1.

THE ESP IN GLANCE

A. POINT OF VIEW

The ESP teacher needs to recognize that the various approaches are different ways of looking. All communications has
a structural level, a functional level and discoursal level. They are not mutually exclusive, but complementary. Describing a
language for the purpose of linguistic analysis doesn't necessary carry any implications for language learning.
The end of the second world war in 1945 is dominated by two forces, technology and commerce. English became the
accepted international language of technology and commerce, it created a new generation of learners why they were learning
language, businessman who wanted to sell their products, mechanics who had to read instruction manuals, doctors who needed
to keep up with the developments in their field, they knew why they needed it.
This development was accelerated by the oil crisis of early 1970, whereas English had previously decided its own
destiny, now become subjects to the wishes, needs and demands of people other that language teacher. We can also say that the
existence of ESP is based on the demand of the growth of society, some of them are the growth of technology and economic.
People learn English as foreign language as general has been specify by specific objectives of the learners. A mechanic needs to
read manual instruction to be able to maintain and operate the machine efficiency. A doctor needs to read specific book related to
the health of people. A businessman needs to learn the cost to effective courses and the current of economic system. People
want to learn English not for the pleasure of knowing the language, but for English was the key to the international currencies of
technology and commerce.
Widdowson, 1978 said that the language we speak and write varies considerably, and in a number of different ways, from one
context to another, like it happens in the English of commerce and that of engineering. English needed by a particular group of
learners.
Learners were seen to have different needs and interests which would have an important influence on their motivation to
learn and therefore on the effectiveness of their learning will be useful for their future life.
The growth of ESP, was brought about by a combination of three important factors, the expansion of demand for English to suit
particular needs, and development in the field linguistic and educational psychology. Learning language is no longer learning
grammar as the rule of English usage but the actual uses in real common, as the use of language for commerce and engineering.
This is the basic of learner's course as the basic of particular learning. English became the subject to the wishes, needs and
demands of people.
Ewer and Latorre (1963), has made ESP course more relevant to "learners need", but he gave priority on the language
forms. But Ewer and Huges - Davies (1971) found that there was no school textbooks use the need of science text, and Allen and
Widdowson (1974) stated that difficulties which the students encounter arise not so much from a defective knowledge of the
system of English, but from "unfamiliarity" with English use, so their needs cannot be used by a course that only stressing on the
composition of sentences. On the other hand, what the learners need is a knowledge of how sentences are used in performance
of different communicative acts, and in the importance of "meaning". Look and learn A Discourse Approach by Havis Trimble
(1985).

B. LANGUAGE ANALYSIS
1) Target Situation Analysis

Why does the target situation have to be analyzed? This question is not so ambiguous, when we think that the central of ESP is
the learners needs; So it was apparently placed at the centre of the course design process.
TSA include:
i. Objective needs to be able to follow instructions accurately.
ii. Perceived needs
iii. Product oriented needs.

Objective and perceived needs are seen derived by outsiders from facts, from what is known can be verified, product oriented
needs derive from the goal or target situation.
A group of the statements about TSA:
1. I have occasional meetings with British Colleagues
2. I have to write reports
3. Student X needs to read more widely

Look and learn the example of TSA below:

The observation of the learners target situations in which the language, they will the learners are/will be using for in a target
situation and then design the process use or they are learning - to find out professional information about the learners; in
communicative syllabus design that produces a detailed profile of the learners need in terms of communication language skills,
functions, structure, forms, etc.

2) Skill and Strategies

Christine Nuthal (1982), Charles Alderson and Sandy Uryuhald (1984) has made significant contribution to work on
"Reading" such as the Notional ESP, which enable the learners to cope with the surface of forms (example: the skill of guessing
meaning of word from context).
The stage of the development of ESP all the analysis had been of the surface forms of the language. The stage of ESP
has seen an attempt to look below the surface and think the process that under lie language use. The students need to read the
number of specific texts written in English. The principle idea behind the skill-centered approach is the underlying all language
use, common reasoning and interpreting process.

