189

INVITED REVIEW
A review of observations and models of dynamic

topography
Nicolas Flament1, Michael Gurnis2, and R. Dietmar Müller1
1
EARTHBYTE GROUP, SCHOOL OF GEOSCIENCES, THE UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY, NSW 2006, AUSTRALIA
2
SEISMOLOGICAL LABORATORY, CALIFORNIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, PASADENA, CALIFORNIA 91125, USA
ABSTRACT
The topography of Earth is primarily controlled by lateral differences in the density structure of the crust and lithosphere. In addition to
this isostatic topography, flow in the mantle induces deformation of its surface leading to dynamic topography. This transient deformation
evolves over tens of millions of years, occurs at long wavelength, and is relatively small (<2 km) in amplitude. Here, we review the obser-
vational constraints and modeling approaches used to understand the amplitude, spatial pattern, and time dependence of dynamic topog-
raphy. The best constraint on the present-day dynamic topography induced by sublithospheric mantle flow is likely the residual bathymetry
calculated by removing the isostatic effect of oceanic lithospheric structure from observed bathymetry. Increasing knowledge of the thermal
and chemical structure of the lithosphere is important to better constrain present-day mantle flow and dynamic topography. Nevertheless,
at long wavelengths (>5000 km), we show that there is good agreement between published residual topography fields, including the one
described here, and present-day dynamic topography predicted from mantle flow models, including a new one. Residual and predicted
fields show peak-to-peak amplitudes of roughly ±2 km and a dominant degree two pattern with high values for the Pacific Ocean, southern
Africa, and the North Atlantic and low values for South America, western North America, and Eurasia. The flooding of continental interiors
has long been known to require both larger amplitudes and to be temporally phase-shifted compared with inferred eustatic changes. Such
long-wavelength inferred vertical motions have been attributed to dynamic topography. An important consequence of dynamic topography
is that long-term global sea-level change cannot be estimated at a single passive margin. As a case study, we compare the results of three
published models and of our model to the subsidence history of well COST-B2 offshore New Jersey. The <400 ± 45 m amount of anomalous
subsidence of this well since 85 Ma is best explained by models that predict dynamic subsidence of the New Jersey margin during that
period. Explicitly including the lithosphere in future global mantle flow models should not only facilitate such comparisons between model
results and data, but also further constrain the nature of the coupling between the mantle and the lithosphere.
LITHOSPHERE; v. 5; no. 2; p. 189–210 | Published online 4 February 2013 doi: 10.1130/L245.1
INTRODUCTION seismic tomography can now be assimilated into of the stratigraphic record in a single area, as has
both forward and backward mantle flow models. been argued previously (e.g., Miller et al., 2005).
Knowledge of the effect of mantle flow on Exploiting such improvements, various known Nevertheless, multiple challenges still limit
surface topography has considerably increased long-wavelength vertical motions of continental our understanding of global dynamic topog-
over the past 30 yr. The rapid improvement plates have been attributed to mantle flow and raphy, including different definitions of the
in computational algorithms and computing hence used as constraints on the spatial charac- meaning of the term “dynamic topography,”
resources has facilitated the modeling of global ter, amplitude, and time dependence of mantle inaccurate estimates of present-day dynamic
mantle flow at increasing resolution, which flow. Examples include the Cenozoic uplift of topography in the absence of a detailed global
now achieves Earth-like convective vigor. The southern Africa (Gurnis et al., 2000), the late model of the structure of the lithosphere, and
dramatic expansion of global and regional seis- Cenozoic uplift of the Colorado Plateau (Mou- contradicting model predictions of vertical
mic data sets and numerical methods has led to cha et al., 2009), the Cretaceous subsidence and motions for the same area (Moucha et al., 2008a;
commensurate improvements in the resolution subsequent uplift of the interior of North Amer- Müller et al., 2008b; Spasojevic et al., 2008).
and global coverage of mantle tomographic ica (Liu et al., 2008; Mitrovica et al., 1989), the In this review, we first attempt to clarify
images (e.g., Romanowicz, 2008). In turn, these tilt of northern South America to the east during the definition of dynamic topography. We then
have led to an improved understanding of the the Miocene (Shephard et al., 2010), the tilt of explore observational constraints on present-
thermo-chemical structure of the mantle (Grand, Australia since the Late Cretaceous (DiCaprio day and time-dependent dynamic topography.
2002; Masters et al., 2000; Simmons et al., et al., 2009), and the vertical motions of the For the present day, we compare three pub-
2007). Independently, global plate reconstruc- Slave and Kaapvaal Cratons since the Paleozoic lished residual topography fields (Kaban et al.,
tions that are used to constrain the evolution of (Zhang et al., 2012). An important concept that 2003; Panasyuk and Hager, 2000; Steinberger,
mantle flow and to interpret seismic images of derives from such studies is that there is likely 2007) and a residual topography field that we
the mantle have likewise improved, and such “no such thing as a stable continental platform” derive, and we show that they are in broad
reconstructions are now available back to the (Moucha et al., 2008a), which in turn implies agreement. We then carry out a non-exhaustive
Triassic in million-year increments (Seton et al., that long-term global sea-level (eustasy) change review of analytical and numerical models of
2012). As a consequence, plate kinematics and cannot be defined based on the detailed analysis dynamic topography, both instantaneous and
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FLAMENT ET AL.
time dependent, with an aim of not only show- DYNAMIC TOPOGRAPHY 1982). In the absence of consensus regarding the
ing the progressive improvements of these mod- physical process explaining this flattening, the
els, but also to expose the strengths and limits Dynamic topography is that topography due age-depth relationship of the ocean floor can still
of each. As part of this process, we compare the to flow within the mantle, an idea that was first be accommodated in empirical “plate models”
present-day dynamic topography predicted by proposed by Pekeris (1935). It is “dynamic” (e.g., Crosby and McKenzie, 2009; Parsons and
four published models (Conrad and Husson, because the mass anomalies driving the den- Sclater, 1977). As in the continents, the topogra-
2009; Ricard et al., 1993; Spasojevic and Gur- sity are moving, and this contrasts with iso- phy of the ocean floor is affected by variations
nis, 2012; Steinberger, 2007) and by the model static topography, in which the mass anomalies in crustal thickness, notably in areas affected by
that we introduce in this study. This comparison are in a state of quasi-equilibrium. Due to plate magmatism such as oceanic plateaus. Similarly,
shows that the predicted dynamic topography tectonics, the topography of Earth consists of variations in lithospheric temperature and mag-
fields are in good agreement at long wave- continents and oceans with an average eleva- matic processes also affect continental topogra-
length, although the predicted amplitudes differ tion difference of ~4.5 km. This first-order dif- phy; however, there is no simple tectonic model
from one model to another. The residual topog- ference in elevation is of isostatic origin and to describe the topography of continents due to
raphies and modeled dynamic topographies are results from the different average densities and their long and complex tectonic history.
in broad agreement, although there are impor- thicknesses of continental and oceanic crust Given the number of dynamic processes
tant regional mismatches. For example, East and lithosphere. The long-known poor corre- that affect topography, it is not surprising that
and Southeast Asia are highs in most residual lation between the ocean-continent function the term “dynamic topography,” which gener-
topography fields, but they are also dynamic and the long-wavelength geoid (Kaula, 1972) ally describes the effect of mantle convection
topography lows. We attribute this discrepancy supports this view. If the topography of Earth on surface topography, does not have a single,
to the difficulty in constraining residual topog- were not affected by any dynamic processes, agreed-upon definition. As discussed already,
raphy with limited extents of dated oceanic flat continents would stand ~4.5 km above flat the bathymetry of the ocean floor is compatible
lithosphere. In addition, the northeast Pacific abyssal plains. This is clearly not the case, and with that of the thermal boundary layer of the
present-day residual topography disagrees the topography of Earth results from an array of convecting mantle, and, in this respect, the sub-
with modeled changes in dynamic topography, dynamic processes operating at different scales sidence of oceanic lithosphere with age should
which shows the limitations in constraining in time and space. In the continents, tectonic be included in the definition of dynamic topog-
a process that occurs over tens of millions of convergence results in mountain belts such raphy. However, the dynamics of the continen-
years using a snapshot of residual topography. as the Himalayas and the Andes, and tectonic tal lithosphere are more complex and cannot
We next discuss the consequences of dynamic divergence results in rifts, such as the East be explained by boundary layer theory. For this
topography for long-term sea-level change. African Rift or the Salton Sea in California. reason, defining dynamic topography globally
Although the global effect of dynamic topogra- The process leading to these topographic fea- as the difference between observed topography
phy on long-term sea-level change, dominated tures is clearly dynamic, but even in active and and isostatic crustal topography (e.g., Forte et
by changes in the volume of ocean basins, is geologically recent tectonic zones, the topog- al., 1993) results in continents dynamically
secondary (<100 m; Conrad and Husson, 2009; raphy is largely compensated isostatically: depressed by up to 3 km, which is inconsis-
Spasojevic and Gurnis, 2012), its regional The continental crust is thicker than average tent with observations (Gurnis, 1993a). This
effects are important. To illustrate this, we carry in mountain belts, and thinner than average in discrepancy is in part due to the non-negligible
out a detailed analysis of the anomalous sub- rifts (Mooney et al., 1998). isostatic contribution of the continental litho-
sidence of COST-B2 well offshore New Jersey, In the oceans, the bathymetry is primarily sphere (in the past referred to as tectosphere;
which illustrates that this margin has subsided determined by cooling and thickening of oce- Jordan, 1975) to topography. Given the rela-
by up to 400 ± 45 m since 85 Ma. We show that anic lithosphere as it moves away from spread- tively poor global constraints on the complex
this dynamic subsidence is consistent with the ing centers (Langseth et al., 1966; McKenzie, structure and density of the continental litho-
model presented in this study and with two pre- 1967). While it is ultimately dynamic in ori- sphere (Zoback and Mooney, 2003), dynamic
viously published models (Müller et al., 2008b; gin, the bathymetry of the young ocean floor topography is usually defined as that topogra-
Spasojevic et al., 2008). However, given the (<80 Ma) is well explained by combining the phy originating from sources beneath the upper
large uncertainty associated with the dynamic principles of isostasy and of the cooling of thermal boundary layer of mantle convection
models, the detailed sea-level curve derived a semi-infinite half space (Davis and Lister, (e.g., Le Stunff and Ricard, 1995; Panasyuk
from the stratigraphy of the New Jersey margin 1974). Ocean floor older than ca. 80 Ma appears and Hager, 2000). We use this latter definition
cannot be corrected for dynamic effects, which to flatten compared to this simple and elegant in the present paper, keeping in mind that it
implies that it should not be used as long-term physical model, although whether “normal” ignores the many lithospheric-scale dynamic
global sea-level curve. From an observational old seafloor flattens is subject to some debate processes that affect topography, including
point of view, detailed knowledge of the ther- (Hillier, 2010; Korenaga and Korenaga, 2008). those described earlier herein.
mal and chemical structure of the lithosphere The reason for the apparent shallowing of old
is a key factor in constraining present-day ocean floor is the subject of ongoing debate, and PRESENT-DAY CONSTRAINTS ON LONG-
dynamic topography. From a modeling point proposed explanations include thermal rejuve- WAVELENGTH DYNAMIC TOPOGRAPHY:
of view, explicitly including the lithosphere in nation by hotspots (Smith and Sandwell, 1997), RESIDUAL TOPOGRAPHY
future global mantle flow models should not small-scale convection (e.g., Afonso et al.,
only facilitate the comparison between model- 2008), dynamic support by mantle flow (Kido Constraining dynamic topography requires
ing results and the geological record, but also and Seno, 1994; Zhang et al., 2012), and depar- removing the isostatic contribution of the
make dynamic topography an additional con- ture from the topography predicted by thermal sediments, ice, crust, and lithosphere from the
straint on the nature of the coupling between boundary layer theory due to radioactive heat observed topography. The remaining topog-
the mantle and the lithosphere. production within the mantle (Jarvis and Peltier, raphy is called residual topography (Crough,
190 www.gsapubs.org | Volume 5 | Number 2 | LITHOSPHERE

