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Abd El-Fatah Abomohra
Qingyuan Wang
Jin Huang Editors

Waste-to-
Energy
Recent Developments and Future
Perspectives towards Circular Economy
Waste-to-Energy
Abd El-Fatah Abomohra · Qingyuan Wang ·
Jin Huang
Editors

Waste-to-Energy
Recent Developments and Future Perspectives
towards Circular Economy
Editors
Abd El-Fatah Abomohra Qingyuan Wang
School of Architecture and Civil School of Architecture and Civil
Engineering Engineering
Chengdu University Chengdu University
Chengdu, Sichuan, China Chengdu, Sichuan, China

Jin Huang
School of Architecture and Civil
Engineering
Chengdu University
Chengdu, Sichuan, China

ISBN 978-3-030-91569-8 ISBN 978-3-030-91570-4 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-91570-4

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2022
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse
of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
For all the children around the world, to
whom we are trying to ensure a clean and
healthy future
Preface

The continuous increase in global population and concurrent fast industrializa-

tion led to massive generation of municipal wastes, with raised challenges of safe
disposal. The proper management of municipal wastes through recycling is an essen-
tial approach for global sustainable development. So far, many countries established
regulatory guidelines for different waste management routes and pollution control
measures. However, most of the applied routes are waste dumping, composting or
direct discharge in water bodies without adequate pretreatment, which seriously
threaten the environment and human health. Despite the applicability of incineration
for waste disposal, the low thermal value and high organic load of the waste streams
are the main obstacles. However, proper waste segregation and separation provide
an efficient option for waste conversion into energy. Thus, waste-to-energy is nowa-
days a widely used statement for efficient waste management, which is getting much
attention. Therefore, recent advances in waste-to-energy and the necessity to achieve
a circular economy are a timely topic that deserves in-depth discussion.
There are many established methods for waste conversion into different forms of
energy and valuable by-products. After proper segregation for separation of unde-
sired wastes such as metal and concrete, all other wastes can be thermochemically
converted into crude bio-oil, biochar and/or syngas. This pathway is favourable for
some hazardous wastes, such as those from hospitals, as an alternative to inciner-
ation, which provides simultaneous sterilization while producing energy. Biolog-
ical conversion using anaerobic digestion or fermentation can be applied for organic
wastes to produce biogas, bio-ethanol, biohydrogen, and/or biobutanol. After conver-
sion, the produced slurry can be converted by thermochemical methods to crude bio-
oil or used as a soil fertilizer. Moreover, lipid-rich wastes such as fat, oil, and grease
(FOG) can be used efficiently for biodiesel production due to the high theoretical
energy yield. After biodiesel production, the glycerol by-product can be recycled for
many other industrial purposes. Despite the recent development in biofuel produc-
tion, the rapid progress in this research field necessitates integration of different
conversion routes in order to introduce all the latest novel technologies of contin-
uous R&D. Such integration requires concise summary of the recent cutting-edge
research and industrial applications in this field.

vii
viii Preface

This book aims to cover the recent updates in the waste-to-energy field, starting
from waste generation to large-scale application and industrialization. The book
summarizes and evaluates the recent R&D results which provide remarkable compe-
tences in terms of design, performance, efficiency and implementation of different
systems used for energy recovery from wastes, revamping the existing technolo-
gies and feedback along with techno-economic analysis for case studies in different
countries. The cutting-edge research topics of this book were achieved through
contributions from professionals and experts engaged in research, education and
industry of the corresponding topics. This book can be considered as a primary
reservoir for a reader with any scientific background exploring waste manage-
ment, biomass conversion or bioenergy from any angle, including undergraduate
students, teachers, researchers and consulting professionals in renewable energy,
biotechnology, environmental engineering and biomass conversion.

Chengdu, China Abd El-Fatah Abomohra

Qingyuan Wang
Jin Huang
Contents

1 An Overview of Municipal Wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Eslam G. Al-Sakkari, Mahmoud M. Habashy,
Mai O. Abdelmigeed, and Mohammed G. Mohammed
2 Different Waste Management Methods, Applications,
and Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Bahram Barati, Fatemeh Fazeli Zafar, and Shuang Wang
3 Recent Advances in Circular Bioeconomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Muhammad Adil, Amar Nasir, Arbab Sikandar,
and Noor Muhammad Khan
4 Biofuels: An Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Abdelrahman S. Zaky, Kamaljit Moirangthem, and Radziah Wahid
5 Thermochemical Conversion of Wastes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Sabariswaran Kandasamy, Mathiyazhagan Narayanan,
Narayanamoorthy Bhuvanendran, and Zhixia He
6 Anaerobic Digestion of Waste for Biogas Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
YanZhao Zhang, Jiafu Lin, Tao Song, and Haifeng Su
7 Waste Fermentation for Energy Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Jiafu Lin, YanZhao Zhang, Tao Song, and Haifeng Su
8 Esterification/Transesterification of Lipidic Wastes
for Biodiesel Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Mohammadhosein Rahimi, Mina Tajmirriahi,
Fateme Saadatinavaz, and Su Shiung Lam
9 Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs) for Waste Recycling and Energy
Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Qian Zhao, Taotao Gao, Xiaoqin Li, and Dan Xiao