3) Learning Center Approach

In outlining the origin of ESP, there are three forces that identified characteristic as need, new idea about language, new
idea about learning. The learning-centered approach is the subject to study language use and language learning. The last of the
forces learning is attention, because a truly valid approach to ESP should properly be seen not as any particular language product
but as an approach to language teaching. ESP is an approach to language teaching which aims to meet the needs of particular
learners. Language description is the way which the language system is broken down and described for the purpose of learning.
The process of learning and student motivation very fully and working out exactly what is needed to enable student to reach
the end target. The nature of the target situation performance and that will determine the ESP course.
We must look beyond the competence that enable someone to perform, because what we really want to discover is not the
competence itself, but how someone acquires that competence.

Learning means:
a. A process in which the learners use what knowledge or skills they have in order to make sense of the flow of new
information. An internal process, which is crucially dependent (the knowledge of the learners already have and their
ability and motivation to use it the end of product learners mind.)
b. Is not just a mental process, it is a process of negotiation between individual and society.

4) Register Analysis
The concept of special language doesn't mean having particular rule of language. The aim of this concept is to identify the
grammatical and lexical features, more relevant to learners need, forming the syllabus that gives the priority to the language forms
that students would meet in their specific area of study. Rhetorically, it's necessary to analyze how sentence were combined in
discourse to produce "meaning". That is identification of the pattern in the text and to specify the linguistic.
ESP not the language use but it is concentrated in reading strategies. A focus of subjects to cope with surface form, such as:
guessing the meaning from the context, determine the type, exploiting cognates. ESP is the process of interpretative of
observation and verbalization. ESP is the process of language learning and the learning-centered approach is language use and
language learning. Both of them are very important.

5) ESP as an Approach

Diagram explanation:

ESP Diagram explanation:

ESP is an approach to
language learning which
is based on learner's
Approach Learner needs needs that concerned
with communicative and
learning

Language learning Communicative and Learning

*Note: Approach is a set of correlative assumption dealing with nature of language teaching and learning.

Streven's (1988) makes a distinction between absolute characteristics and two variable characteristics.

a. The absolute characteristics are that ESP consist of ELT which is:
 designed to meet specified needs of the learner
 related in content (that is in theme and topics) to particular, disciplines, occupations, and activities
 Centered on language appropriate to those activities in syntax, lexis, discourse, semantics and so on and analysis of
the course;
 In contrast with 'General English'.
(the purpose of the learners need in ELT)
b. The variable characteristics are that ESP:
 may be restricted as the learning skills
 may not be taught according to any pre- ordinary methodology.

The reasons for which the student is learning English which will vary from study purposes search as following a post graduate
course in an English speaking country to work purpose.
Robinson (1991) also accepts the primacy of need analysis in defining ESP. The definition is based on two keys defining criteria
and a number of characteristics that are generally found to be true of ESP. The characteristics is that ESP courses is generally
constrained by limited time period, in which their objectives have to be achieved, and are taught to adults in homogenous classes
in terms of the work or specialists studies. Robinson's criteria are that:

I. ESP is normally 'goal-directed'

II. ESP courses developed from a need analysis which aims to specify as closely as possible. What exactly it is that
students have to do through the medium of English.

ESP is the branch of ELT which is designed to meet the specified need of the learners.

2. MATERIAL

A. MATERIAL
Material is one of the most characteristic features in ESP in practice. There are number of reasons for this:

a. A teacher of institution man wishes to provide teaching materials that will fit the specific area of particular learners. Such
materials may not be available commercially, in addition to the profusion of subject specialisms. There is also a wide
range of course types, ESP courses can vary from one wait of intensive study to an hour a week for 3 years or more.
ESP materials may also be written for non-educational reason, in order to enhance the reputation of an individual.
Materials are a visible product of activity.