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A review of observations and models of dynamic topography | INVITED REVIEW
1983). In the oceans, a choice must be made arbitrarily set to a uniform elevation of −200 m. Ocean (Darwin Rise), the areas offshore south-
between correcting either for the physical half- The resulting residual topography was low-pass ern Africa, and around Iceland and the northern
space cooling model (as in Davies and Pribac, filtered using a filter tapered for wavelength Atlantic mid-ocean ridge.
1993; Gurnis et al., 2000) or for a plate model between 2000 and 5000 km, in order to simplify
accounting for the apparent flattening of the comparison with published estimates of residual TIME-DEPENDENT CONSTRAINTS ON
ocean floor with increasing age (Kaban et al., topography expanded in spherical harmonics to DYNAMIC TOPOGRAPHY
2003; Le Stunff and Ricard, 1995; Steinberger, degree 12 (Kaban et al., 2003; Panasyuk and
2007). The former approach implies that mantle Hager, 2000; Steinberger, 2007; Figs. 1B, 1C, In principle, dynamic topography can occur
support may contribute to the observed flatten- and 1D). The residual topography contains an over all wavelengths from 10 km to greater than
ing of old ocean floor (Kido and Seno, 1994), isostatic component evident in high values in 1000 km, but since crustal and lithospheric
whereas the latter requires some other physical the Himalayas and Andes (with present crustal density and thickness variations and plate flex-
process to operate. In the continents, a com- thicknesses greater than 50 km [Mooney et al., ure exert a strong control on topography for
mon approach is to remove the isostatic topog- 1998], shown as yellow contours in Fig. 1A). In wavelengths less than 100 km, most attempts
raphy due to the continental crust (Forte et al., the oceans, the residual topography highs are to deconvolve it from the geological record
1993; Steinberger, 2007). However, correcting closely associated with hotspot tracks (Caze- have focused on transient long-wavelength
for the isostatic contribution of the continen- nave et al., 1989; Schroeder, 1984) and Pha- changes that cannot be well explained without
tal crust alone can result in continents being nerozoic large igneous provinces (denoted by invoking dynamic topography. In this section,
either systematically lowered or elevated by 1 green contours in Fig. 1A). Therefore, part of we first focus on the geological expression of
to 2 km, which is inconsistent with observation the oceanic residual topography is due to the long-wavelength dynamic topography, which
(Gurnis, 1993a). Zoback and Mooney (2003) thicker crust of oceanic plateaus and at least is the main focus of this paper, before giving
showed that there is no simple relationship partially isostatically compensated. Ideally, a a brief overview of short-wavelength dynamic
between continental crustal thickness and sur- correction for the thickness of the oceanic crust topography.
face elevation, and that isostatic models based should be carried out to estimate the topography
on crustal thickness alone systematically over- associated with mantle support. Such studies Geological Expressions of Long-
predict continental elevations, mainly because have been carried out regionally (e.g., Crosby Wavelength Dynamic Topography
Archean continental lithosphere is depleted and and McKenzie, 2009; Winterbourne et al., 2009)
of intrinsically lower density (Jordan, 1975). but not yet globally. Finally, the residual topog- Long-wavelength dynamic topography is
Several authors have proposed residual topography high over the Canada Basin in the Arctic recorded by lithospheric plates moving over
raphy maps that remove the isostatic contribu- Ocean (Fig. 1A) can be attributed to the absence the constantly changing mantle flow and is
tion of both the continental crust and continen- of sediment thickness data. thus ephemeral over millions of years to tens
tal lithosphere (Kaban et al., 2003; Le Stunff Despite being based on different isostatic of millions of years. As a result, subsidence
and Ricard, 1995; Panasyuk and Hager, 2000). models of the lithosphere, the four residual events are generally followed by uplift and vice
Such calculations require assumptions relative topography fields (Fig. 1) agree overall. For versa. Indeed, the fact that dynamic topogra-
to the thermo-chemical state of the continen- half-wavelengths greater than ~3300 km, the phy is transient over tens of millions of years
tal lithosphere, which result in relatively large peak-to-peak amplitude is ±2 km, and the root- means that it must be recorded over long time
uncertainties (Kaban et al., 2003; Le Stunff and mean-square amplitude is ~0.5 km (Table 1). periods, over which the preservation potential
Ricard, 1995; Panasyuk and Hager, 2000) and The peak-to-peak amplitude is smallest for the of the rock record is poor. The very nature of
underline the need for a better knowledge of model of Panasyuk and Hager (2000) and larg- the long-wavelength, low-amplitude dynamic
the thermal and chemical structure of the litho- est for the model presented in this study (Table topography signal makes it difficult to isolate
sphere in order to constrain mantle flow models. 1), due to the absence of correcting for isostasy in the geological record, which is dominated
The long-wavelength residual topography in elevated areas (Fig. 1A). The root-mean- by shorter-wavelength, larger-amplitude sig-
has been calculated by removing the mean square amplitude is smallest for the model of nals such as lithospheric extension or shorten-
continental elevation from continents (follow- Panasyuk and Hager (2000) and largest for ing. One further restriction on the preservation
ing Gurnis et al., 2000; Lithgow-Bertelloni and the model of Kaban et al. (2003) (Table 1). of dynamic topography comes from the geo-
Silver, 1998), because the thermal and chemi- In terms of pattern, in the continents, features logical record itself, which is biased toward
cal structures of the continental lithosphere are common to all four models include the residual areas that have been subsiding for long periods
not well known. In the oceans, the plate cool- topography lows within central Europe, east- of time and have a good preservation potential,
ing model of Crosby and McKenzie (2009) was ern North America, and western South Amer- as opposed to uplifting areas that are subject to
removed from the observed bathymetry after ica, and the residual topography highs within erosion and have a poor preservation potential.
accounting for isostatic loading by sediments southern and eastern Africa and western North However, strata deposited in a dynamic topog-
using the method of Sykes (1996) and the global America. In the oceans, the most persistent raphy depression also have low long-term
sediment thickness map of Divins (2003). We features between models are the Australian- preservation potential because dynamic topog-
consider that continents extend to the edge of the Antarctic Discordance (AAD) that depresses raphy is transient. Thus, ancient subduction-
continental shelf (magenta contours in Fig. 1A), the southeast Indian mid-ocean ridge, the related dynamic topography is most likely to
which roughly corresponds to the −200 m ele- Argentine Basin in the southern South Atlan- be represented by unconformities (Burgess et
vation contour (Harrison et al., 1983), and we tic, the residual topography low under the al., 1997). As a consequence, the stratigraphic
calculate the equal-area arithmetic mean con- western part of the central Atlantic Ocean, the record is the most accessible archive of the
tinental elevation as 529 m. The areas between large-scale, low-amplitude residual topogra- dynamic topography signal, and continental
the edge of the continental shelf and ocean floor phy low under the northeast Pacific Ocean, and interiors that have not undergone deformation
per se as defined by (Müller et al., 2008a) were the highs under the central and western Pacific for hundreds of millions of years are the most
LITHOSPHERE | Volume 5 | Number 2 | www.gsapubs.org 191

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FLAMENT ET AL.
Figure 1. Graphical comparison between four residual topography fields calculated independently. All four models account for the flattening of old
ocean floor (“plate model”) with water-loaded oceans. Continents are air-loaded, and the mean residual topography is set to zero for comparison with
dynamic topography models. In the continents, A was calculated by removing the mean continental elevation (529 m), B was obtained by removing
the isostatic contribution of the crust only, updated from Steinberger (2007) using the age grids of Müller et al. (2008a), and C and D were obtained
by removing the isostatic contribution of both the continental crust and the continental lithosphere. The thin and thick black lines are the coastlines
and plate boundaries, respectively. In A, the white contours are the continent-ocean boundary from Müller et al. (2008a), the magenta contours are
the edge of the continents (−200 m; Harrison et al., 1983), the green contours outline Phanerozoic large igneous provinces, and the yellow contours
indicate continental crust thicker than 50 km. The red star is the location of well COST-B2 offshore New Jersey. Mollweide projection. Data in B, C, and
D are courtesy B. Steinberger.
TABLE 1. AMPLITUDE OF RESIDUAL AND DYNAMIC TOPOGRAPHY FIELDS

Model Minimum Maximum RMS*
(m) (m) (m)
Residual topography (Fig. 1)

A. This study –1638 3158 556
B. Steinberger (2007) –1557 2105 474
C. Panasyuk and Hager (2000) –1704 1119 439
D. Kaban et al. (2003) –2053 2144 613
Dynamic topography (Fig. 4)
A. This study –2235 1653 760
B. Steinberger (2007) –2778 3039 909
C. Ricard et al. (1993) –1605 611 430
D. Conrad and Husson (2009) –1550 1450 480
E. Spasojevic and Gurnis (2012) –3652 883 884
*Root mean square amplitude.

by guest
WYO.
promising places to search for the dynamic
topography signal (Gurnis, 1992).
STB
N WIB
Stratigraphic Record of Continental
Interiors: Examples from North America
and Australia
THICK x
CK
w The Western Interior Seaway of North Amer-
I
TH 3
ica, which covered ~40% of the continent and
FAR
U K
IC 1 2 resulted in >1 km of sediments deposited over
TH V
~1000 km (Bond, 1976; Liu and Nummedal,
0 400 km 2004), presents a robust long-wavelength sig-
0 100 miles
nal. Analysis of Cretaceous sediments in North
America suggests that the observed flooding
SW WYO. NE COLO.
V
Depth to upper boundary of the would require a sea-level rise of 310 m, result-
U
700 miles reconstructed Farallon slab at ing in accumulation of 700 m of sediments
Tertiary
0
3
84 Ma: (Bond, 1976), but the inferred Cretaceous iso-
2000 us
reta
ceo
us 134 km 179 km pachs (Cook and Bally, 1975) are significantly
FEET
4000 er C eo
Upp ac
et
6000 1 2
ow
erC
r
223 km 268 km thicker. Late Cretaceous subsidence was fol-
8000 L
10,000
313 km 358 km lowed by Tertiary uplift with a maximum tilt
Moxa-Douglas
Arch Imposed plate motions: amplitude of 3 km over ~1400 km (Mitrovica
Nonmarine
Marine
North America et al., 1989). During the Late Cretaceous, when
A Time surface Farallon plate B the sedimentary wedge was thickest, the deposi-
2 tional system was characterized by an eastward
Subsidence (x10 km ) migration of a depocenter from Utah to Wyo-
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ming (Weimer, 1970; Fig. 2A). The dominant
0
Subsidence (m)
characteristic was a westward downward tilt

with an internal depocenter that migrated east-
Stage 4: 400 ward at 5 cm/yr within North America (Liu et
al., 2011; Figs. 2B–2F). Besides this dominat-
80-75 Ma
ing Late Cretaceous to Tertiary signal, Heller et
800 al. (2003) identified three thin but widespread
98.8 – 75 Ma C alluvial conglomeratic units that recorded post-
Paleozoic episodes of widespread tilting across
0 the U.S. Cordillera that have been interpreted in
Subsidence (m)
terms of dynamic topography. Finally, a combi-

400 nation of stratigraphic, thermochronologic, and
Stage 3:
provenance constraints showed that the south-
83.9-80 Ma western corner of the United States tilted to the
800 east at ca. 80 Ma and then to the west at ca. 55
98.8 – 80 Ma D Ma over scales of ~500 km with an amplitude of
~1 km (Wernicke, 2011).
0 Episodes of anomalous long-wavelength
motions have also been inferred for Australia,
Subsidence (m)
Stage 2: which has experienced little orogenic activity

90.9-83.9 Ma 400
since the mid-Mesozoic and is relatively flat.
98.8 – 83.9 Ma E During the Cretaceous, the marine inundation
800 of Australia and eustasy were out of phase.
0 Maximum flooding of Australia occurred in
the late Aptian to early Albian (120–110 Ma)
Stage 1:
(Struckmeyer and Brown, 1990), when large
98.8-90.9 Ma 400 98.8 – 90.9 Ma F regions of the continent experienced marine
w x inundation. Australia became progressively
Figure 2. Depocenter migration within Cretaceous Western Interior Basin of North America. (A) Map exposed during the Late Cretaceous, reaching
and cross section of deltaic depocenters in the central Rocky Mountain area: 1—pre-Campanian; a flooding minimum in the Campanian (80–70
2—Campanian and early Maastrichtian; 3—Maastrichtian. A is modified from figure 15 of Weimer Ma), when global sea level was near a maxi-
(1970). (B) Predicted depth of the Farallon slab and main tectonic elements (STB, dark shading— mum. This record of anomalous relative sea
Sevier thrust belt; WIB, light shading—Western Interior Basin; FAR—Farallon plate). (C–F) Cumula-
level suggests that Australia has experienced
tive (black curves) and incremental (blue bands) residual subsidence from backstripped Late Cre-
taceous strata, compared to the cumulative dynamic subsidence (pink curves) predicted by the several episodes of vertical motion, including a
adjoint model of Liu et al. (2008), at different time intervals across section W-X in B. B–F are modi- large-scale vertical translation of the entire con-
fied from Figure 3 of Liu et al. (2011). tinent and a localized subsidence event (Bond,

