circle of length r. Thus, there
are 2π radians in a circle, so 2π rad = 360◦ . Angles are normally measured anti–clockwise from the x-axis as
indicated.

1.2 Circular Functions

Given a right angled triangle as in the diagram:
½
½
½
½
r ½½
½ y
½
½
½
½
θ
½
x

The side labelled r is called the hypotenuse, the side labelled x the adjacent and the side labelled y the
opposite. The following functions are defined for the variable θ:

y
sin θ =
r
x
cos θ =
r

y sin θ
tan θ = =
x cos θ

r 1
cosec θ = =
y sin θ

r 1
sec θ = =
x cos θ
 x 1
cot θ = =
y tan θ

You are familiar with the following result.

Theorem 1.1 Pythagoras’ Theorem

In a right–angled triangle, the sum of the square on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares on the
other two sides, i.e.
r2 = x2 + y 2

where r is the length of the hypotenuse, x, y, the lengths of the other two sided.

Proof: Start with one triangle:

½½
½
½
r ½
½
½ y
½
½
½
½
½
x

and place three more identical ones around it

½S
½ S
½ S
½ S
½
½ S
½ S
½ S
½
½ S
½½ S
S S
S S
S S
S ½½
S ½
½
S r ½
S ½
S ½ y
½
S ½
S ½
SS½½
y x

The area of the outer square can be expressed as the area of the inner square plus the areas of the four
triangles:
1
(x + y)2 = r2 + 4. xy
2
from which we obtain
x2 + 2xy + y 2 = r2 + 2xy

x2 + y 2 = r2

which is the statement of Pythagoras’ Theorem.

1.3 Trigonometric Identities

We can use the definitions of the trigonometric functions, together with Pythagoras’ Theorem to obtain the
following identities.

Theorem 1.2 For all values of θ for which the functions are defined:

cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1
1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ
cot2 θ + 1 = cosec2 θ

Proof: For the first formula, we have

cos2 θ + sin2 θ
³ x ´2 ³ y ´2 x2 y2 x2 + y 2 r2
= + = + = = =1
r r r2 r2 r2 r2
The other two formulas are obtained by dividing throughout by cos2 θ and sin2 θ respectively.

Example 1.3 Three common right angled triangles are:

··
·
·
·
"
" ¡ 2 · √
" √ ¡ · 3
2 " 2
" ¡ ·
"
" 1 ¡ 1 ·
" ¡ ·
"
" ¡ ◦ · ◦
" ◦
" 30 ¡ 45 · 60
√
3 1 1

π π π
30◦ = 6 45◦ = 4 60◦ = 3 √
sin π 1
6 = 2√ sin π
4 =
√1
2
sin π
3 = 23
cos π6 = 23 cos π4 = √12 cos π3 = 12
√
tan π6 = √13 tan π4 = 1 tan π3 = 3
1.4 Graphs of Circular Functions over θ ∈ [0, 2π]

y = sin θ
1

0 2π

−1

y = cos θ
1

0 2π

−1

y = tan θ

0 2π
−1

−4
1.5 Sum and Difference Identities
We have already met some identities in section 1.3, now we consider some other identities which will be useful
later.

Theorem 1.4 Sum and Difference identities

For any angles A and B,
sin(A + B) = sinA cos B + cosA sinB

sin(A − B) = sinA cos B − cosA sinB

cos(A + B) = cosA cos B − sinA sinB

cos(A − B) = cosA cosB + sin A sinB

Proof of: sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B

#
# ##¯
# # ¯
# # ¯
# # B
¯
cos B## cos B# #
¯
# sin A cos B # ¯
# # ¯
# #
# # ¯
# # p ¯ q
# # ¯
# # ¯
# A cos A cos B # A+B
aa B a aa ¯
aa aa ¯
aa aa
aa ¯ ◦
a cos A sin B aa¯ 90
cos A aa aa
aa aa
a
a aa

In both diagrams the lower angle is 90◦ − B, which proves that the angle at the top of the right–hand
p p
diagram really is B. Now we have = sin (A + B) and = cos B. Together this gives
cos B q

p q cos B
sin (A + B) = = =q
cos B cos B
and so: sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B as required.
Proof of: cos (A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B
From the graphs of cos and sin, we have that cos θ = sin (θ + π2 ). So now
π π π
cos (A + B) = sin (A + B + ) = sin A cos (B + ) + cos A sin (B + )
2 2 2
We also note from the graphs that cos (θ + π2 ) = −sin θ. Thus
π
cos (A + B) = sin (A + B + ) = −sin A sin B + cos A cos B
2
giving the result.
1.6 Further Trigonometric Identities
Other identities may be obtained from the formulas sin(A + B) and cos(A + B).