Defining Objectives

 Materials provide a stimulus to learning good materials will, therefore contain:

 Interesting texts.
 Enjoyable activities, which engage the learners thinking capacities.
 Opportunities for the learners to use their existing knowledge and skills.
 Content which both learners and teachers can cope with.

b. Materials help to organize the teaching-learning process, by providing a path through the complex Mats of the language
to be learned. Process
 Materials shouldn't be so slightly structured as to produce a monotonous pattern of lesson - the curse of so many
materials.
 A materials model must be clear and systematic, but flexible enough to allow for creativity and variety.
c. Materials embody a view of the nature of language learning in writing materials. We are as an author, making all
manners of statement about what you think language learning consist of and feel about the learning process.
d. Materials reflect the nature of language learning task. Language learning is a complex process involving many different
kinds and levels of knowledge. A material writing was a simple task of isolating the structure, writing a text to exemplify it
and pattern drills to practice it. Materials should try to create a balanced outlook, which both reflects the complexity of the
task, yet makes it appear manageable.
e. Materials can have a very useful function in broadening the basis of teacher training by introducing teachers to new
techniques. Materials provide models of correct and appropriate language use necessary function of materials. But it is
all too often taken as the only purpose with the result that materials become simply a statement of language use retries
rather than a vehicle for language learning.

Materials and syllabus are also important to produce useful and creative ESP materials. When dealing with analysis, we must
take account of intangible factors that. It means when we need analysis, we have to think how much account to tell and how many
intangible factors to involve the situation, so analysis balanced with all factors and deal.
A model must be able to ensure adequate coverage through the syllabus of all the features identified as playing a role in
the development of learning.

Each unit must relate effectively to the other units in the course.

Identifying features of the model with syllabus features doesn't mean that they only play a role in that position, nor that others
factors aren't involved that position.

Distinction between two types of model that used in the materials design process:

1. Predictive: This kind of model provides the generative framework within which can operate.
2. Evaluative: This kind of model acts as a feedback device to tell you whether you have done what you intended. It is used as
a checklist.

Stages using the models:

1. Find the text.
 The text should be a naturally occurring piece of communication or a piece that.
 The text should be suited to the learner's needs and interest.
 The text should be capable of generating useful classroom activities.
2. Go to the end of model. Think of a task that the learners could do at the end of the unit. Our concern here was to access the
creative potential of the text for classroom activities.
3. Go back to the syllabus. This kind of activity must have benefit for the learners.
4. Decide what language structures, vocabulary, functions, content the input contains.
5. Think of some exercises and activities to practice the items you have identified.
 A transfer activity, in which learners would extract the essential information from the text and use it in order to complete
and label diagram of the system.
 A reconstruction activity, in which learners use the diagram to reconstruct the original text.
 Exercise where learners write descriptions of other system.
6. Go back input. Try out any revisions on the learners. Revised the input in any way to make it more useful.
7. Go through stages 1-6 again with the revised input.
8. Check the new material against the syllabus and improve accordingly.
9. Try the material in the classroom.
10. Revise the materials in the light of classroom use. There is no such thing as perfect materials. They can always be improved.

Here are few suggestions for those who feel they have to write new materials:
a. Do not re-invent the wheel. Use existing materials as a source for ideas.
b. Work in a team.
c. Do not set out to write the perfect materials on the first draft. Materials can always be improved.
d. Do not underestimate the time needed for materials writing. It can be a very time-consuming business.
e. Pay careful attention to the appearance of your materials.

B. USING THE MODELS: A CASE STUDY

The difficulties exploitation of material writing are:
a. They were mostly descriptive
b. They contained a lot of very specific vocabulary. Such as a letter, example: personal & business letter.
c. More worrying.

Some interesting facts in teaching the material writing of ESP:

a. The first year's work of the students who were going to study specific subjects was on general technical topics.
b. Lecturers assumed that on coming to the college students would know little or nothing about maritime matters.
c. In teaching ESP, lecturers made wide of references to non- maritime topics.