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FLAMENT ET AL.
1978; Russell and Gurnis, 1994; Veevers and estimate dynamic topography in areas experi- typically <200 km wide yet several kilometers
Conaghan, 1984). Late Cretaceous vertical encing long-term dynamic uplift, with south- deep (Husson et al., 2012; Zhong and Gurnis,
motions appear to have been mostly confined to ern Africa being a well-known example. Both 1994).
the Eromanga and Surat Basins (Gallagher and the timing and amplitude of uplift are generally Delamination and convective instability of
Lambeck, 1989). The Eromanga Basin recorded difficult to constrain (Gurnis et al., 2000), due the continental lithosphere are short-wavelength
~500 m of tectonic subsidence in 10 m.y. at to the poor preservation potential in elevated dynamic processes with the potential for a strong
around 100 Ma (Gallagher and Lambeck, areas and to the large uncertainty of paleo- topographic expression. A compelling empirical
1989). Apatite fission-track analysis suggests altimetry proxies, i.e., typically a few hundred case is that of the renewed uplift of the southern
that the Cretaceous strata of the Surat Basin meters. As a result, dynamic uplift may be con- Sierra Nevada Mountains since the mid-Plio-
and basins on the eastern margin were subse- strained indirectly by estimating the timing and cene (Clark et al., 2005) and localized subsid-
quently eroded (Gallagher et al., 1994), which is amplitude of rock uplift. In this respect, ther- ence within the adjacent Great Valley (Saleeby
consistent with the tilting up toward the east of mochronologic methods allow the estimation et al., 2012), which have been related to insta-
Cretaceous marine strata (Gallagher et al., 1994; of the amount of exhumation by constraining bility of the continental lithosphere evident in a
Russell and Gurnis, 1994). Near the end of the both the amplitude and timing of the cooling of prominent high-seismic-velocity anomaly that
Cretaceous, Australia was ~250 m higher than uplifted rocks. For instance, indirect estimates extends from the base of the crust to ~200 km
it is today (Bond, 1978; Russell and Gurnis, of vertical motions via thermochronology have depth (Boyd et al., 2004; Zandt et al., 2004).
1994; Veevers and Conaghan, 1984). During been made for Eromanga Basin in Australia Other examples of vertical motions associated
the Cenozoic, Australia moved northward after (Gallagher et al., 1994), the Slave Craton (Ault with continental lithospheric instability include
it separated from Antarctica and tilted down to et al., 2009), and Kaapvaal Craton (Flowers Quaternary uplift in Baja, California (Mueller et
the northeast (DiCaprio et al., 2009; Sandiford, and Schoene, 2010) using apatite (U-Th)/He al., 2009), late Cenozoic uplift of the Wallowa
2007). This tilt must have had an amplitude of (AHe) or apatite fission-track (AFT) thermo- Mountains in eastern Oregon, U.S.A. (Hales et
300 m since the Eocene in order to reconcile chronology. One limit of thermochronologic al., 2005), and uplift of Miocene marine sedi-
interpreted patterns of marine incursion with methods, however, is the nonuniqueness of ments in the Central Anatolian Plateau, Turkey
a predicted topography accounting for global thermochronologic modeling (Redfield, 2010), (Cosentino et al., 2012).
sea-level variations (DiCaprio et al., 2009). On which underlines the need to complement it Smaller-scale modes of convection may
the southern margin, long-wavelength dynamic with other, independent, observations (Green influence surface topography. A prominent
topography was enhanced by at least 250 m of et al., 2011). mode evident in models of mantle convection
shorter-wavelength anomalous subsidence, con- A recent approach to constraining dynamic is small, low-amplitude instabilities that travel
sistent with the passage of the margin over a uplift consists in “inverting” topographic river along the base of the cold, top thermal bound-
north-south–elongated, 500-km-wide, anomaly profiles by parameterizing erosion in both time ary layer of mantle convection (e.g., Huang et
of dynamic topography approximately fixed and space (Pritchard et al., 2009), which is some- al., 2003). Such traveling convective instabili-
with respect to the mantle (DiCaprio et al., what different from conventional geomorphol- ties might be responsible for vertical motions on
2009). The present-day position of this depth ogy, in which uplift is parameterized to estimate a 2–20 m.y. time scale, as evident in sequence
anomaly is aligned with the Australian-Antarc- erosion. This method has been used to estimate stratigraphic analysis of passive continental
tic Discordance (cf. Whittaker et al., 2010). the uplift of the Bié dome, Angola, over the past margins (Petersen et al., 2010). This raises the
40 m.y. (Pritchard et al., 2009). In this case, the possibility that such localized small-scale con-
Stratigraphic Record of Continental method constrains the uplift history of single vection could be responsible for high-frequency,
Margins watersheds over ≤1000 km and ≤30 m.y., and second- to third-order sea-level fluctuations.
In addition to continental interiors, some is thus complementary to the stratigraphic and Whether the second- and third-order sea-level
methods have been developed to estimate thermochronological records, which provide changes evident on passive margins are global
dynamic topography in areas that have under- information over longer time scales and larger or local is controversial (e.g., Hallam, 1992;
gone recent tectonic deformation. For instance, spatial extents. An alternative method is that of Lovell, 2010). The upwarped edges of the Colo-
postrift anomalous subsidence, the difference Guillaume et al. (2009), who estimated the tilt rado Plateau in the western United States, as
between observed postrift thermal subsidence of Miocene terraces to estimate the Neogene well as the localization of late Neogene–Quater-
and that predicted by an analytic model of litho- uplift of central and eastern Patagonia, possibly nary magmatism and steep upper-mantle seis-
spheric cooling, has been attributed to dynamic due to the opening of a slab window. The main mic velocity gradients, are potentially indicative
topography on the Queensland Plateau on the difficulty of this method is the dating of terraces. of this mode of sublithospheric, small-scale con-
northeastern margin of Australia (Müller et al., vection (van Wijk et al., 2010).
2000), in the South China Sea (Xie et al., 2006), Geological Expressions and Models of Although the uplift and high elevation of
between New Zealand and Antarctica (Suther- Short-Wavelength Dynamic Topography the Colorado Plateau (e.g., Flowers, 2010)
land et al., 2010), and at the New Jersey margin have been interpreted as part of the overall
(see Discussion). Mantle-driven dynamic processes may also long-wavelength Cenozoic uplift of the west-
affect topography at shorter wavelengths (100 ern United States (see previous), they might
Constraints on Long-Term Dynamic Uplift km to a few hundred kilometers). A major chal- be viewed as a shorter-wavelength component
The previous section shows that the strati- lenge when studying dynamic topography at of dynamic topography. The vertical motions
graphic record is a powerful constraint on such wavelengths is to isolate the signal from evident from uplift of Mesozoic marine strata,
dynamic topography in areas that have experi- the contributions of isostasy and elastic flexure, unroofing from low-temperature thermochro-
enced long-term subsidence, especially in areas which have similar, kilometer-scale, ampli- nology (Flowers et al., 2008), and reorgani-
where long-term subsidence has been followed tudes. The most vivid expression of dynamic zations of drainage patterns (Wernicke, 2011)
by uplift. Different methods are required to topography is found in oceanic trenches that are might be associated with a long-wavelength

by guest
signal associated with the removal of the nega- MODELING LONG-WAVELENGTH Instantaneous Flow Models of Present-
tively buoyant Farallon slab (Liu and Gurnis, DYNAMIC TOPOGRAPHY Day Dynamic Topography
2010) or with the upwelling or warm mantle
that extends from the top of the lower mantle Several approaches have been developed to Dynamic topography, h, is the deflection
into the upper mantle (Moucha et al., 2008b, model regional and global dynamic topography, of Earth’s surface in response to the normal
2009), or with a combination of both processes. including models that only consider the pres- stresses arising from flow in the mantle, or
Locations of active hotspot volcanism corre- ent day (instantaneous models), if they consider
spond to swells of residual topography that have the time domain at all, time-dependent models, σ rr = Δρgh, (1)
a wavelength of several hundred kilometers and either a forward or inverse matching of
and an elevation <2 km (Crosby and McKen- present-day mantle structure. In addition, there where σrr is the total normal stress at the level
zie, 2009; Crough, 1983). The surface expres- has been a variety of studies that have looked surface of mantle flow model (in which an oth-
sion of mantle plumes likely extends beyond at generic issues associated with the physics of erwise free surface would be deflected by h),
this main swell. For instance, lateral magmatic dynamic topography and the connection with Δρ is the density difference between the mantle
underplating and pulses of hot material in the the rock record (Burgess and Gurnis, 1995; and either air or water, and g is the acceleration
asthenosphere associated with the Iceland Mitrovica and Jarvis, 1985). Models either use due to gravity. Pekeris (1935) was first to point
plume have been proposed to explain trans- or predict present-day quantities (such as the out that surface deformation should result from
gression and regression patterns over <10 m.y. geoid, mantle seismic structure, surface and/or mantle convection. He advanced a hypothesis
observed in the North Atlantic (Lovell, 2010). core-mantle boundary dynamic topography, the of thermal convection in Earth’s interior and
A Paleocene–Eocene landscape off the north- rate of change of surface topography, and plate pointed out that the surface of the convecting
west coast of Europe was recently reconstructed motions) to infer mantle properties. Inverse mantle would be pushed upward over rising
using a three-dimensional seismic data set on models and models that use data assimilation currents and pulled downward over sinking
the continental shelf north of Scotland (Hartley can be compared to fewer observations since currents, which was later verified by numer-
et al., 2011; Shaw-Champion et al., 2008). Data assimilated data cannot be used to validate ous numerical studies (e.g., McKenzie et al.,
suggest that this landscape was lifted above the models. This section constitutes an over- 1974). In order to link mantle structure, flow,
sea level in a series of three discrete steps of view of a number of regional- and global-scale the geoid, and surface topography, Parsons and
200–400 m each, and that it was reburied after models of dynamic topography, including their Daly (1983), Ricard et al. (1984), and Richards
~1 m.y. of subaerial exposure, which points to strengths and limitations (Table 2) while also and Hager (1984) developed analytical solu-
transient uplift and subsidence. These transient looking at some generic issues associated with tions, essentially Green’s function solutions,
vertical motions have been interpreted as a pulse the ways in which physical properties influ- for viscous flow in either Cartesian or spherical
of warm asthenosphere that moves in a thin low- ence dynamic topography, time dependence of domains with simply layered viscosities. This
viscosity channel radially away from the Iceland dynamic topography, and its connection to the idea can be expressed as
plume (Rudge et al., 2008). stratigraphic record.
h = CΔT, (2)
TABLE 2. STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF DYNAMIC TOPOGRAPHY MODELS where ΔT is a temperature scale, and C is a func-
Strengths Limitations tion of depth that specifies the depth distribution
of temperature (density variations) and lateral
Analytical and semi-analytical models
and radial variations in viscosity. C is not depen-
Computationally cheap Radial viscosity variations only
dent on the absolute value for viscosity, as first
Thermal diffusivity neglected
demonstrated by Morgan (1965). An example
Numerical models
of the dependence of C on depth, or normalized
Forward models surface deformation “kernel,” is given in Fig-
Computationally relatively cheap Dependent on synthetic initial condition ure 3 for a case of the analytical model of Hager
Can achieve large dimensional time Kinematically driven and Clayton (1989) in which mantle viscosity is
Can achieve high resolution May result in unrealistic slab advection
radially distributed in four layers (ηlith = 10; ηasth
Can be compared to mantle tomography Upwelling is usually passive
= 1/30; ηUM = 1; ηLM = 1). The kernels show that
Backward advection the efficiency with which density heterogene-
Computationally relatively cheap Thermal diffusivity is neglected ities induce dynamic topography decreases with
Can achieve high resolution Limited to a few tens of millions of years depth, and that this effect is more pronounced
Consistent with the present-day density structure of Thermal boundary layers require special treatment at shorter wavelengths (Fig. 3). The surface
the mantle
Usually kinematically driven
deformation kernel depends on the assumed
Adjoint models viscosity structure. The strong decrease of the
Consistent with the present-day density structure of Computationally expensive deformation kernels with increasing wave num-
the mantle ber results from the combined effect of a low-
Thermal diffusivity is accounted for Usually kinematically driven
viscosity asthenosphere below the lithosphere
Hybrid models
and then the subsequent increase in viscosity
Computationally relatively cheap Not fully time dependent with increasing depth from the upper mantle
Consistent with the present-day density structure of Kinematically driven through the transition zone and into the lower
the mantle mantle (Hager and Clayton, 1989), a common
Thermal diffusivity neglected in the backward advection
feature of proposed mantle viscosity structures