ix
x Contents

10 Energy Recovery from Fat, Oil and Grease (FOG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

Mahdy Elsayed, Ahmed Tawfik, and Abd El-Fatah Abomohra
11 Energy Recovery from Nuisance Algae Blooms and Residues . . . . . . 329
Gilvana Scoculi de Lira, José V. C. Vargas, André B. Mariano,
and Ihana A. Severo
12 Organic Rankine Cycles (ORCs) for Waste Heat Utilization . . . . . . . 347
Yong-qiang Feng and Tzu-Chen Hung
13 CO2 -Mediated Energy Conversion and Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Sivakumar Esakkimuthu, Shuang Wang,
and Abd El-Fatah Abomohra
14 Plastic Recycling for Energy Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Shah Faisal, Muhammad Naveed, Sayyed Kifayatullah,
and Mian Muhammad
15 Microbial-Mediated Lignocellulose Conversion to Biodiesel . . . . . . . 449
Mahdy Elsayed, Hamed M. El-Mashad,
and Mohamed Mahmoud-Aly
16 Insect-Mediated Waste Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
Abdelaziz M. Shaboon, Xuewei Qi, and Mohamed A. A. Omar
17 Phycoremediation: Role of Microalgae in Waste Management
and Energy Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
Paulo Alexandre S. da Silva, José V. C. Vargas,
André B. Mariano, and Ihana A. Severo
18 Waste to Energy Plant in Spain: A Case Study Using
Technoeconomic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Rubí Medina-Mijangos, Sergi Contelles-Rodríguez,
Hilda Guerrero-García-Rojas, and Luis Seguí-Amórtegui
19 Case Study in Arid and Semi-arid Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
Yassir Makkawi, Fatemeh Hassan Pour, and Omar Moussa
20 Integrated Approaches and Future Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
Abdelrahman S. Zaky, Santosh Kumar, and Andrew J. Welfle
About the Editors

Prof. Abd El-Fatah Abomohra is a Professor of

Environmental Engineering at Chengdu University,
Chengdu, China since 2019. He received his Ph.D. in
2012 through a cooperation program between Tanta
University (Egypt) and Hamburg University (Germany)
funded by Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst
(DAAD). He has work experience of 20 years at different
universities as research assistant, lecturer, associate
professor, and professor. He authored seven books and
of more than 100 contributions published in SCI index
journals. He was one of the World’s Top 2% of Scien-
tists List published by Stanford University in 2020 and
2021. His research group is primarily working on bioen-
ergy production from different biomass feedstocks and
wastes.

Prof. Qingyuan Wang is a full Professor at Sichuan

University since 2001, and currently he is the president
of Chengdu University. He received his Ph.D. in 1998
from Ecole Centrale Paris, France, followed by post-
doctoral experience from 1999 to 2003 in Faculty of
Engineering of Purdue University, and JSPS fellow at
Kagoshima University, Japan. He served as a visiting
Professor at University of Paris-Sud, TU-Clausthal,
University of New Hampshire and Honorary Professor
of University of Liverpool and RMIT. He is also a
fellow of International Association of Advanced Mate-
rials (IAAM). Prof. Wang has published over 200 papers
in SCI index journals, and is one of the Most Cited
Chinese Researchers (Elsevier 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017,
2018, 2019, 2020). He was one of the World’s Top 2%

xi
xii About the Editors

of Scientists List published by Stanford University in

2020 and 2021. His research team is focusing on Green
Materials, Material Science and Solid Mechanics, Very
High Cycle Fatigue (VHCF), Mechanical Behavior of
Structural Materials and Structures, Composite Repairs
of damaged Structures.

Prof. Jin Huang is a Professor of Environmental Engi-

neering at Chengdu University, Chengdu, China since
2010. She received her Ph.D. in 2008 from Sichuan
University, Chengdu, China. She has a work expe-
rience of 19 years at Chengdu University as Asso-
ciate Professor, and Professor. In addition, she has a
work experience in industry sector for 7 years as engi-
neer to enhance the municipal waste recycling and
wastewater treatment towards green net-zero utiliza-
tion. She authored 13 papers related to municipal waste
management published in international journals.
Chapter 1
An Overview of Municipal Wastes

Eslam G. Al-Sakkari, Mahmoud M. Habashy, Mai O. Abdelmigeed,

and Mohammed G. Mohammed

Abstract Recently, waste management became a tremendous global concern due

to the high rate of waste materials production. This rate leads to wastes accumula-
tion in the environment without proper management or valorization. Consequently,
more problems appeared to the surface, such as global warming and other dangerous
phenomena on the whole ecosystem. For instance, in 2018, the total municipal solid
waste production was 292.4 million tons, only 38.2 wt.% of which were managed
mainly through mechanical recycling and composting. The remaining amounts were
incinerated for energy recovery (11.8 wt.%) and landfilled (50 wt.%, which accounts
for 146 million tons). The massive amounts of landfilled wastes consume large land
areas; therefore, more waste valorization techniques should be applied to achieve a
zero waste point in the circular economy system. This chapter defines and classi-
fies solid wastes according to their sources and compositions. It also discusses the
types of recyclable, hazardous, and hard-to-control wastes besides briefly discussing
the efforts to manage them. Additionally, waste production statistics of different
countries are presented to give a real figure about waste amounts and emphasize
the urgent need for their management. Finally, the circular economy practices and
business models that consider the socioeconomic impact on the whole economy are
discussed.