The form of guidelines for using the models and illustrate them:
1. Find your text.
In selecting texts we operated 3 criteria:
 It should be a naturally occurring piece of communication.
 It should be suited to the learner's needs and interest.
 It should be capable of generating useful classroom activities
2. Go to the end of the model thin of a task that the learners could do at the end of the unit.
3. Go back to the syllabus.
4. Decide what language structures, vocabulary, functions, content the input contains. We identified:
 Names of specific parts
 Present active
 Discourse linkers (relative clause, after, them), etc.
 Describing system
 Relationship between text and diagram.
5. Think of some exercises and activities to practice the items you have identified. We decide on:
 A transfer activity
 A reconstruction activity
 Exercises where the learners write descriptions of other system.
6. Go back to the input
7. Go through stages 1 - 6 again with the revised input.
This meant the following were now possible:
 We could have a new task, which focused on the contrast between a
 general and immediate description.
 We didn't have to throw away the original task ideas.
 We could have a number of exercises, which would exploit the learner's ability to transfer information.
 We know had a good, realistic setting in which to practice the distinction. There's way an opportunity for some light
relief.
 Of greatest importance way the work that could now be done to follow up step
8. Check the new materials against the syllabus and amend accordingly.
9. Try the materials in the classroom.
10. Revise the materials in to light of classroom use.
In using materials writing:
a. We have noted that there is much common ground between learners of apparently very different subject specialisms.
b. If a new set of materials is needed, the second alternative is to look at published materials.
c. Even if the first two alternatives fail to provide exactly what you want, you can still try to adapting existing material.
d. The final possibility is to try and reduce the area of the course that will require new materials.
 For those who, in the end, feel they have to write new materials, here are a few hints:
1. Do not re-invent the wheel. Use existing materials as a source for ideas.
2. Work in a team.
3. Do not set out to write the perfect materials on the first draft. Materials can always be improved.
4. Do not underestimate the time needed for materials writing. It can be a very time-consuming business.
5. . Pay careful attention to the appearance of your materials.

C. EVALUATION
1. Why do the test? This is a simple question.
That the answers are:
 To set realistic standards for student and teachers.
 To measure the effects of experimentation (included the advantages and disadvantages).
 To retain the confidences of the community in the instructional program. To ensure that the community of a country
will be able to communicate appropriately at all level's of public life.
2. Types of test.
 Aptitude (prognostic).
A test to measure the student memory and ability of language before doing further learning.
 Duo proficiency test.
A test to measure to what a person already knows in the target language.
 Achievements test.
A test to measure the student mastering what he/she has learnt in certain segment of time.
 Diagnostic test.
A test to measure the strength, weaknesses or problems / errors in some area of language skills.
3. How do we test?
The principles objectives - the developing fluency in communicative competence requires that we give oral as well as written test
in realistic situation. Test can be given in an objective test (MC, Matching, Fill in, or True False), and subjective test (Interview,
Essay) for.

4. Examples of test:

a) Testing Communicative Competence.

1) Tell whether the language being used is formal or informal. Circle F if you think it is formal; circle I if it is informal.
A. He's a fool. He'll never make it. F I
B. I don't believe he has any chance of success. F I
C. That man I'm married to thinks a woman's place is in the kitchen. F I
D. My husband prefers that I do not work outside the house. F I

2) Study this situation. Tell whether the language is appropriate or inappropriate by circling A or I.

A. A woman is applying for a job in a bank. She asks:

1. How about a job? A I
2. What's the pay? A I
3. I'd like to know if you have an opening. A I

3) Circle the response or responses which you consider appropriate and tactful.
A. My grand mother is quite ill.

1. That's a break.
2. That's great.
3. I'm so sorry.

B. I failed my exam.
1. How could you be so stupid?
2. It must have been a very difficult one.
3. I told you, you should have studied.

4) Match the communicative expressions which express the same function.