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FLAMENT ET AL.
0 10 Steinberger (2007) and Conrad and Husson than that of residual topography. The main
1/30 (2009) derived the global dynamic topography parameters explaining the amplitude difference
500 1 predicted by instantaneous numerical mantle between the models are the scaling factor from
flow models (Figs. 4B and 4D). These two seismic to density anomaly, which is greater in
1000 models, hereafter referred to as S07 and CH09, model S07, the depth above which density con-
Depth [km]
are broadly similar in that they are based on a trasts are ignored, which is 80 km shallower in
1500 mantle density structure derived from S-wave S07, and the low-viscosity asthenosphere pres-
10 tomography with the assumption that all latent in CH09 and not in S07. Steinberger (2007)
2000 eral variations in seismic velocities are thermal, showed that including the effect of phase tran-
while ignoring density contrasts in the upper- sitions in such models only reduces the root-
2500 most mantle (220 km in S07; 300 km in CH09). mean-square amplitude of dynamic topography
Surface Deformation
Important differences between these two mod- by ~5%. Other important effects to investigate
0.0 0.5 1.0 els include the tomographic inversion, the scal- include accounting for chemical heterogeneity
Figure 3. Normalized surface deformation ker- ing factor to convert seismic velocity to density when converting seismic velocity anomalies to
nel showing the relative deformation induced anomaly, the surface velocity boundary condi- density anomalies (Simmons et al., 2007) and
by a surface mass placed at a given depth in tions, and the viscosity structure. In addition, the effect of lateral viscosity variations (Zhong
the mantle for spherical harmonic degrees two S07 is a semi-analytical model using a spheri- and Davies, 1999). At long wavelengths, lateral
(solid line), four (long dashes), and eight (short
cal harmonics approach (Hager and O’Connell, variations in viscosity might be small compared
dashes). A value of unity implies perfect isostatic
compensation. Values on the right-hand axis 1979) with a horizontal resolution of ~650 km, to the uncertainty of tomography models, but
indicate the relative, nondimensional viscosity whereas CH09 is a numerical model using a they are expected to be significant in time-
of each of the four layers (lithosphere, astheno- finite-element approach, CitcomS (Zhong et al., dependent mantle flow models that are largely
sphere, upper mantle, lower mantle) considered 2000), with a horizontal resolution of ~100 km. driven by the evolution of thermal heterogeneity
in this case. The limit between upper and lower These differences illustrate the large numbers of (Moucha et al., 2007).
mantle is shown in gray. Figure is modified from
free parameters and boundary conditions inher- Still focusing on instantaneous models, the
Figure 24 of Hager and Clayton (1989).
ent to mantle flow models. rate of change of dynamic topography provides
Despite the major differences between these complementary constraints. Since dynamic
two models, the present-day dynamic topog- topography depends on how fast mantle buoy-
raphy fields they predict are generally similar ancy moves in the mantle, Gurnis et al. (2000)
(Mitrovica and Forte, 2004; Paulson et al., 2007; (Figs. 4B and 4D) and compatible with proposed showed that
Steinberger and Calderwood, 2006). residual topography fields (Fig. 1). Both pre-
C′
Hager (1984) used the approach given by dicted dynamic topographies show highs within h = ΔT 2, (3)
Equation 2 with a thermal model of slabs con- the Pacific, and southern and eastern Africa. The η
sistent with Benioff zone seismicity and the main dynamic topography lows extend under where h is the rate of change of dynamic topog-
observed geoid to constrain a minimum 30-fold Central and South America, and from Austral- raphy, C′ is a constant related to C in Equation
increase of viscosity from the upper to lower asia to eastern Europe, with a minimum under 2 and therefore to the distribution of buoyancy
mantle. The approach was then further elabo- Southeast Asia. The main differences in terms of and viscosity, while η is a reference absolute
rated using a mantle density structure scaled patterns are the dynamic topography lows in the value of viscosity, and ΔT is a temperature
from global seismic tomography inversions central South Atlantic, in northwest Africa, and scale. In other words, in contrast to just dynamic
(Hager et al., 1985), with results that implied in the eastern United States predicted by S07 but topography, which does not depend on the abso-
that chemically stratified mantle convection not by CH09. All three of these dynamic topog- lute viscosity (Morgan, 1965), its rate of change
could be ruled out because it produced a pattern raphy lows are observed in residual topography does. These ideas were captured in a numerical
of dynamic topography with broad subsidence fields (Fig. 1), although the amplitudes are sub- model of global, present-day mantle flow that
over Africa. To fit the observed geoid, Hager stantially larger in S07 compared to CH09 and forward predicted present-day uplift rates. From
et al. (1985) revised the minimum viscosity residual fields (Fig. 1). In addition, neither S07 models matching the constraints on uplift rate of
increase from upper to lower mantle to a factor nor CH09 reproduces the residual topography southern Africa, Gurnis et al. (2000) argued that
of 10. In contrast, Lithgow-Bertelloni and Silver low in the northeast Pacific Ocean. the mid-lower mantle was 0.2% less dense than
(1998) fit the residual topography of southern An important difference between S07 average, i.e., much less than would be expected
Africa with the dynamic topography predicted and CH09 is the amplitude of the calculated if shear velocities were solely governed by
by an instantaneous mantle flow model with a dynamic topography (Table 1), which has been temperature, but with a viscosity increase of a
lower mantle 50 times more viscous than the the subject of a long-standing debate (e.g., Gur- factor of 10 from upper to lower mantle, which
upper mantle. These differences in best-fit man- nis, 1990). The dynamic topography predicted again shows that best-fit parameters vary largely
tle viscosity structures are not surprising con- by model S07 (CH09) presents a peak-to-peak between models.
sidering that the two flow models are based on amplitude of ±3 km (±1.5 km) and a root-mean-
different tomography models and that Hager et square amplitude of ~0.9 km (~0.5 km; Table 1). Time-Integrated and Time-Dependent
al. (1985) included all seismic velocity anoma- For comparison, the peak-to-peak amplitude of Flow Models of Past and Present-Day
lies as density anomalies in their calculation of the residual topography fields shown in Figure Dynamic Topography
surface dynamic topography, whereas Lithgow- 1 is approximately ±2 km, and their root-mean-
Bertelloni and Silver (1998) calculated the sur- square amplitude is ~0.5 km (Table 1). There- The previous section shows that present-day
face dynamic topography resulting from density fore, the dynamic topography predicted by dynamic topography can be estimated using the
heterogeneities below 325 km depth. model CH09 (S07) is 25% smaller (50% larger) present-day density structure of the mantle as

by guest
Figure 4. Graphical comparison of the present-day dynamic topography (water-loaded in the oceans, air-loaded in the continents, and averaging to
zero) predicted by five distinct models. A and C show the dynamic topography fields predicted by time-dependent mantle flow models, both numerical
(A) and analytical (C). B, D, and E show the dynamic topography field predicted by present-day instantaneous mantle flow models in which the density
structure is based on a seismic tomographic model of the interior of the Earth. See text for details. The red star in all panels shows the location of well
COST-B2. Mollweide projection. Data in B courtesy B. Steinberger, C courtesy Y. Ricard, D courtesy C. Conrad, and E courtesy S. Spasojevic.

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FLAMENT ET AL.
constrained by tomography models. However, Bering Sea predicted by Ricard et al. (1993) is be fit with the same model. The study is notable
a major challenge in estimating the evolution not predicted by inverse models, and it is only for two reasons. First, this rather straightforward
of dynamic topography is that the past density observed in one of the four residual topography computational approach linking plate tectonics
structure of the mantle is not directly known. fields (Fig. 1), which suggests an overestimation and thermal convection showed that an entire
Several strategies using data assimilation have of the amount of subducted material in that area cycle of dynamic topography could be followed
been developed over the past two decades to in the plate model used by Ricard et al. (1993). from subsidence to uplift. As we shall see, most
model the evolution of mantle flow and of Evolution of dynamic topography. Gur- other regional applications can only follow part
dynamic topography. These strategies include nis (1993a) developed time-dependent models of of the entire history (either the subsidence or the
forward, backward, and adjoint mantle flow mantle flow based on the analytical formulation uplift phase). This is not a criticism of model-
models based on the history of subduction and proposed by Richards and Hager (1984) using ing methods but reflects fundamental limitations
plate motions given by global tectonic recon- the Phanerozoic subduction history of Scotese of the geological record. In addition, the study
structions, or on mantle tomography, or on a and Golonka (1992) to investigate the influence reinforced the need to follow the history of ver-
combination of both. of dynamic topography and its time derivative tical motions in the plate frame of reference,
on continental flooding. This study revealed that is, tracking the history of a point on a plate
Models of Dynamic Topography Based on that a significant part of the observed Phanero- that moves with respect to the mantle. This is
Subduction History zoic continental flooding could be attributed to essential for the detailed comparison of models
Analytical models. Present-day dynamic dynamic subsidence above active subduction to geological proxies of vertical motions.
topography. Ricard et al. (1993) developed a zones, suggesting that dynamic topography DiCaprio et al. (2010) tracked the evolution
time-dependent analytical model of mantle flow affects global sea-level change at long wave- of dynamic topography for the Australian plate
in which subduction history (Lithgow-Bertel- lengths, and therefore that Phanerozoic strain a kinematically driven forward model with
loni and Richards, 1998; Lithgow-Bertelloni et tigraphy can be used to constrain mantle flow. assimilation of plate velocities in 1 m.y. incre-
al., 1993) was imposed over the past 200 m.y. Building on this approach, Lithgow-Bertelloni ments in which a high-resolution regional model
In this model, slabs are treated as “stokeslets,” and Gurnis (1997) used a series of five instanta- was embedded in a global model. This model,
sinking vertically at a constant rate and slow- neous global flow models throughout the Ceno- starting at 50 Ma with subduction zones inferred
ing down as they enter the lower mantle, while zoic to reproduce the overall observed trend of from plate reconstructions, reproduced the
neglecting thermal diffusion. The best-fit model flooding and exposure of North America, Aus- observed fast Neogene subsidence of the Austra-
of Ricard et al. (1993) to the observed geoid was tralia, and Indonesia, although the amplitudes of lian northeast shelf that would have contributed
obtained for a lower mantle 40 times more vis- model uplift and subsidence were greater than to the demise of carbonate reefs (DiCaprio et al.,
cous than the upper mantle. This estimate, based that inferred from stratigraphic constraints. 2010). DiCaprio et al. (2010) were also able to
on a forward model, is closer to the analytical Forward numerical models. Gurnis et al. exploit new paleogeographic tools that allowed
result of Hager (1984; lower mantle 30 times (1998) developed numerical regional mantle the plate boundaries to smoothly evolve (Gurnis
more viscous than upper mantle) than the best- convection models with imposed plate kinemat- et al., 2012), essential for time-dependent con-
fit model to the geoid of Hager et al. (1985), ics to investigate the evolution of the dynamic vection models. Zhang et al. (2012) proposed a
which showed a lower mantle only 10 times topography of the Australian plate since the kinematically driven forward model extending
more viscous than the upper mantle. Again, such Cretaceous. Gurnis et al. (1998) used the loca- back to 450 Ma and having an average global
variations in results are not surprising given the tion of subduction taken from plate reconstruc- surface resolution of ~100 km. The plate recon-
differences among the three approaches. The tions (Müller et al., 1997) to build a synthetic struction used in this model consists of 34 stages
present-day dynamic topography predicted initial temperature field for their forward mod- over the past 450 Ma, and the initial condition
by the model of Ricard et al. (1993) is shown els. They reproduced the regional Cretaceous was obtained by running the first reconstruction
in Figure 4C. It has a minimum of −1.6 km, a flooding of Australia deduced from paleogeo- stage for 150 m.y. The vertical motions pre-
maximum of ~600 m, and a root-mean square graphic reconstructions in which it had long dicted by this model for the Kaapvaal and Slave
amplitude of ~430 m (Table 1). The skew of this been known that eastern Australia achieved Cratons were in agreement to the first-order
dynamic topography field toward negative val- peak flooding with shallow marine seas ~20 with the burial histories predicted by thermo-
ues is due to the model being driven by slabs, m.y. earlier than inferred peak global sea level chronology models.
while the return mantle flow is entirely pas- (see previous; Veevers and Conaghan, 1984). A new model. We introduce a forward
sive: Negative dynamic topography is of larger Essentially, in the Early Cretaceous Australia model in which we assimilate the thermal and
amplitude and covers a smaller area than posi- drifted eastward over the long-lived subduction kinematic field associated with plate reconstruc-
tive dynamic topography (Fig. 4C). As a con- zone bounding Gondwanaland, which caused tions (Seton et al., 2012) with continuously clos-
sequence, the amplitude of negative dynamic widespread marine inundation in the central ing plates (Gurnis et al., 2012) prepared using
topography predicted by this model is ~20% and eastern part of the continent. Sediments the software GPlates (Boyden et al., 2011). This
smaller than negative residual topography (Fig. filled the accommodation space as the continent model is essentially the extension of the approach
1), whereas positive dynamic topography is only slowly rose following termination of subduc- of Ricard et al. (1993), Lithgow-Bertelloni et al.
30% of positive residual topography. In terms tion such that when global sea level peaked in (1993), and Lithgow-Bertelloni and Richards
of spatial distribution, the dynamic topography the Late Cretaceous, there was no remaining (1998) to “a full three-dimensional convection
lows predicted by the forward model of Ricard accommodation space, resulting in an absence problem constrained by plate motions” (Ricard
et al. (1993) under Central/South America and of any major inundation. Gurnis et al. (1998) et al., 1993, p. 21,896). The velocity field of plate
Southeast Asia match those predicted by the also showed that the position and history of the reconstructions is continuously imposed as a sur-
inverse models of Steinberger (2007) and Con- equally anomalous Australian-Antarctic Discor- face boundary condition by linear interpolation
rad and Husson (2009). However, the dynamic dance (AAD; Fig. 1), a prominent present-day between reconstruction stages defined every mil-
topography low under the Gulf of Alaska and north-south residual topography low, could also lion years. The temperature field of the oceanic