Theorem 1.5 Double Angle Formulae

sin2θ = 2sinθ cosθ

cos2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ

The latter identity may also be written

cos 2θ = 2cos2 θ − 1

cos 2θ = 1 − 2sin2 θ

Proof: Let θ = A = B in the sum identities

sin 2θ = sin (θ + θ) = sin θ cos θ + cos θ sin θ = 2sin θcos θ

cos 2θ = cos (θ + θ) = cos θ cos θ − sin θ sin θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ

Using the identity cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1 to eliminate either cos2 θ or sin2 θ from the identity for cos 2θ completes
the proof.

Theorem 1.6 Factor formulae

µ ¶ µ ¶
X +Y X −Y
sinX + sinY = 2 sin cos
2 2
µ ¶ ¶ µ
X +Y X −Y
sinX − sinY = 2 cos sin
2 2
µ ¶ µ ¶
X +Y X −Y
cosX + cosY = 2 cos cos
2 2
µ ¶ µ ¶
X +Y X −Y
cosX − cosY = −2 sin sin
2 2
Proof:
sin(A + B) = sinA cos B + cosA sinB

sin(A − B) = sinA cos B − cosA sinB

Adding,
sin(A + B) + sin(A − B) = 2 sinA cosB

Let X = A + B, Y = A − B then A = 21 (X + Y ), B = 21 (X − Y ) and

µ ¶ µ ¶
X +Y X −Y
sinX + sinY = 2 sin cos
2 2
Subtracting,
sin(A + B) − sin(A − B) = 2 cosA sinB

i.e. µ ¶ µ ¶
X +Y X −Y
sinX − sinY = 2 cos sin
2 2
cos(A + B) = cosA cos B − sinA sinB
 cos(A − B) = cosA cosB + sin A sinB

Adding,

cos(A + B) + cos(A − B) = 2 cosA cosB

i.e.
µ ¶ µ ¶
X +Y X −Y
cosX + cosY = 2 cos cos
2 2

Subtracting,

cos(A + B) − cos(A − B) = −2 sinA sinB

i.e.
µ ¶ µ ¶
X +Y X −Y
cosX − cosY = −2 sin sin
2 2

Theorem 1.7 tangent identities

tanA + tanB
tan(A + B) =
1 − tanA tan B

tanA − tanB
tan(A − B) =
1 + tanA tan B

1.7 Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Firstly, recall the idea of an inverse function.

√ √
Example 1.8 The functions y = x and y = x2 are mutually inverse functions. Thus let x = y and y = x2
√ √ √ p
then x = y = x2 = x. Similarly let y = x and x = y 2 then y = y 2 = y. Thus, the effect of one function
√ √
is undone by the other. Note that x = y 2 gives two possible values for y, namely y = + x and y = − x. It is
usual to take the positive value and to call this the principal value. But it is important to remember there are
two possible values, and sometimes it may be the negative one that is needed.

Example 1.9 The functions y = exp x and y = ln x are also mutually inverse functions. Thus let x = exp y
and y = ln x then x = exp y = exp (ln x) = x. Similarly let y = exp x and x = ln y then y = exp (ln y) = y.
Again, the effect of one function is undone by its inverse.

Now define the inverse functions of the trigonometric functions.

Definition 1.10 Let x = siny then write y = Sin−1 x and say that y is an angle whose sine is x.
Let x = cosy then write y = Cos−1 x and say that y is an angle whose cosine.
Let x = tany then write y = T an−1 x and say that y is an angle whose tangent is x.
 2π 2π

1
2π
Principal
y = sin−1 θ Values y = cos−1 θ
−1 0 1 −1 0 1

− 12 π

y = Sin−1 θ y = Cos−1 θ

Definition 1.11 y = sin−1 x is the value of y = Sin−1 x which is such that − 12 π ≤ y ≤ 12 π.

y = cos−1 x is the value of y = Cos−1 x which is such that 0 ≤ y ≤ π
y = tan−1 x is the value of y = T an−1 x which is such that − 12 π ≤ y ≤ 12 π.

Example 1.12 Let cos y = 12 . Find all values of y.

π 5π
Solution: The triangle above shows that the principal value is y = 3. Now, from the graph another value is 3 .
We can also add or subtract any multiple of 2π. Hence, the values are
π 5π
x= 3 + 2nπ or x= 3 + 2nπ
where n can be any integer (positive or negative)

Example 1.13 Find all values of tan y = 5 in the range 0 ≤ x < π.

Solution: y = tan−1 5 = 1.3734 and the graph indicates that this is the only value in this range.

Finally, BEWARE! y = sin−1 x, y = cos−1 x, y = tan−1 x denote the INVERSE functions of y = sinx,
y = cosx, y = tanx, respectively.
Do NOT confuse them with the RECIPROCALS of y = sinx, y = cosx, y = tanx, which are, of course,
y = cosecx, y = secx, y = cotx, respectively.
An alternative notation, which avoids this problem is to write
y = arcsin x, y = arccos x, y = arctan x in place of y = sin−1 x, y = cos−1 x, y = tan−1 x, respectively.