1. 1. Let's go to the movies. a. I'd rather have the green one.
2. I prefer the other (tie). b. Shall we go to the park?
3. Can I get? c. I wonder if you would tell me
4. Could you help me? d. Excuse me.
5. I beg your pardon. e. Do you mind if I buy

b) Reading Ability
Have students:
1. Complete a logical inference, e.g., Paul had worked for many years without ever taking a vacation but he was not
(rich/lazy/stupid).
2. Give a definition or paraphrases of selected words in passage.
 3. Summarize a passage.
4. Read a passage crossing out irrelevant words.
5. Give synonyms, antonyms, or paraphrases of certain words or expressions.

c) Writing Ability
Have students:
1. Insert punctuation marks and capital letters in a paragraph.
2. Expand several sentences into a letter, a dialogue or a paragraph.
3. Add logical details to a topic sentence.
4. Write what they see in a scene.
5. Take a cloze test.

d) Grammar
1. Meaning occasionally obscured by grammatical and/or word-order errors.
2. In general uses "good English", but with occasional grammatical or word- order errors which do not, however obscure
meaning.
3. Uses English with few (if any) noticeable errors of grammar or word-order.

e) Vocabulary
1. Misuse of words and very limited vocabulary make comprehension quite
1. difficult.
2. Rarely has trouble expressing himself/herself with appropriate vocabulary & idioms.
3. Use of vocabulary and idioms is virtually that of a native speaker of English

3. COURSE DESIGN

A. DESCRIPTION

WHAT?

Language description: Structural,

Classical/Traditional Grammar,
Functional Notional, TG Grammar,
Language Variation, Register Analysis,
Rhetorical Analysis

NEED ANALYSIS
Nature of
SYLLABUS particular  Target needs: Necessities,
target Lacks, Wants
and  Learning Needs: language
ESP learning items, skills, strategies,
situation subject knowledge
Learning
Theories
HOW?

Learning theories:
Behaviourism, Mentalism, Cognitive
Code, Affective Factors, Learning and
Acquisition, Model of learning

ESP is an approach to language teaching which aims to meet the needs of particular learners.
Language description is the way language system is broken down and described for the purposes of learning.
We can identify six main stages of development:

1. Classical Grammar
2. Structural Linguistics
3. Discourse (Rhetorical) Analysis
ESP Language 4. Transformational/ Generative Grammar
5. Functional/ Notional Grammar
6. Lg. Variation & Register Analysis
B. CLASSICAL OF TRADITIONAL GRAMMAR
Description of English and other languages were based on the grammars of the classical languages, Greek and Latin. These
descriptions were based on an analysis on the role played by each word in the sentence. Since ESP emerged after the classical
form of the description had been largely abandoned, its influence on ESP has never been strong.
The grammatical function of each words in the sentence by the use of appropriate inflection.

C. STRUCTURAL LINGUISTIC
In structural description, the grammar of the language is description in terms of syntagmatic structures which carry the
fundamental proposition (statement, interrogative, negative, imperative) and notions (time, number, gender). About structural
description (statement, interrogative, negative, imperative), for example: statement in indirect object and direct object.
Direct : He says "I am hungry". (dia berkata "saya lapar".) Indirect He says that he is hungry. ( dia berkata bahwa saya lapar.)

If there is statement so using that to completely a sentence.

D. TRANSFORMATIONAL GENERATIVE (TG) GRAMMAR

The structural view of language as a collection of syntagmatic patterns held sway until the publication in 1957 as syntactic
structures by Noam Chomsky. Chomsky argued that the structural description was too superficial, because it only described the
surface structure of the language, and thus could not explain relationship of meanings which were quite clearly there, but which
were not realized in the surface structure.

Consist of surface structure but not explained relationship of meaning active to passive voice.
Example:
The City Bank has taken over Acme holdings.
(Acme holdings has taken over by the City Bank).

E. STRUCTURE VARIATION AND REGISTER ANALYSIS

The concept of language variation gave rise to the type of ESP which was based on register analysis. If language varies
according to context, it was argued, then it should be possible to identify the kind of language associated with a specific context.
Language variation
View language as part of a communicative as a
whole that language use contextually shows
considerable variety.

Register analysis
An substantial basis for the selection of syllabus
items.
F. FUNCTIONAL/NOTIONAL GRAMMAR
The terms of Functional and Notional are easily and frequently confused. But there is the difference between functional and
notional.
 Functions are concerned with social behavior and represent the intention of the speaker or writer. For example:
advising, warning, describing. They can be approximately equated with the communicative acts that are carried out
through language.
 Notion reflects the way in which the human mind thinks. They are the categories into which the mind and there by
language divides reality. For example: time, frequency, duration, gender, number, location, quantity, quality.