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lithosphere is assimilated using paleo-oceanic Pacific Ocean, southern Africa, and the Atlan- layers in the backward advection process and
ages (Seton et al., 2012) and the half-space cool- tic Ocean. This dynamic topography field is used a half-space cooling model to assimilate
ing model (e.g., Davis and Lister, 1974). One in overall agreement with the residual topog- oceanic ages in the top thermal boundary layer.
limitation of global mantle convection models raphy in terms of pattern (Fig. 1) and ampli- This backward advection scheme, in which plate
with imposed plate velocities is that they result in tude (between −2.2 km and +1.6 km; Table 1). velocities are also assimilated, was reversible for
substantial advective thickening of slabs instead Although the mean dynamic topography is zero, ages up to between 50 and 75 Ma (Conrad and
of well-defined one-sided subduction (Table 2). the modeled highs have lower amplitude than Gurnis, 2003).
To overcome this limitation, we assimilate the lows because upwelling is passive. The model Moucha et al. (2008a) estimated dynamic
temperature field in the proximity of the subduc- features dynamic topography lows under central topography both at the surface, following the
tion zones given by the plate reconstructions. Europe, eastern North America, and western definition of Forte et al. (1993), and beneath the
The thermal structure of slabs is derived from South America, and a dynamic topography high lithosphere, similar to the definition used here,
the age of the subducting lithosphere using a under southern Africa, which are all evident in from a backward advection model in which
half-space cooling formulation and assuming a the residual topography (Fig. 1). The dynamic data were assimilated in several ways. First,
slab dip angle of 45°. This analytical solution is topography under the Argentine Basin and the the tomography model used by Moucha et al.
assimilated in the dynamic model within 350 km western United States has the expected sign, (2008a) is a hybrid tomography/instantaneous
of subduction zones using a blending function but its amplitude is lower than expected. The mantle flow model that assimilates the free-air
to smoothly merge the analytical and numerical AAD is also of lower amplitude than residual gravity anomaly, the “residual” topography field
temperature fields. In addition, we ensure that topography, and it is shifted to the west. This corrected for the isostasy of the crust, present-
subduction zones appearing during the modeled discrepancy is tempered by the fact that only day plate velocities from DeMets et al. (1990),
period are progressively inserted into the upper about half the excess depth of the AAD is likely and the excess ellipticity of the core-mantle
mantle. The method ensures that the slab buoy- dynamic, the rest being due to thin oceanic crust boundary (Simmons et al., 2007). Second, the
ancy flux in the upper mantle is consistent with within the AAD (Gurnis et al., 1998; Whittaker viscosity profile is constrained using the same
the plate reconstructions, and it avoids unrealis- et al., 2010). In addition, the positive dynamic convection-related observables as done ear-
tic slab advective thickening. The model, solved topography predicted under the northeast lier, as well as data related to glacial isostatic
using CitcomS (Zhong et al., 2000), consists of Pacific Ocean is at odds with the large-scale, adjustment (Mitrovica and Forte, 2004). Third,
12 × 65 × 1282 elements with an average sur- low-amplitude residual topography low (Fig. although plate motions are predicted by the
face resolution of ~50 km. The initial condition 1). Finally, the residual topography highs asso- flow rather than driving the flow in the formu-
(at 200 Ma) consists of a global temperature ciated with plumes in eastern Africa, the west- lation of Moucha et al. (2008a), mantle flow is
field (nondimensional background of 0.5) with ern Pacific (Darwin Rise), and Iceland are not backward advected using boundary conditions
cold slabs inserted to a depth of 1750 km and an reproduced by the model, which only captures consistent with a no-net-rotation tectonic plate
assimilated cold surface thermal boundary layer large-scale, passive mantle upwelling. model. Aside from the data assimilation, the
as described previously (for a cross section of model of Moucha et al. (2008a) does not seem
the initial condition under the Tethys, see Zahi- Time-Dependent Models of Dynamic to include any specific treatment of thermal
rovic et al., 2012). The temperature dependence Topography Based on Mantle Tomography boundary layers, which is important in back-
of viscosity is implemented using an Arrhenius Backward advection. In order to inves- ward mantle advection schemes (Conrad and
law with activation energy of 100 kJ/mol (33 kJ/ tigate the time dependence of mantle flow and Gurnis, 2003), nor of lateral viscosity variations
mol) in the upper (lower) mantle, which limits dynamic topography, a natural extension of or temperature dependence of viscosity, which
viscosity variations to three orders of magnitude, instantaneous flow models consists of backward are important in time-dependent flow models
and in our reference case, the lower mantle refer- advecting the mantle density structure derived (Moucha et al., 2007). Based on this model,
ence viscosity is 100 times larger than that of the from tomography. This process essentially Moucha et al. (2008a) proposed that the New
upper mantle (for the resulting viscosity profile, consists in changing the sign of gravity in the Jersey margin has been dynamically uplifted
see Zahirovic et al., 2012). The surface dynamic momentum equation and setting the nonrevers- by 100–200 m over the past 30 m.y., and its
topography is computed by restarting the calcu- ible thermal diffusivity to zero in the energy equa- conjugate margin in northwest Africa has been
lation every 5 m.y. with no-slip surface boundary tion (Steinberger and O’Connell, 1997). Some uplifted by ~100 m during the same period. The
conditions to suppress the effect of the surface caution is needed, since the method accumulates important consequence of this work is that sea-
traction imposed by plate velocities (for a discus- light material at the core-mantle boundary and level curves derived from the well-documented
sion of the effect of model boundary conditions dense material toward the surface, which results stratigraphy of the New Jersey margin (Miller et
on predicted dynamic topography, see Thora- in a decrease of information on the density struc- al., 2005; Watts and Thorne, 1984) likely con-
val and Richards, 1997) and after removing the ture of the mantle back in time. A further limit tain a dynamic component and cannot be used
uppermost 350 km of the mantle, i.e., the depth of backward advection is that thermal diffusion alone to derive eustatic sea-level curves. We will
to which subduction zones are assimilated. cannot be simply reversed (Ismail-Zadeh et al., return to the way in which different models fit
The resulting present-day dynamic topog- 2004). Simple backward integration is adequate the New Jersey constraint in the Discussion.
raphy field (Fig. 4A), broadly similar to that of for long wavelengths where advection domi- Adjoint models. To overcome the short-
Ricard et al. (1993; Fig. 4D), has a degree two nates over diffusion. The first study to model coming of backward advection in dealing with
pattern with a belt of low dynamic topography dynamic topography using this approach was the conductive thermal boundary layer, adjoints
extending from Antarctica through the Ameri- that of Conrad and Gurnis (2003), who proposed of the governing equations can be introduced
cas to the Arctic and broadening beneath the that the dynamic topography high currently (Bunge et al., 2003; Ismail-Zadeh et al., 2004;
whole Eurasian continent. In this subduction- located under southern Africa migrated from Liu and Gurnis, 2008). The method consists in
driven model, the dynamic topography highs eastern Africa over the past 36 Ma. They also refining the assumed initial condition by itera-
correspond to passive upwelling under the pointed out the importance of thermal boundary tively solving the forward and backward adjoint