Keywords Municipal wastes · Hazardous wastes · Recyclable wastes · Waste

management · Circular economy

E. G. Al-Sakkari (B) · M. O. Abdelmigeed · M. G. Mohammed

Faculty of Engineering, Chemical Engineering Department, Cairo University, Giza 12613, Egypt
e-mail: eslam.ibrahim@polymtl.ca
M. G. Mohammed
e-mail: mgmohammed@eng.cu.edu.eg
M. M. Habashy
Department of Environmental Engineering and Water Technology, UNESCO-IHE Institute for
Water Education, Delft, The Netherlands
e-mail: mab007@uni-ihe.org

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 1

A. E.-F. Abomohra et al. (eds.), Waste-to-Energy,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-91570-4_1
2 E. G. Al-Sakkari et al.

1.1 Introduction

The significant increase in wastes products in the last two decades has become a
global challenge and concern that requires urgent and serious actions. For instance,
in 2018, around 38 percent by weight of global solid waste was managed mainly
through mechanical recycling and composting. Smaller amounts of the waste were
incinerated for energy recovery and landfilled. Therefore, a thorough investigation of
the amounts and characteristics of wastes is needed to have reliable and feasible waste
management strategies. Unfortunately, the systematic surveying of the quantities and
types of wastes produced, future trends of wastes generation, characteristics, and
seasonal variations are poorly understood. However, general trends and common
elements are observable (UN-ESCAP 2006).
Wastes differ according to many factors such as their sources, nature, the medium
they affect, their ability to accumulate, their ability to transform, and the region
they affect. The classification of wastes according to their sources is commonly
applied since it helps to understand the nature of the wastes and dictates the most
proper waste management methods. Table 1.1 provides an example of wastes clas-
sification by showing the different sources of solid wastes and the types of wastes
produced from each source (UN-ESCAP 2006). This chapter reviews the different
sources of wastes and the types of wastes produced from each source. Then, it gives
a brief overview of the standard management methods such as biological methods,
including composting. After that, it presents some statistics on waste production
and methods of waste management used worldwide. By the end of this chapter, the
circular economy practices and business models based on this type of economy are
summarized, introducing some real-world case studies.

Table 1.1 Types and sources of solid wastes (UN-ESCAP, 2006)

Waste source Solid wastes examples
Residential Food wastes, paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, glass, metals, and
household hazardous wastes such as batteries and electric light
pulps
Industrial Packaging wastes including plastics, hazardous wastes, e.g., solid
chemicals, and workers’ food wastes
Commercial Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food wastes, glass, metals, and
hazardous wastes
Institutional Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food wastes, glass, metals, and
hazardous wastes
Construction and demolition Wood, metals, concrete, rocks, dirt, and dust
1 An Overview of Municipal Wastes 3

1.2 Classification and Types of Wastes

In order to obtain reliable and feasible waste management strategies, the amount and
characteristics of the wastes should be investigated. The characterization and quantifi-
cation of wastes are considered as the cornerstone for intervention and management in
some developed countries. However, the systematic surveying of the quantities and
types of wastes produced, future trends of wastes generation, characteristics, and
seasonal variations are poorly understood. Even though there is insufficient consis-
tent or comprehensive information at the country level, general trends and common
elements are observable (Bui et al. 2020).
Generally, much higher amounts of waste per capita are produced by developed
countries than developing ones (Bundhoo 2018). For example, modest economic
activity and small populations have guaranteed that relatively small amounts of
wastes are produced like in the south pacific subregion’s small islands. However,
managing small waste amounts could be a challenge in some situations, such as in
Marshall Islands, Tuvalu, and Kiribati where the small land areas reduce the disposal
options.
Solid wastes are mainly produced from agricultural and residential households,
construction, commercial, institutional, and industrial sources. Table 1.1 provides a
breakdown of different solid wastes sources and their types.
The solid wastes sources are divided into four main classes: agricultural waste,
municipal solid waste, industrial waste, and hazardous waste (Abdel-Shafy and
Mansour 2018); each waste type is discussed in detail separately throughout this
chapter.

1.2.1 Agricultural Wastes

Agricultural wastes refer to any type of waste that is generated from different agri-
cultural activities. Examples of agricultural wastes are animal manure, post-harvest
waste such as rice husks, rotten or bad fruits, and vegetables, corn stover and husks,
and wheat straw (Nagendran 2011). There are two main types of residues (field
residues and process residues) produced from agriculture activities. Stems, seed pods,
stalks, and leaves represent the field residues that are left in the field after the crop
harvesting process. On the other hand, roots, peel, stubble, pulp, shell, stalk, straw,
stem, leaves, seeds, bagasse, husks, molasses, etc., represent the process residues
that are present even after the crop is processed into valuable alternate products.
Agricultural residues can be differentiated based on their availability and character-
istics, different from other solid fuels like charcoal, wood, and char briquette (Sadh
et al. 2018). Several industries use these process residues as raw materials to produce
other products such as fertilizers, soil improvement additives, animal fodder, paper,
synthetic wood, and others. Nevertheless, a big portion of the generated field residues
is underutilized, which in some cases results in the accumulation of residues in the
4 E. G. Al-Sakkari et al.