On notional or functional grounds, however, some approximate equivalence can be achieved, since notions and function
represent the categories of human thinking and social behavior, which do not vary across language.
The main problem of functional syllabus is not only the syllabus itself, but also the fact that is too often seen as a replacement for
the older structural syllabus. A more constructive approach to describing language in structural or functional items is to see the
two as complementary, with each supporting and enriching the other. The relationship between the two can be best expressed in
the form of this simple equation.
Structure+ Context = Function
Meaning+Context = Notion

Function is the communicative purposes of the piece of language (structural).

Notion is a unit of analysis of the meaning in language. General notion refer to the ways in which a language express categories
like: space, time, result, casualty. Structure is the recurring patterns of language elements as they occur in forms of words and
arrangement of words is utterances.
Context is the entire element which forming a paragraph, e.g., lexical items or vocabulary in a language.
Meaning is the idea/ the result.

G. DISCOURSE (RHETORICAL) ANALYSIS

This was a logical development of the functional/notional view of language which had shown that there is more to meaning than
just the words in the sentence. We can identify two key ways in which results of studies into the nature of discourse
have been used in ESP teaching materials:

1. Learners are made aware of the stages in certain set - piece transactions associated with particular specialist fields.
2. The second use of discourse analysis in ESP has been through materials which aim to explain how meaning is created
by the relative position of the sentences in a written text.

The contexts of the sentences are also important in creating the meaning. If we take this simple sentence: "it's raining" and we put
it into three different dialogues, we can see how the meaning changes.

1) X : Can I go out to play?

Y : It's raining.

2) X : Have you cut the grass yet?

Y : It's raining now.

3) X : I think I will go out for a walk.

Y : It's raining.

In each case, the proportional meaning (statement) of the sentence is the same.
 The first dialogue, a parent could be talking to a child. The child is asking permission to go out. The parent replay of "It's
raining" acts as a refusal of the request.
 The second dialogue might be a husband/ wife dialogue. "It's raining now" functions as a reason or an excuse.
 The third dialogue, it takes on yet another functions and this time is probably acting as advice or a mild warning and might
take place between friends.

The meaning of this same sentence changes with the different context. This change is brought by two factors:
1. First factor is the sociolinguistics. Who is to whom and why. The meaning is changes according to the relationship between
the participant in the dialogue and according to their reason for speaking.
2. The another factor which influences the meaning the relative positions of the utterances within the discourse. An utterance
acquires meaning by virtue of what utterances is precedes or follows.

Conclusion:
1) The ESP teacher needs to recognize that the various approaches are different ways of looking at the same thing.
2) Describing a language for the purposes of linguistic analysis does not necessarily carry any implication for language
learning.
3) Describing a language is not the same as describing what enables someone to use or learn a language.

THEORIES OF LEARNING

1. BEHAVIORISM
2. MENTALISM
3. COGNITIVE CODE
THEORIES OF LEARNING 4. LEARNERS AS EMOTIONAL
5. LEARNING AND ACQUISITION
6. A MODEL FOR LEARNING

Theories of learning : the theory of how learners learn and relate the materials to the needs of ESP.
There are six kinds theories of learning:

A. BEHAVIORISM
Learning as habit information; the importance of drilling.
It works by Pavlov and Skinner (Soviet Union and USA). Learning is a mechanical process of habit which is informed on the
stimulus – response sequence.
The theory tells that learning is a mechanical process of habit formation and some of there percepts were:
 Never translate
 Basic skill (reading, writing, speaking, listening) should be obtained.
 Frequent repetition is essential
 All errors must be immediately corrected.

B. MENTALISM
Thinking as rule governed activity.
The theory tells that learning consists not of forming habits but of acquiring rules - a process. In this theory, the mind doesn't just
respond to a stimulus but to find the underlying pattern or system.