by guest
FLAMENT ET AL.
and minimizing a cost function (in this case, oceanic ages (Müller et al., 2008a). Spasojevic topography anomalies (since the mean of each
between seismic tomography and forward- and Gurnis (2012) carried out a series of forward field is zero). The wavelength of model dynamic
predicted temperature). The main advantage instantaneous flow models, hereafter referred to topography is overall larger than that of pro-
of this method is that it uses a forward solution as SG12, from 90 Ma in 10 m.y. increment based posed residual topographies (Fig. 1). The model
of the coupled equations of motion and energy on these density structures. They compared the of Steinberger (2007), based on a compilation
while converging upon the known tomographic predicted change in global dynamic topography of mantle tomography models, presents shorter
structure. A significant limitation is the compu- for several models with different viscosity struc- wavelengths than models by Conrad and Husson
tational cost, as a single inversion requires mul- tures to the uplift and subsidence maps deduced (2009) and Spasojevic and Gurnis (2012) based
tiple forward and adjoint solutions of the equa- from paleogeographic reconstructions (Blakey, on S20RTS (Ritsema et al., 2004) (Fig. 4). For
tions and is substantially more expensive than a 2008; Smith et al., 1994) and noted that differ- instance, the dynamic topography high under
backward run (Bunge et al., 2003; Table 2). ent models compare best to data in different areas Iceland and the Azores (Conrad et al., 2004)
Liu et al. (2008) and Spasojevic et al. (2009) and suggested that the radial viscosity structure is distinct in the model of Steinberger (2007),
used a variant of this method to constrain man- of the mantle is not laterally uniform. subdued in the model of Conrad and Husson
tle properties finding adjoint models (starting This dynamic topography field of Spaso- (2009), and absent in Spasojevic and Gurnis
from present-day seismic tomography) that jevic and Gurnis (2012; Fig. 4E) is similar to (2012) (Fig. 4). Dynamic topography lows in
best fit the flooding history of North America that proposed by Conrad and Husson (2009), the equatorial South Atlantic Ocean are only
(Fig. 5A). In these models, the mantle structure which is expected, since model CH09 is instan- captured by the model of Steinberger (2007),
is scaled from shear wave seismic tomography taneous and model SG12 carries no informa- albeit with a larger amplitude than suggested by
(Grand, 2002) between 250 km and 2400 km tion from the past to the present. Both models residual topography. With more robust process-
depth, and the plate velocities of continuously are also based on the same tomography model, ing techniques, especially with full waveform
closing plates (Gurnis et al., 2012). In addition, S20RTS. The main difference between the two seismic tomography, future mantle tomogra-
the flat-lying, continuous Cretaceous Farallon models is the amplitude of dynamic topography phy models will improve our understanding of
slab could only be backward advected (Fig. 5C) lows, which is ~1.5 times larger in the model global dynamic topography down to ~1000 km
by imposing a viscous stress guide (Liu et al., of Spasojevic and Gurnis (2012), which reflects scale, whereas present global studies are limited
2008; Spasojevic et al., 2009). The dynamic (1) that the uppermost 300 km section of the to a resolution of ~3000–5000 km (Fig. 4).
topography (Fig. 5B) and its rate of change were mantle has been ignored in CH09, whereas the Both synthetic time-dependent forward man-
used to predict the spatial pattern of marine uppermost 250 km section has been removed in tle flow models (Figs. 4A and 4C) and instan-
inundation (Fig. 5A). This was then compared SG12, and (2) that the scaling factor to convert taneous models based on mantle tomography
to the observed flooding in the Western Interior seismic velocity anomaly to density anomaly is (Figs. 4B, 4D, and 4E) predict dynamic topogra-
Seaway and to subsidence rates deduced from depth independent and equal to 0.15 g cm–3 km–1 phy lows under the continents, with the notable
borehole data, respectively. The scaling factor s in CH09, whereas it varies with depth between exceptions of Africa south of the equator and of
between mantle tomography and density struc- 0.05 and 0.3 g cm–3 km–1 s in SG12. western North America (out of the five models,
ture was constrained by minimizing the misfit only that of Ricard et al. [1993] does not pre-
between the amplitude of observed and pre- DISCUSSION dict positive dynamic topography for western
dicted subsidence. The viscosity of the upper North America). Interestingly, all mantle flow
mantle was constrained by minimizing the mis- Comparison between Present-Day Global models predict a dynamic topography low
fit between observed and predicted rates of sub- Residual and Dynamic Topography under Southeast Asia that is more pronounced
sidence. The best fit between model output and than suggested by residual topography studies,
subsidence-related observables was obtained The good first-order agreement among and negative dynamic topography along the east
for an upper-mantle reference viscosity of 1 × four global residual topography fields (Fig. 1), coast of Asia, where the residual topography is
1021 Pa s and a lower-mantle reference viscosity derived independently and based on different positive (Figs. 1 and 4). One limit to constrain-
of 1.5 × 1022 Pa s (Liu et al., 2008; Spasojevic assumptions, is encouraging. The most promi- ing residual topography in Southeast Asia and
et al., 2009). Significantly, the inferred upper- nent and robust residual topography features are along the east coast of Asia is the small extent of
mantle viscosity is within the range inferred (1) the lows extending from central Europe to oceanic crust, limited to the South China, Sulu,
from postglacial rebound studies (Cathles, Southeast Asia, from eastern North America to Celebes, and Banda Seas in Southeast Asia and
1975; Mitrovica and Forte, 2004). Finally, the western South America, the Australian-Antarc- to the Sea of Japan and southernmost Sea of
best-fitting model from Liu et al. (2008) suc- tic Discordance (AAD), the Argentine Basin, Okhotsk along the east coast of Asia (see COB
cessfully reproduced the observed craton-ward and (2) the highs under southern and eastern contours in Fig. 1A). Because we have assigned
migration of the prominent depocenter within Africa, Iceland, and the Darwin Rise. a uniform elevation of –200 m to areas between
the Cretaceous section of the interior of North The global dynamic topography fields pre- oceans and continents, our proposed residual
America (Figs. 2C–2F). dicted by five numerical mantle flow models topography features a regional residual topog-
Hybrid models. Spasojevic and Gurnis (Fig. 4), based on two distinct methods and a raphy low in Southeast Asia and along the east
(2012) recently proposed a hybrid formulation in hybrid of those, are also in overall agreement coast of Asia (Fig. 1A), whereas other studies
which the density structure of the lower mantle with each other, and with the residual topogra- (Figs. 1B, 1C, and 1D) in which these areas are
is entirely derived from backward advection of phy (Fig. 1). All of these dynamic topography treated as continental suggest positive residual
a seismic tomography model, whereas in the fields, with the exception of Steinberger (2007), topography in the Gulf of Thailand, Borneo, and
upper mantle, the positively buoyant anomalies are to some extent skewed toward negative val- the east coast of Asia. The consistency of the
are backward advected from seismic tomogra- ues (Table 1), reflecting that negative dynamic dynamic topography low under Southeast Asia
phy and the negatively buoyant subduction zones topography anomalies are larger in amplitude and the east coast of Asia in both instantaneous
are imposed from tectonic reconstructions and but cover smaller areas than positive dynamic flow models (Figs. 4B, 4D, and 4E) and forward

by guest
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0 Ma 40 Ma 70 Ma 100 Ma
A
WD (km)
0
1.0
0
0
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B 230˚ 240˚ 250˚ 260˚ 270˚ 280˚ 290˚ 300˚ 310˚ 230˚ 240˚ 250˚ 260˚ 270˚ 280˚ 290˚ 300˚ 310˚ 230˚ 240˚ 250˚ 260˚ 270˚ 280˚ 290˚ 300˚ 310˚ 230˚ 240˚ 250˚ 260˚ 270˚ 280˚ 290˚ 300˚ 310˚
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50˚ 50˚ 50˚ 50˚ 50˚ 50˚ 50˚ 50˚
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230˚ 240˚ 250˚ 260˚ 270˚ 280˚ 290˚ 300˚ 310˚ 230˚ 240˚ 250˚ 260˚ 270˚ 280˚ 290˚ 300˚ 310˚ 230˚ 240˚ 250˚ 260˚ 270˚ 280˚ 290˚ 300˚ 310˚ 230˚ 240˚ 250˚ 260˚ 270˚ 280˚ 290˚ 300˚ 310˚
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0.
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0.
0.7
0.7
0.7
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0.6
0.
0.6
0.6
10 cm/yr
A review of observations and models of dynamic topography
Figure 5. Predictions of the adjoint models of Spasojevic et al. (2009). Flooding (water depth, WD) (A) and dynamic topography (DT) (B) of North America since 100 Ma in a North America
fixed reference frame. (C) Cross sections at 41°N of the velocity and temperature fields. The curves above the section show plate velocities (red) and dynamic topography (blue) along the
profile. Black triangles denote a well in the area of Denver that moves with the continent. The vertical axis shows radius normalized to Earth’s surface. Note that the bottom-right cross
section is for 90 Ma, while the dynamic topography and flooding predictions are at 100 Ma. Figure modified from Figures 4 and 12 of Spasojevic et al. (2009).
201
| INVITED REVIEW
FLAMENT ET AL.
mantle flow models (Figs. 4A and 4C) suggests topography on global sea level and then turn to including ~110–200 m caused by seafloor uplift
that the seismically fast mantle is reproduced the regional effects of dynamic topography. and <70 m due to continental subsidence. Thus,
by forward models. Given the poor control on dynamic topography influences global sea level
residual dynamic topography in these regions, Global Dynamic Topography and Global by offsetting (by about one third) the decrease in
dynamic topography models for south and east Sea-Level Change sea level imposed by changes in the age distri-
Asia should be compared to time-dependent Changes in dynamic topography could have bution of the ocean floor. Dynamic topography
observables (e.g., Xie et al., 2006) and to mantle a first-order influence on global sea level (Gur- should therefore not be neglected in studies of
tomography in the case of synthetic forward nis, 1992). Using a simple model of mantle flow long-term global sea-level change. In computa-
models. However, Southeast Asia is the region associated with slabs, Gurnis (1993c) computed tional models, it is possible to create a global
with the largest extent of shallow marine seas, that the shifting motion of continents over the sea-level curve by averaging the height of all
and such shallow seas are strongly correlated evolving long-wavelength dynamic topogra- continents with respect to sea level. Things are
with predicted present-day dynamic topography phy would give rise to a 100–200 m eustatic more complex in reality because large-ampli-
lows (Gurnis, 1993b). change with two highs in the mid-Paleozoic tude swings in dynamic topography could have
All mantle flow models predict positive and late Mesozoic. Husson and Conrad (2006) a disproportionate influence on the stratigraphi-
dynamic topography for the entire Pacific developed a model based on boundary layer cally inferred record of sea-level change. This
Ocean (Fig. 4), which is at odds with residual theory to propose that changes in dynamic is particularly true on a regional scale, at which
topography studies, which consistently predict topography associated with geologically rapid both dynamic topography and tectonic topogra-
a large-scale, low-amplitude low in the north- (≤20 m.y.) changes in mean global tectonic phy often dominate the stratigraphic signal.
east Pacific (Fig. 1). An anticorrelation between velocities would only affect eustatic sea level by
residual gravity and residual topography is ~20 m, which is relatively small in comparison Case Study: Has the New Jersey Margin
known for this region (Crosby and McKenzie, to eustatic changes of several hundred meters Been Dynamically Uplifting or Subsiding
2009), which suggests a dynamic origin for the associated with changes in the age distribution since the Cretaceous?
residual topography low, but there is no fast of the ocean floor (e.g., Hays and Pitman, 1973; Another important consequence of dynamic
seismic anomaly structure under the northeast Müller et al., 2008b; Spasojevic and Gurnis, topography studies is that sea-level curves
Pacific (Crosby and McKenzie, 2009). Indeed, 2012). Husson and Conrad (2006) proposed defined at a single “stable” passive continen-
Spasojevic et al. (2010) attributed the grav- that the dynamic effect of longer-term (108 yr) tal margin (or indeed at any location) may not
ity lows under the northeast Pacific to mid- to change in tectonic velocities on sea level could be representative of eustasy if the margin has
upper-mantle upwelling above slab grave- be up to ~80 m. been experiencing differential vertical dynamic
yards, thereby explaining the absence of large Extrapolating from the present-day rate of motion. The most prominent example is the
fast seismic velocity anomalies directly under change of dynamic topography, Conrad and sea-level curve proposed by Miller et al. (2005)
this region and suggesting that the northeast Husson (2009) considered the effect on eustasy based on the careful backstripping of five wells
Pacific could be presently uplifting. Perhaps of continental motion across dynamic topogra- from the New Jersey coastal plains, which pre-
this is a region with negative residual topog- phy gradients during the aggregation and dis- dicts a much smaller decrease in sea level since
raphy that is experiencing dynamic uplift (on persal of a supercontinent. The most significant the Late Cretaceous than other global sea-level
its way up after being drawn down). Therefore, effect would occur during the dispersal phase, curves (for details, see Müller et al., 2008b; Spa-
the mismatch between model dynamic topog- when fragments move away from the upwell- sojevic et al., 2008). Recent dynamic topogra-
raphy and present-day residual topography in ing expected beneath a mature supercontinent phy studies all suggest that the New Jersey mar-
the northeast Pacific illustrates the limitation (Coltice et al., 2007; Gurnis, 1988) toward gin, although considered tectonically stable, has
in using a snapshot of residual topography dynamic topography lows associated with sub- undergone significant vertical motions driven by
to constrain dynamic topography that occurs duction zones. Conrad and Husson (2009) esti- mantle flow since the Late Cretaceous (Moucha
over time scales of several tens of millions of mated that dynamic topography (Fig. 4D) cur- et al., 2008a; Müller et al., 2008b; Spasojevic et
years. This underlines the concept that the time rently triggers a net uplift of the ocean basins al., 2008). Based on their backward advection
evolution of dynamic topography is arguably thereby contributing to a positive sea-level model, described earlier herein, Moucha et al.
more important than its present-day sign and offset of ~90 ± 20 m. In addition, they carried (2008a) proposed that the New Jersey margin
amplitude, and therefore that quality time- out a 1-m.y.-long forward model of mantle flow has been dynamically uplifting by ~100–200
dependent proxies should be favored as model based on the present-day mantle structure and m over the past 30 Ma. In contrast, Spasojevic
constraints. plate motions to propose a current rate of sea- et al. (2008) argued for dynamic subsidence of
Finally, the position of the AAD is well level rise induced by dynamic topography of the New Jersey margin by >300 m since 55 Ma,
reproduced by instantaneous mantle flow mod- <1 m/m.y. including ~100–200 m over the past 30 Ma,
els based on tomography (Figs. 4B, 4D, and 4E) Spasojevic and Gurnis (2012) simultane- based on the adjoint model of Liu et al. (2008)
but only at long wavelengths by forward models ously calculated dynamic topography, the shift- described earlier. Finally, Müller et al. (2008b)
(Figs. 4A and 4C). ing of present-day continental isostatic topog- estimated that the New Jersey margin has sub-
raphy with the plates, and the changing age sided by 105–385 m since 70 Ma using back-
Consequences of Dynamic Topography distribution of the ocean floor, while forcing ward advection models based on three differ-
for Long-Term Sea-Level Change the water load to fit the evolving geoid in a dis- ent tomography models. Müller et al. (2008b)
crete series of ten instantaneous mantle flow considered two types of models: “pure” back-
Arguably the most important consequence models between 90 Ma and present. Based on ward advection models and “modified” back-
of dynamic topography studies is their influence these calculations, they estimated that sea level ward advection models in which upwellings
on eustatic and relative sea level. In this section, has risen by between ~110 m and ~270 m since are continued upward to 220 km depth and
we first discuss the effect of global dynamic 90 Ma because of global dynamic topography, downwellings are removed from the uppermost