fields, preventing the farmers from utilizing the land. In such cases, farmers seek
cheap, easy, and fast methods to eliminate the residues, such as burning the residues
and generating large amounts of smoke and greenhouse gases in the air (Marey
et al. 2010). Research has been going on to develop new applications of agricultural
waste such as using them as a precursor for activated carbon synthesis (Köseoğlu and
Akmil-Başar 2015; Teo et al. 2016; Yahya et al. 2015), cement additive (Sathiparan
and De Zoysa 2018), and source for biofuels production (Li et al. 2011; Stephen and
Periyasamy 2018).
The rapid population growth leads to extensive expansion in agricultural produc-
tion that naturally exhibited a noticeable increase in agro-wastes, livestock wastes,
and by-products of agro-industrial activities. For example, in the Asian and Pacific
region, China produces the largest amounts of agro-waste or crop residues of 842
million tons/year, followed by India, which produces 560 million tons/year. China
produces 587 million tons of agro-wastes per year, and more than 80% of these
residues are from rice, corn, and wheat (Chen et al. 2019).

1.2.2 Municipal Solid Waste

The term “municipal wastes” refers to household wastes or any other wastes that
are similar in nature and composition. Municipal wastes are commonly recognized
as “garbage” or “trash”. In other words, municipal solid waste (MSW) is produced
from different facilities, including households, schools, hospitals, hotels, offices, and
shops, where its main components are food waste, metal, rags, paper, glass, and plastic
(Environmental Statistics and Accounts 2016). It also includes market cleansing
waste, the content of litter containers, street sweepings, grass clippings, leaves, yard
waste, and bigger wastes such as mattresses, old furniture, and white goods. The
municipal solid waste is either collected by traditional door-to-door collection (mixed
household waste) or collected separately for recovery operations (through the door-
to-door collection and/or through voluntary deposits) (Yadav and Karmakar 2020).
These wastes can be gathered by municipalities or on their behalf. In addition, they
can be collected directly by the private sector including business or private non-profit
institutions instead of municipalities for energy or material recovery. It is worth noting
that, by definition, MSW does not include municipal sewage network and treatment
wastes or those produced from municipal construction and demolition activities.
Generation rates for MSW vary from season to season and from city to city
and strongly correlate with levels of activity and economic development. The
highest production rates of MSW (kg/capita/day) are found in high-income coun-
tries (Makarichi et al. 2018). Based on the economic development, the composition
of MSW can change drastically across the same region. Differences in the reporting
and characterization of waste types also change based on the responsible authori-
ties and their definition of municipal waste, including industrial waste, demolition,
and construction waste (Alzamora and Barros 2020). The source of energy used and
climate conditions influence the MSW. For instance, cities with cold winter that rely
Other documents randomly have
different content
the Society for six months and who were in the employment of the
Society at the date of commencing the fund, if they were sixteen
years of age or upwards and not over fifty years of age in the case of
males or forty-five years of age in the case of females, should be
members of the fund. The proposed scale of contributions to the
scheme was 5 per cent. of the wages or salary received, and
contributors were to be eligible at sixty years of age to retire on
pension if they so desired. At the age of sixty-five for males and fifty
for females they would be eligible to receive annuities ranging from
25 per cent. of their salaries, after ten years’ payment of
contributions, to 85 per cent. of their salaries after having paid
contributions for fifty-one years. To assist in launching the scheme it
was proposed that the Society should make an initial contribution of
£10,000. It was also proposed that the superannuation fund should
be managed by a committee of seven, which committee should
consist of the chairman and three directors for the time being of the
U.C.B.S. and three representatives of the employees, who must have
at least three years’ service with the Society.
When the scheme was brought forward again at the September
meeting of the Society one of the amendments sent in was from St
George Society, and called for the rejection of the scheme in its
entirety. The motion to reject the scheme was seconded by a
representative of the employees, who referred to the “autocratic”
methods of the directors in adopting this scheme and bringing it
forward without consulting the workers. The result was that the
scheme was disapproved. The scheme which was brought forward by
the S.C.W.S. for the superannuation of their employees suffered the
same fate.
 THE INTERNATIONAL CO-OPERATIVE
CONGRESS.
It was as the result of an invitation which came from the Scottish
National Co-operative Conference, held in Kilmarnock in 1910, that
the International Co-operative Congress held in Hamburg in the
autumn of that year decided to come to Glasgow for the 1913
Congress rather than go to Vienna, the claims of which city were
strongly urged by Dr Beno Karpeles, in opposition to the claims of
Glasgow, as set forth by Mr James Deans.
The year 1913 was a big year for Scottish Co-operators, for not only
had they to entertain the International Congress in the autumn, but
Scotland was also the location of the British Congress in the summer,
and pessimists were not wanting who thought that the Co-operators
of Scotland had undertaken a task which was too heavy for them
when they decided to entertain two so great Congresses as the British
and the International in one year. Events proved that the pessimists
were wrong, however. One of the first duties which fell to the lot of
the committee which was appointed to make preparations for the
International Congress was that of finding a suitable house for it, but
they did not require to look far afield. The U.C.B.S. were the owners
of the best hall in the city for the purpose for which it was required.
In St Mungo Hall there was ample accommodation for the Congress
itself, while in the adjoining halls ample space for dining the
delegates could be provided. The Bakery was just across the street,
and cooking and waiting facilities were all that could be desired. So it
was decided that in St Mungo Hall the Congress should be held.
The U.C.B.S. undertook all the work of catering for the delegates at
luncheon each day. They also undertook the provision of the
luncheon which was given by the reception committee on the
Saturday, and they themselves provided the entertainment for one of
the afternoons of Congress. It was universally acknowledged that the
International Congress of 1913 was the best International Co-
operative Congress held, and to this happy result the U.C.B.S.
contributed no small share. The event was one which will not readily
be forgotten by those privileged to take part. Alas, that the