C. COGNITIVE CODE
Learners as thinker.
The theory tells that learning ESP is by thinking about and trying to make sense of what we see, feel, hear, (sensible things). The
basic teaching technique as problem solving task. It threats the learners as thinking beings.
D. LEARNERS AS EMOTIONAL BEINGS
In affective factor, it has thinking and feeling. Thinking is to use the mind in active way to form connected ideas. Feeling is to be
aware of experience in emotional or consider something. People think, but they also have feelings, we are aware of our feelings
and their affect our actions; we invariably seek answer to our problem in national terms. It is as if we believed that human beings
always act in logical and sensible manner. Learning particularly the learning of a language, is an emotional experience.

Stewick's opinion (1976) says: "The feelings that the learning process evokes will have crucial bearing on the success or failure
of the learning.”

Subjects of learning Learner wants to learn

(the material will receive) (learners receive the subject),

Learners sees learning as an Learners applies cognitive power

enjoyable satisfying experience to acquire knowledge
(learner like the subject and will (learner practice the subject as
study on and on) exercises)

Increased competence enable Learning succesful

to learn more easily (learner understand the subject)
(learner can develop the
subject with other material)
Learner's competence development
(learner can develop the subject)

Gardener and Lambert (1972) have studied bilingualism in French speaking Canada. They identified two forms of motivation:

a. Instrumental motivation is the reflection of an external need. The learners are not learning a language because they
want to (although this does not imply that they do not want to) but rather because they need to.
b. Integrative motivation is derives from the desire on the part of the learners to be members of the speech community that
uses a particular language.

E. LEARNING AND ACQUISITION

Stephen Krashen's opinion (1981) says: "Much debate has recently centered around the distinction between learning and
acquisition." Learning is a conscious process.

F. A MODEL FOR LEARNING

a. Individual items of knowledge has meaning and use when they connected into the network of existing knowledge.
b. It is the existing network that makes it possible for the teachers to learn new items.
c. Item of knowledge: further learning acquiring. Language learning in University: the further of language learning in high
school. High school is lower, University is weak.
d. Roads and railways are not built hap hazardly: they require planning.
e. A communication network is a system : language is a system. If the learner sees it as just a haphazard set of arbitrary and
capricious obstacles, learning will be difficult if not possible.
f. Last but not least, before anyone build a road, crosser a river or climbs a mountain, they must have some kind of
motivation to do so. Theories of learning and language descriptions are not causally linked.

As Corder (1973) says: "There is no logical connection between a particular psychology theory of how grammar is learned and
any particular theory of language structure... there is, however, an undoubted historical connections
between them."

NEED ANALYSIS

A. TARGET NEEDS is what the learner needs to do in target situation.

 Target situation need to communicate in English. It is set of procedures to communication needs processor (CNP), consists
of communication variable (topic, participant, medium) used to identify the target language needed in group of learner. The
ability to comprehend and to produce the linguistic features of the target situation (the ability to understand passive voice).
 Learning need what learners need to do in order to learn.
B. TARGET ANALYSIS

 Necessities is the type of need determined by the demand of target situation. What the learner have to know in order to
function effectively in the target situation.
A businessman/woman might need o understand business letters, to communicate sales conference, so he/she need to
know linguistic feature (discoursal, functional, structural, lexical).
 Lack is what the learner knows already, it might the lack of reading, vocabulary, etc.
 Wants is what the learner will do with the language learnt.

What do you want by choosing English Department?

Describe the target needs of the students of English Department?

C. LEARNING ANALYSIS

 Learning need is what the learner need to do in order to learn.

 Considering the starting point (lacks),
 Considering the destination (necessities),
 Considering the situation should be (wants).

This part is about gathering information about target needs and learning needs.

Target need Target Situation Language Need

This part is about learning needs.

Learning Need Target Situation Need

X Learning Need

Material

Material Design
Language learning-
Subject

Strong motivation

This part is about analyzing learning needs.

Analyzing Learning Need Target Situation Analysis

What people do?

We also need to know about language How people learn to do with language?
What people want to do language?