by guest
220 km. For the past 30 Ma, their “pure” back- Figure 6. Backstripped 200 150 100 50 0
Normalized tectonic subsidence [km]

ward advection models predict between ~50 m tectonic subsidence, evo- 4
and ~150 m of margin subsidence, while their lution of strain rate, and
anomalous subsidence
Best-fit strain rate inversion - constant sea level
Best-fit strain rate inversion - Haq et al. (1987) A
modified backward advection models predict 3 Backstripped data - constant sea level
for well COST B-2 (loca- Backstripped data - Haq et al. (1987)
between 0 and ~70 m of margin subsidence, and tion shown on Figs. 1, 4,
~90 m of subsidence between 30 Ma and 8 Ma and 7). (A) Backstripped, 2
followed by 40 m of uplift since 8 Ma for the water-loaded tectonic
tomography model of Grand (2002). subsidence plotted as 1
β = 1.8
Comparison between observed tectonic black (sea-level curve of
Haq et al., 1987) and gray
subsidence and predicted dynamic topog- 0 β = 2.2
(no sea-level correction)
raphy for well COST-B2. To shed some light circles with associated
on this controversy, we focus on the tectonic water depth error bars.
subsidence history of the COST B-2 well off- The forward-modeled tec- 20 Constant sea level
Sea level from Haq et al. (1987) B
Strain rate [b.y. ]

shore New Jersey (Scholle, 1977), which we tonic subsidence is shown
-1
in gray dashed curves for 15
compare to the evolution of dynamic topogra-
stretching factors between
phy predicted by published models and by the 10
1.8 and 2.2. The modeled,
model presented in this study. best-fit tectonic subsid-
Subsidence of well COST-B2. Figure 6 ence from strain rate inver-
5
shows the tectonic subsidence of well COST sion is shown as bold blue
0
B-2 with respect to present day obtained (sea-level curve of Haq et
-0.3
Anomalous subsidence [km]

by backstripping the stratigraphy (courtesy al., 1987) and red (no sea-
level correction) curves. -0.2
M. Kominz) for two end-member cases of sea-
(B) Associated time- -0.1
level change. Well COST-B2 shows a marked
dependent strain rates. 0
acceleration in postrift subsidence at ca. 16 (C) Anomalous subsidence
Ma (Fig. 6A; Appendix 1) that is also evident 0.1
taken as the difference
in strain rate inversion (Fig. 6B; Appendix 1) between the subsidence 0.2
β = 2.0 - constant sea level
and anomalous subsidence (Fig. 6C; Appendix deduced from backstrip-
1) analysis. In addition, both strain rate inver- ping and the subsidence
0.3
0.4
β = 1.9 - Haq et al. (1987)
C
predicted by forward mod- 200 150 100 50 0
sion and anomalous subsidence analysis reveal
eling. The reference model Age [Ma]
a phase of anomalous subsidence between 85 is for a stretching factor of
and 15 Ma (Figs. 6B and 6C). The sign of this 1.9 when sea-level changes
anomalous subsidence depends on the eustatic are taken into account (black curve, circles and error bars) and 2.0 when they are not (gray curve,
sea-level curve used in backstripping, with circles and error bars). Negative values indicate anomalous uplift, and positive values indicate
changing (constant) sea level resulting in sub- anomalous subsidence.
sidence (uplift) (Figs. 6C). The hypothesis of
constant sea level is difficult to reconcile with
the growth of ice sheets that would have trig- time, and in this subduction-driven model, the since 120 Ma (Fig. 8). This predicted dynamic
gered a sea-level drop by 54 m over the past 33 main changes in dynamic topography are the subsidence of well COST-B2 since 120 Ma is
m.y. (Miller et al., 2005), and with the increase location, width, and amplitude of dynamic consistent with the anomalous strain and with
in the volume of ocean basins that would have topography lows. Well COST-B2 (Figs. 1, 4, the anomalous subsidence discussed previously
caused a sea-level drop of at least 120 m since and 7) is initially located over a dynamic topog- herein (Figs. 6 and 9). The model predicts 580
85 Ma (Müller et al., 2008a; Spasojevic and raphy high and drifts toward the broadening m of dynamic subsidence since 85 Ma, which
Gurnis, 2012). This suggests that well COST- dynamic topography low associated with the is ~30% greater than the anomalous subsidence
B2 has been subsiding rather than uplifting old Farallon slab as North America drifts to deduced from backstripping using the sea-level
over the past 85 m.y., which is in agreement the west (Figs. 7B and 7C). Our model predicts curve of Haq et al. (1987; Fig. 9; Appendix 1,)
with the subsidence of New Jersey paleoshore- that well COST-B2 is currently located on the and only 30 m of subsidence over the past 15
lines by 50–200 m since the Eocene (Spaso- northeast edge of a mild dynamic topography Ma, which is four to six times smaller than the
jevic et al., 2008). Given the time scale (tens of low (Fig. 7D), which is consistent with other anomalous subsidence for that period (Fig. 9;
millions of years), this anomalous subsidence dynamic topography models (Fig. 4) and in Appendix 1). As for the conjugate margin, our
could result from dynamic subsidence induced broad agreement with estimates of residual model predicts that it was uplifted by 250 m
by long-wavelength mantle flow. topography (Fig. 1), in which the topography from 200 Ma to 110 Ma and that is has sub-
Comparison with the dynamic topog- low is more pronounced. In contrast to well sided by 170 m since 90 Ma (Fig. 8). This pre-
raphy predicted by the model from this COST-B2, our model predicts that the synthetic dicted subsidence is five times less than that of
study. Figure 7 shows the evolution of dynamic well located on the conjugate margin in West- well COST-B2 (Fig. 8), which confirms that
topography predicted by our forward model ern Sahara would have remained on a dynamic the margin of northwest Africa has not been
at 151 Ma, 100 Ma, 49 Ma, and present day, topography high since 200 Ma (Fig. 7). For well subject to as much postrift vertical motion as
along with the coastlines and subduction zones COST-B2, the predicted evolution of dynamic the New Jersey margin (Moucha et al., 2008a).
reconstructed through time with respect to the topography shows an initial uplift by ~150 m Unfortunately, little data are available to esti-
mantle. The predicted degree two pattern of in two stages (200–170 Ma and 140–120 Ma), mate the vertical motions of northwest Africa,
the dynamic topography field is stable through followed by 850 m of dynamic subsidence particularly for the conjugate margin of New

by guest
FLAMENT ET AL.
Figure 7. Evolution of air-loaded dynamic topography predicted by our model, shown in 50 m.y. intervals with reconstructed coastlines (thin black
lines), and subduction zones (teethed thick gray lines). Stars show reconstructed locations of: well COST-B2 offshore New Jersey (large, red star) and
a conjugate virtual well in Western Sahara (large, orange star), location 4 of Dowsett and Cronin (1990) in North Carolina (small, green star), and a
conjugate virtual well in Senegal (small, cyan star).
Jersey. Nevertheless, the subsidence of north- (1990) reported recent uplift along an early Plio- small amplitude could be more prominent in the
west Africa predicted by our models is to first cene wave-cut scarp in South Carolina and North present-day landscape than the dynamic subsid-
order compatible with the marine transgression Carolina (see Fig. 7 for location) that Rowley et ence of several hundred meters predicted from
since 40 Ma deduced from paleogeographic al. (2011) extended from Georgia to Virginia. the early Aptian to the late Eocene. Determining
analysis for that area (Spasojevic and Gurnis, Together, these studies suggest up to ~50–65 m spatial and temporal trends of dynamic topog-
2012) and with the moderate anomalous sub- of uplift since ca. 3.5–3.0 Ma over ~500 km in raphy in details along the east coast of North
sidence of the central Atlantic margin in the an area located several hundred kilometers south America requires further work.
Senegal Basin (Brun and Lucazeau, 1988). of well COST-B2. The evolution of dynamic Comparison with the dynamic topogra-
In addition, the relative vertical stability of topography predicted by our model at one of phy predicted by previous models. To put
northwest Africa above a dynamic topography the sections reported by Dowsett and Cronin our results for well COST-B2 in perspective,
high predicted by our models is in agreement (1990) shown on Figure 8 is overall similar to we compare them in Figure 9 with the results
with the thin onshore Cenozoic stratigraphic that predicted for well COST-B2. An important of three previous studies of dynamic topogra-
thickness (~70 m) of the Senegal Basin (e.g., difference, however, is that the North Carolina phy for the same area, all using the same defi-
Swezey, 2009). location is predicted to have been dynamically nition of mantle-flow–driven dynamic topog-
The dynamic subsidence inferred over tens uplifted by ~20 m over the past 25 Ma, a period raphy, excluding the dynamics of the thermal
of millions of years for well COST-B2 and from during which well COST-B2 is predicted to boundary layer (Moucha et al., 2008a; Müller
paleoshoreline analysis in New Jersey appears have subsided by ~50 m. This result underlines et al., 2008b; Spasojevic et al., 2008). We use
to be in contradiction with recent uplift reported the difficulty of identifying the evolution of the results of Moucha et al. (2008a) for surface
farther south on the east coast of North Amer- dynamic topography in the geological record, dynamic topography calculated using mantle
ica (Rowley et al., 2011). Dowsett and Cronin since a post–mid-Pliocene uplift of relatively density heterogeneities deeper than 200 km.

by guest
800 These extend back to 30 Ma and were integrated

over a ~450 km × 550 km area offshore New Jer-
sey that includes the location of well COST-B2.
The results of Spasojevic et al. (2008) extend
600
back to 50 Ma and were sampled at a point loca-
tion ~150 km west of well COST-B2, and the
Dynamic topography [m]
results of Müller et al. (2008b) extend back to

400 70 Ma and were sampled at the location of well
COST-B2. Given the long-wavelength nature of
100
NC
dynamic topography, the results of each of these
200 studies can be considered representative of the
Relative DT [m]
75 Sen
WS New Jersey margin and compared to our results.
50 NJ Two cases are presented for each model consid-
0 ered, including a second case for our model in
25
which the lower-mantle reference viscosity is
0 50 times larger than that of the upper mantle
-200 (this ratio is 100 in the reference case). Model-
-25 ing results are also compared to the anomalous
30 20 10 0 subsidence deduced from Figure 6C. Note that
Age [Ma] this direct comparison implies that postrift sub-
-400
sidence is only affected by cooling of the litho-
200 150 100 50 0 sphere and dynamic topography, which may be
Age [Ma]
an oversimplification. The Neogene phase of
Figure 8. Dynamic topography (DT) sampled through time at the reconstructed locations shown in anomalous subsidence (Fig. 9) is difficult to rec-
Figure 6. The dashed part of the curve is not shown in Figure 6. The inset shows dynamic topog- oncile with the results of Moucha et al. (2008a)
raphy with respect to present for the two locations in New Jersey (NJ) and North Carolina (NC). and with model “ngrand m.b.a” of Müller et
Sen—Senegal; WS—Western Sahara.
al. (2008b), which predict uplift since 30 Ma
and since 10 Ma, respectively. All other mod-
els predict subsidence throughout the Neogene,
although the amplitude is too small except for
case 2 of Spasojevic et al. (2008). The models
0.75 of Moucha et al. (2008a) predict uplift between
Moucha el al. (2008a) - V1_200 30 Ma and 10 Ma, which is consistent with
Moucha et al. (2008a) - V2_200
Muller et al. (2008b) - ngrand (m.b.a)
backstripping for constant sea level, whereas
Muller et al. (2008b) - ngrand (p.b.a) all other models predict subsidence prior to
Spasojevic et al. (2008) - case 2 15 Ma, which is consistent with backstripping
Spasojevic et al. (2008) - case 4
0.5 using the sea-level curve of Haq et al. (1987).
This study - ηUM/ηLM = 1/100
This study - ηUM/ηLM = 1/50
In addition, the uplift predicted by the model of
Moucha et al. (2008a) is consistent with the geo-
Relative elevation [km]
logically inferred uplift from Virginia to Geor-