expressions of fraternity so freely uttered then should have been so
soon made of no avail by the outbreak of war.
 THE HOLIDAY CAMP.
It is to Mr John Dewar, for many years president of the
Renfrewshire Co-operative Conference Association, that the idea of a
Co-operative holiday camp owes its origin. For many years Mr Dewar
was an enthusiastic Volunteer, and his experiences under canvas
during the annual training periods of his regiment impressed him
with the value of this form of holiday. Associated with him in his
propaganda for a camping association on Co-operative lines was Mr
James Lucas, at that time president of the Glasgow and Suburbs
Conference Association, and latterly, also, Mr John Paton, of the
Renfrewshire Conference council, who had been converted to the
idea as the result of a visit to Douglas, I.O.M., where he had seen the
huge city under canvas which for a number of years housed
thousands of holiday-making Lancashire lads every summer.
By 1910 these gentlemen had been able to get their organisation so
far advanced that they had selected a site on the Ayrshire Coast for
their first camp, and had made arrangements with the farmer who
rented the land. At the last moment, however, the landowner stepped
in and vetoed the whole proceedings. This put an end to doing
anything further with regard to a camp during that year, but the
search for a suitable site continued and, at length, the little farm of
Roseland, situated on Canada Hill, Rothesay, overlooking the Bay,
was secured. The farm was for sale, but the committee in charge of
the arrangements considered that purchase was too bold an initial
step to take, so they leased the farm for six months; securing an
option to purchase at the end of that period if they wished.
Here, in the summer of 1911, the first Scottish Co-operative
holiday camp was established. It was rather a primitive affair, that
first camp. The cooking was done in the little farmhouse, while the
campers had their meals in a large marquee. The U.C.B.S. directors
took a keen interest in the camp from the very beginning. The
catering was done by them, and the catering staff were housed in the
little farmhouse.
 Primitive though the arrangements were, they appealed to the
campers, who were unanimous in their praise of the beautiful
situation, the pure air, the perfect catering, and the small outlay for
which they secured a perfect holiday. Thus encouraged, the
committee which had promoted the camp proceeded to organise a
Co-operative society to work it, and in this Co-operative society the
U.C.B.S. took out twenty-five shares. The farm was purchased for
£600, and in September the Baking Society increased the number of
their shares to 100.
In 1912 the camp was much better organised than in 1911, but it
was still far from being what its promoters desired to see it. They
were hampered for lack of funds, however, as the Co-operative
societies were showing caution and a lack of faith in the enterprise,
and were not providing the capital necessary to work it properly as
readily as had been expected. The only fault which the committee
found with the site lay in the fact that in dry summers the water
supply was inadequate. The summer of 1912 also showed them that it
was desirable that something more impervious to rain than a
marquee was desirable for the gatherings of campers and, in order
that these two defects might be put right, they applied to the U.C.B.S.
for a loan of £1,000 on the security of the property. This loan was
granted them, and so good use did they make of the power which it
gave them that, before the time came for opening the camp in 1913,
they had put down a huge storage tank for water, capable of storing
20,000 gallons; and had erected a dining hall large enough to dine
several hundred persons.
The camp was a very great success in the third year. Its popularity
was so great that the committee found it quite impossible to provide
accommodation for all who wished to avail themselves of its facilities
for holiday making, and this has been the case in each succeeding
year, notwithstanding the influence of the war. At the end of the
third season, however, the committee of the association came to the
conclusion that, if the camp was to be made the success they believed
it was capable of becoming, some rearrangement of its management
would require to be made, so they invited the Baking Society to take
it over as a going concern and work it themselves.
They explained to the directors of the Baking Society that they
were not taking this step because they disbelieved in its success, but
solely on the ground that they considered that dual control was not
good for discipline and did not make for good management.
The directors of the Baking Society promised to consider the
matter, and the result was they brought forward to the quarterly
meeting, held in March 1914, a recommendation that the camp
should be taken over, and this recommendation was accepted by the
delegates. Since then the camp has been managed by the U.C.B.S.
In 1914 accommodation was provided for 250 persons, and it is
extremely probable that greatly increased accommodation would
have been provided before now had it not been for the intervention
of the war which, by providing another and much more strenuous
form of camping for the past and prospective frequenters of Canada
Hill, prevented for the time being such further developments.
Doubtless, however, with the return of Europe to sanity, such
developments will take place; until, before many years are past,
almost the whole of the Society’s seven-acre estate will be covered in
the summer and autumn months with the picturesque pyramids of
white canvas.
 THE SOCIETY’S PROGRESS.
In all its branches, with the exception of the tearooms, the
progress of the Society during these four years had been remarkable.
In 1913, however, the London Street tearoom was closed, and as soon
as the lease of the Union Halls expired they also were given up. At
the beginning of the period the output had averaged 3,820 sacks per
week, while at its end the average output was 4,648, an increase of
848 sacks per week in four years. The aggregate sales for the year
which ended in July 1914 were £692,600. Truly, the Society had
travelled far from the days when a small two-oven bakehouse
sufficed for all its output. The membership now consisted of 201
societies; which was also a contrast to the eight small struggling
societies which had banded themselves together in the last days of
December 1868 to form the Federation.
The time had now arrived when the Federation was to be put to a
more severe test than ever before since it had attained to years of
maturity. Like a thunderclap the war storm which had been
gathering over Europe during the month of July burst on an
astonished world which had almost come to believe war on such a
gigantic scale impossible, and many were the doubts expressed, even
by sincere wellwishers of the Co-operative movement, as to how it
would weather the storm. The next chapter will tell how one
federation kept the Co-operative flag flying and added to the laurels
it had gained by its devoted and loyal service to the interests of the
common people.
 CHAPTER XVIII.
BAKING UNDER WAR CONDITIONS.

THE EARLY DAYS OF WAR—KEEPING DOWN PRICES: THE

DIRECTORS’ VIEW—HALF-PAY TO SOLDIER EMPLOYEES
—ARMY CONTRACTS—HORSES AND MOTORS
COMMANDEERED—PRICE OF BREAD ADVANCED—
DEATH OF BISCUIT FACTORY MANAGER—MORE ARMY
CONTRACTS—EXTENSIONS AND ALTERATIONS—M‘NEIL
STREET BLOCK COMPLETED—BUSINESS ORGANISATION
—TEABREAD AND PASTRY SHOPS—THE PRICE OF BREAD
—INCREASING OUTPUT—BISCUIT AND TEABREAD
TRADE—THE SOCIETY AND ITS WORKERS—DELIVERY
DIFFICULTIES—DEATH OF MR DUNCAN M‘CULLOCH.

On the fourth day of August 1914, Great Britain entered on a new

era. There are not awanting cynics who declare that Great Britain is
hardly ever out of war, but however that may be, there never has
been in the world’s history a war which seemed in its early days to be
fraught with so dire consequences for civilisation as did that into
which the nations of Europe plunged in those early days of August
1914. For the first few days it seemed as if chaos had suddenly
developed. The people seemed to go mad with panic, and rushed to
purchase goods wherever these could be procured, careless of the
prices which they were called on to pay. To the traders, large and
small, it must have seemed like the beginning of a trading
millennium, and they took immediate advantage of the position in
which they found themselves. Prices doubled, trebled, and
quadrupled; yet the eager rush to buy continued. The poor bought
what they could, but they soon reached the end of their meagre
resources. Not so the rich, however. Amongst them, the panic
seemed to be even greater than amongst the poorer sections of the
community, and they provisioned their houses as if for a siege,
careless as to who must want if only they had plenty in store.

EDUCATIONAL DEPUTATION TO ENGLAND

 EDUCATIONAL DEPUTATION TO ENGLAND

The bakers of Glasgow were also the victims of the profiteering

craze which had suddenly enmeshed the trading public, and at a
meeting which took place on the afternoon of 3rd August, they
proposed that the price of bread should be raised. Mr James Young,
manager of the U.C.B.S., had been present at this meeting and had
opposed the proposal, with the result that it was not carried out. This
action of his was homologated by his board at a special meeting
which was held the same evening, while at another meeting, held
three days later, the committee decided that they would not raise the
price of bread in the meantime. The Baking Society found itself in a
very favourable position at this time. In M‘Neil Street there were
supplies of flour which would keep the bakery going for nine weeks,
while Clydebank had supplies for six, and Belfast for seven weeks.
They were thus in a position to view the situation with more or less
equanimity. The S.C.W.S. were also in a good position so far as
supplies of flour and wheat were concerned, having some nine or ten
weeks’ supplies either on hand or on board ship at the outbreak of
war, and the rapidity with which the German fleet was bottled up
within its own harbours gave security of passage for the time being to
food-carrying vessels. Nevertheless, the general panic of that first
week of war affected the wheat and flour trade as much as it did
many others, and it was not long before flour was selling at a price
which had never been asked for it in the whole course of the
Federation’s history.
These were conditions under which the two great Co-operative
federations were able to show to advantage, and they were conditions
also which proved the wisdom of the Wholesale Society in
establishing its own purchasing agency in Canada; for while outside
millers were asking as much as 65/ a sack for flour in the first week
of the war, the highest price quoted by the Wholesale Society was
37/, and ordinary flour was sold by them at 1/6 per sack advance on
normal price. Thus the two federations were in a position to see to it
between them that on this side of the Atlantic, at least, no undue
advantage was taken of the circumstances created by the war. At the
meeting of the Baking Society’s board, which took place on 1st
September, the committee placed on record their appreciation of the
manner in which the crisis brought about by the war had been met
by the manager, heads of departments, and employees generally, and
desired the manager to convey this expression of the board’s
appreciation to the heads of departments and employees. At the
quarterly meeting of the Society, the directors had a similar
compliment paid to themselves; Mr Shaw, Cambuslang Society,
moving, and Mr Glasse, S.C.W.S., seconding a motion which received
the unanimous endorsement of the delegates, thanking the directors
for the splendid lead which they had given to the purveyors of bread
in the city and far beyond. Mr Shaw drew attention to the importance
and magnificence of what had been done, and thought that the
nation was entitled to recognise what the Co-operative movement
had done, not only now but at all times, in keeping down prices and
in keeping goods pure.
Perhaps the position in which the Federation was placed by the
war and the view of it taken by the directors can be explained most
clearly in the words of Mr Gerrard himself. Addressing the
September quarterly meeting, he stated that the profits for the half-
year which had ended in July had been a little better than usual, but
[3]
“the future was so indefinite that no one could foresee with any
accuracy what would happen. They had been blamed, and were still
being blamed in certain quarters, for not increasing the price of
bread, but they had resolutely refused, thinking it their duty as a
Federation to keep the price of bread and other commodities as low
as possible. Notwithstanding, he understood the price of biscuits had
been increased in some quarters, and this had brought them some
trade that they should have had before. The way in which prices were
rushed up at the commencement of the war had seemed to the board
most unseemly and unpatriotic, and seemed to show that everyone
was trying to make as much as possible out of the war. It was
unfortunate that the price of bread would require to be increased
before the war was over, but until that step was absolutely necessary
they would not increase it, and then only as far as was necessary.
They had received several contracts for bread, and the manner in
which the manager, heads of departments, and the general body of
the employees acted under the stress of these circumstances was
worthy of all praise.”
3. (The Scottish Co-operator, 25th September 1914.)
 HALF-PAY TO SOLDIER EMPLOYEES.
At the outbreak of war, a number of the employees had been
members of the Territorial Forces and had been called up at once,
and the board decided to grant them half-pay. Later, when the call
for more men came, many of the employees joined up, and the
directors decided that those who enlisted should be placed on the
same footing as regarded half-pay as were those who had been called
up at the outbreak of war. At this quarterly meeting the directors
were accused by a representative of the Bonus Investment Society of
not being so generous to their employees who were serving with the
Colours as were some other Co-operative societies, but the chairman
was able to satisfy the delegates that, in those cases where generosity
was most necessary—those of wives with large families—the Baking
Society’s scheme was the one which gave the wife the larger total
income.
This meeting was the one at which the method of giving the
minutes in the form of synopses was first adopted, and one of the
delegates took occasion to compliment the secretary on having
produced synopses of the various minutes which gave the delegates
enough information about the business done to enable them to find
out what was taking place. At this meeting also a grant of £100 was
made to the Belgian Relief Fund, the chairman stating that further
grants could be made if occasion demanded. Other donations made
were:—£500 to the War Relief Fund, £100 to the Lord Mayor of
Belfast’s Fund, and £100 to the fund being raised by the Provost of
Clydebank. It was urged very strongly by several of the delegates that
the administration of the relief fund should be in the hands of the
Government. In the minute of the board meeting of 2nd October, the
fact is noted that during the past quarter the Society’s motors had
covered a distance of 125,015 miles. It had certainly been a busy
quarter.
 ARMY CONTRACTS.
Immediately the war broke out, the United Baking Society were
inundated with Army contracts. In the first few days they had to
make arrangements for supplying camps all over the country, in
addition to those for which they had held the contracts. These new
camps included those at Perth, Inverness, Falkirk, and Dunblane,
and all were supplied at current prices. Yet, notwithstanding the fact
that the Baking Society were doing much work for the Army in that
first week of the war, they were not allowed to escape from some of
the other discomforts which come to the owners of horses and
vehicles in a nation at war. On the 6th of August 18 horses, two
motors, and one lorry were commandeered for military purposes.
Other large bakers suffered in the same way, and on behalf of all of
them a telegram was sent to the Officer in Command, pointing out
the importance of the work which was being done by the baking
firms in the distribution of food, and complaining that serious
hardship to the people would ensue if bakers’ horses were removed.
With this telegram the committee of the Baking Society associated
themselves. To enable them to overtake their work, the Society
decided to purchase several motors which had been offered to them,
while a circular-letter, explaining the position, was sent out to the
societies. That the War Office officials were not ungrateful for the
assistance which had been rendered them in the emergency of
mobilisation was shown by the fact that at the board meeting which
was held on 7th August, letters of congratulation on the manner in
which the service of bread to two camps had been carried out were
read to the committee.
Among the minor results due to the war may be mentioned the
cancelling of a number of social meetings, excursions, marriages,
etc., and the closing down of the holiday camp at the end of August.
At the beginning of October, another attempt was made by the
Glasgow Master Bakers’ Association to have the price of bread raised,
but again the directors of the Baking Society blocked the way. At the
same time, however, the committee came to the decision that, in
view of all the circumstances, they would not raise any objection
should another overture be made. At the beginning of October, the
situation was again reviewed and, in view of the fact that by the
beginning of the year the price of flour would be greatly in advance of
that then being used, it was agreed to resist no longer a slight
advance in the price of bread. For three months the Society had been
the means of keeping the price of bread at the rate at which it was
being sold at the outbreak of war. If we assume that their action
influenced only two hundred thousand households, and that the
average consumption of bread in each household was only one 2–lb.
loaf per day, this action of the Baking Society was responsible for
saving to these householders in three months no less a sum than
£21,250, and probably double that sum, for that only supposes an
advance of one farthing per loaf. The first advance in the price of
bread took place on 16th November. In Belfast the price of bread had
been advanced ¼d. per 2–lb. loaf on 19th October.
 DEATH OF BISCUIT FACTORY MANAGER.
Mr John Gilmour took charge of the Society’s biscuit factory
shortly after it was commenced, and he continued to manage it until
his death, which took place on 9th October 1914. He was highly
respected by both directors and workmen for his devotion to
business and his tact and kindness in dealing with those under him.
He was succeeded by Mr William Ninian, who had the distinction of
being a Bakery-trained man and who was acting as Mr Gilmour’s
assistant at the time of that gentleman’s death.
At the quarterly meeting, the chairman made fitting and
sympathetic reference to the loss which the Society had sustained
through the death of Mr Gilmour. He also referred to the retiral from
active work of one of the Society’s bread bakers, Mr W. Lees, who
had been in the employment of the Society for forty and a half years.
During the quarter an electrically-driven motor had been at work in
Glasgow for the Society. It was proving very satisfactory and the
board, he said, considered that before long these electrically-driven
cars would replace horses on the streets, although petrol-driven cars
would still be used for the long journeys.
At this quarterly meeting, some of the delegates wished to know
why the board had decided that they would no longer resist an
increase in the price of bread seeing that in their minutes they stated
that their contract for flour was still unbroken. The chairman, in
replying, pointed out that flour at the moment was about 10/ higher
in price than before the war, and the board thought it better that the
price should be raised by a halfpenny now than that it should be put
a penny or three halfpence later, when the stock of cheap flour was
completely exhausted. He also stated that eighty-six of the Society’s
employees were then serving in the Army. At this quarterly meeting,
also, the question of granting relief to what were termed “innocent
enemy aliens,” in other words, British women who had married
subjects of nations at war with Britain, and who through the
operation of war were left destitute in this country, was raised
through an appeal on their behalf issued by the International Co-
operative Alliance executive. A proposal was made to grant £25 to
the fund which was being raised, but this was defeated by a two to
one majority. The cake show was held this year as usual, but, as was
to be expected, the sales were not so great as in some former years.
The price had been advanced on the average one penny per pound.
In their report to the delegates to the December quarterly meeting,
the directors stated that they would regard it as an instruction to
make no increase in the prices of their goods so long as they were
able to work without actual loss.
 MORE ARMY CONTRACTS.
In September, an arrangement had been entered into with the
Army Authorities by which the Government supplied the flour and
the Baking Society baked it into bread for the troops. In addition,
several contracts for biscuits for the Army were received. The first
three of these totalled 200 tons. The contracts for the baking of
bread for the Army continued until early in 1916, when an intimation
was received from the Quartermaster of the Scottish Command that
the contract would cease, as the Government were now erecting field
bakeries for themselves. Two months later, however, another
contract was entered into with the Scottish Command on the same
terms as formerly. The contracts carried out by Clydebank and
Belfast Branches have already been referred to.
 EXTENSIONS AND ALTERATIONS.
For the whole of the first year of war and almost the whole of the
second year, the building department of the Society was kept busy
with the extension to the M‘Neil Street premises. The principal
reason for this extension was the necessity for securing more space
for the biscuit factory, and as soon as practicable this extension was
carried through. A new travelling oven was installed early in 1915 at a
cost of £175, and at the same time a new biscuit cutting machine was
got at a cost of £300. A gas-fired travelling oven was also installed
before the end of the year and another one, built in accordance with
alterations suggested by the bakery staff, was installed in October
1916. In the spring of 1915, it was decided to cover over the space
between bakehouses Nos. 11 and 12 for the purpose of providing
dressing rooms for the workers, and at the same time it was decided
to put fans in each flat for ventilation purposes.
M‘NEIL STREET BLOCK COMPLETED.
Parts of the new block at the Adelphi Street and South York Street
corner were occupied as they were completed. Particularly, the
ground floor was occupied as an extension to the biscuit factory, but
it was not until June 1916 that the entire building was ready for the
official opening ceremony. This was of a very modest character, for,
as the chairman stated, the directors did not think the circumstances
of the time lent themselves to the celebration of the opening of their
splendid addition by means of a grand function, and in this he
believed the board had interpreted the wishes of the delegates.
The dressing room for the female workers, which was situated on
the fourth flat, was fitted up in an excellent manner. Each worker
had a locker of her own, made of cast steel, of which she alone held
the key. Fourteen wash-hand basins were fitted up and eight spray
baths. There was also an excellently appointed sickroom, where a girl
who became unwell suddenly could rest, and also a room fitted up
with the appropriate scientific appliances, where accidents could be
treated at once.
 At the quarterly meeting, which took place on the day on which the
new wing of the building was opened, the chairman stated that the
total cost of the land and the buildings on it had been £11,800, while
the total cost of the bakery buildings, including the addition, had
been £131,000; which had been depreciated to the extent of
£52,000.