Anomalous subsidence gia (Dowsett and Cronin, 1990; Rowley et al.,
Haq et al. (1987)
2011), although the inferred uplift rate is three
0.25
to six times larger than the modeled uplift rate.
As discussed earlier herein, sea level has fallen
by at least 170 m over the past 85 Ma because
Anomalous subsidence of a combination of decreasing volume of ocean
constant sea level
basins and ice-sheet growth in the Cenozoic.
0 As a consequence, we favor models that pre-
dict Cenozoic dynamic subsidence of the New
Jersey margin. However, the large uncertainty
associated with the dynamic models that pre-
dict between 160 m and 500 m of subsidence
-0.25 over the past 50 Ma (Fig. 9) makes it difficult
80 60 40 20 0 to estimate long-term eustatic sea level from the
Age [Ma] high-quality record of the New Jersey margin
by correcting for dynamic topography (Kominz
Figure 9. Comparison of the dynamic topography predicted by four distinct time-dependent mod-
et al., 2008; Müller et al., 2008b). Long-term
els (two cases are shown for each model) for the New Jersey margin and the anomalous uplift
and subsidence at well COST-B2 since 85 Ma. The dark (light) gray field shows the anomalous eustatic sea-level change may be estimated
subsidence and associated error relative to the present day based on backstripping with (without) from the global stratigraphic record (Haq et al.,
eustatic sea-level change. 1987), a synthesis of the flooding record from

by guest
FLAMENT ET AL.
continental platforms around the world (Bond, Moucha et al. (2008a) is likely to be signifi- New Jersey example discussed here illustrates
1978), or by modeling the change of volume of cant. As for mantle tomography itself, Müller the importance of the assumptions made when
ocean basins through time (Kominz, 1984; Mül- et al. (2008b) predicted Tertiary subsidence interpreting the geological record. Neverthe-
ler et al., 2008b; Spasojevic and Gurnis, 2012), of the New Jersey margin using three differ- less, such comparisons are valuable since they
and should be corrected for the global effect ent S-wave tomography models. The results constitute constraints for the viscosity structure
of dynamic topography (Conrad and Husson, of Müller et al. (2008b) also confirm that the of the mantle, and for the response of the litho-
2009; Spasojevic and Gurnis, 2012). treatment of thermal boundary layers is impor- sphere to mantle flow.
The contrasting evolution of dynamic topog- tant in backward advection models (Conrad From an observational point of view,
raphy predicted by different models for the New and Gurnis, 2003), as shown by the difference increasing amounts of geophysical and geo-
Jersey margin (Fig. 9) calls for explanation. The between their “pure” and “modified” models in chemical data and their compilation in data-
adjoint model of Spasojevic et al. (2008) and Figure 9. The “modified” model predicts 150 bases will over time improve the knowledge
the forward model presented here are based on m less dynamic subsidence during the Ter- of the thermal and chemical structure of the
numerical approaches different from the back- tiary than the “pure” model, presumably due crust and lithosphere, which are critical to
ward advection models of Müller et al. (2008b) to the removal of shallow downwellings in the constraining present-day dynamic topogra-
and of Moucha et al. (2008a). In addition, lateral “modified” model. The “modified” model also phy. Global databases of stratigraphic data
viscosity variations that influence the evolution predicts uplift for the past 10 m.y., likely asso- will also be important to re-appraise global
of thermal heterogeneity in the mantle (Moucha ciated with the upward continuation of upwell- sea-level change and constrain the evolution of
et al., 2007) are taken into account via the tem- ings, at odds with the subsidence of the New dynamic topography. From a modeling point
perature dependence of viscosity in the model Jersey margin. The structure of the lithosphere of view, the comparison between the evolution
presented here and in that of Spasojevic et al. is thus key, not only in estimating present-day of topography deduced from the geological
(2008), whereas they are ignored in the mod- residual topography, as discussed previously, record and the dynamic topography predicted
els of Moucha et al. (2008a) and of Müller et but also in modeling time-dependent dynamic by mantle flow models can be made more
al. (2008b), which only have radial variations topography. Finally, the main difference direct. The usual, indirect, approach consists of
in viscosity. Furthermore, the present model between the viscosity structures used by Mou- comparing the model topography, after remov-
and that of Spasojevic et al. (2008) include a cha et al. (2008a) and Müller et al. (2008b) is ing the isostatic component (thermal boundary
simple two-layer viscosity structure for the the 30-km-thick viscosity notch just above the layer), to the estimated dynamic component
mantle (Paulson et al., 2007), whereas the mod- 670 km phase transition (Mitrovica and Forte, of the topography deduced from the geologi-
els of Moucha et al. (2008a) and of Müller et 2004) for which the viscosity is 300 times (5 cal record. Increasing computing power will
al. (2008b) each consider ~20 viscosity layers times) lower than the reference viscosity in soon make it possible to explicitly model the
throughout the mantle (Mitrovica and Forte, model V1 (model V2). This narrow low-viscos- deformation of the continental lithosphere in
2004; Steinberger and Calderwood, 2006). ity zone, potentially related to transformational global mantle flow models. This would permit
These different viscosity structures affect the superplasticity or to an internal thermal bound- the simultaneous estimation of isostatic and
depth dependence of surface dynamic topogra- ary layer (Pari and Peltier, 1995), should at dynamic topographies, and would facilitate
phy via the viscosity ratio between the differ- least partially decouple the upper mantle from the comparison between modeling results and
ent layers (Hager and Clayton, 1989; Fig. 3; Eq. the lower mantle. Such a decoupling should act data. Explicitly modeling both the continental
2). For instance, decreasing the viscosity of the to suppress the effect of the subducting Faral- and oceanic lithospheres in global mantle flow
lower mantle by a factor of two in our model lon slab, which is imaged close to the top of the models would also open up the opportunity to
increases the predicted subsidence since 85 Ma lower mantle under the present-day east coast study the response of the viscoelastic litho-
by ~15% (Fig. 9). of North America (Liu et al., 2008; Müller et sphere to mantle stresses. Because of the com-
The models of Moucha et al. (2008a) and al., 2008b). Thus, Cenozoic subsidence of the putational cost of the finite-element viscoelas-
of Müller et al. (2008b) are overall similar in New Jersey margin, as opposed to the uplift tic treatment of global mantle flow, viscoelastic
design, yet they give different results for the predicted by Moucha et al. (2008a), appears studies of sea level have largely been limited to
New Jersey margin. The main differences mainly dependent on the absence or presence the postglacial rebound problem (e.g., Paulson
between these two backward advection models of a low-viscosity notch just above the lower et al., 2007). Increasing computational power
include the mantle tomography employed, the mantle under North America. and new numerical methods will make calcu-
conversion from seismic velocity to density, the lations possible that include the full range of
viscosity structure of the mantle and the treat- Dynamic Topography as a Constraint rheological and structural variations from hun-
ment of thermal boundary layers—essentially on Mantle Flow and on the Coupling dreds of meters to global scales (Stadler et al.,
the four main steps of estimating dynamic between Mantle and Lithosphere 2010). This would improve our understanding
topography (Braun, 2010). The scaling factor of topography at intermediate wavelengths
from seismic velocity to density clearly has The previous section illustrates the need for (400–800 km) at which both small-scale con-
an effect on the amplitude of the predicted detailed comparisons between the evolution vection and elastic flexure occur.
absolute dynamic topography. A constant scal- of dynamic topography predicted by models
ing was applied to the whole mantle by Mül- and that deduced from the geological record, CONCLUSIONS
ler et al. (2008b), but a radially and laterally as well as the complexity and uncertainty of
variable scaling in the tomographic inversion dynamic topography models. The comparison Considerable progress has been made over
of Simmons et al. (2007) was used by Mou- of model predictions to the geological record is the past 30 yr on the observational constraints
cha et al. (2008a). The effect of this spatially made complex by the large-wavelength nature on and the modeling of dynamic topography.
variable scaling factor on the spatio-temporal of the dynamic topography signal and the rela- In addition to constraining the nature of mantle
evolution of dynamic topography predicted by tive scarcity of high-quality constraints. The convection and mantle rheology, studies of

by guest
dynamic topography have led to a new inter- 6). We limited our analysis to the relative changes in anoma- histories and seismic tomography: Geophysical Jour-
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pretation of the stratigraphic record and of eustatic sea-level change displays 175 ± 70 m of relative uplift j.1365-246X.2003.01823.x.
long-term sea-level change. Current global between 125 Ma and 85 Ma, and then 400 ± 45 m of relative Burgess, P.M., and Gurnis, M., 1995, Mechanisms for the
models and observations of dynamic topogra- subsidence since 85 Ma, including 230 ± 110 m since 15 Ma. formation of cratonic stratigraphic sequences: Earth
The case for constant sea level shows 115 ± 70 m of relative and Planetary Science Letters, v. 136, p. 647–663,
phy are in broad agreement at very large scale uplift between 125 Ma and 85 Ma and 130 ± 65 m of relative doi:10.1016/0012-821X(95)00204-P.
(~10,000 km) but differ in some areas and at subsidence since 10 Ma. Note that in this latter case, the rela- Burgess, P.M., Gurnis, M., and Moresi, L., 1997, Formation
tive subsidence of 60 ± 45 m since 85 Ma is of smaller ampli- of sequences in the cratonic interior of North America
smaller scales (<5000 km). Increasing comput-
tude than the Neogene phase of subsidence, which implies by interaction between mantle, eustatic, and strati-
ing resources and modeling techniques provide anomalous uplift between 85 Ma and 10 Ma. The large differ- graphic processes: Geological Society of America
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models that will be more readily comparable level change illustrate the importance of the sea-level curve Cathles, L.M., 1975, The Viscosity of the Earth’s Mantle: Princ-
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the lithosphere through data acquisition and ACKNOWLEDGMENTS and mantle heterogeneities: Nature, v. 340, no. 6228,
compilation would improve the constraint on We thank C. Conrad, Y. Ricard, S. Spasojevic, and B. Stein- p. 54–57.
berger for sharing their results, M. Kominz for the updated Clark, M.K., Maheo, G., Saleeby, J., and Farley, K.A., 2005,
present-day global dynamic topography and
COST-B2 well data, and L. Husson for discussions. This paper The nonequilibrium landscape of the southern Sierra
therefore on mantle properties. benefited from comments by two anonymous reviewers. Nevada, California: GSA Today, v. 15, no. 9, p. 4–10,
Flament was supported by Statoil, Gurnis by the National doi:10.1130/1052-5173(2005)015[4:TNLOTS]2.0.CO;2.
APPENDIX 1. TECTONIC SUBSIDENCE OF WELL Science Foundation (through EAR-0810303) and the Caltech Coltice, N., Phillips, B.R., Bertrand, H., Ricard, Y., and Rey,
COST-B2 Tectonics Observatory (by the Gordon and Betty Moore P., 2007, Global warming of the mantle at the origin
Foundation), and Müller by Australian Research Council of flood basalts over supercontinents: Geology, v. 35,
grant FL0992245. Computer simulations were carried out on no. 5, p. 391–394, doi:10.1130/G23240A.1.
Backstripping the Sun Constellation VAYU Cluster of the Australian National Conrad, C.P., and Gurnis, M., 2003, Seismic tomography,
The updated stratigraphy of well COST-B2 was back- Computational Infrastructure. Figures 1, 4, and 7 were pre- surface uplift, and the breakup of Gondwanaland:
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A review of observations and models of dynamic

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TABLE 1. AMPLITUDE OF RESIDUAL AND DYNAMIC TOPOGRAPHY FIELDS

Residual topography (Fig. 1)

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characteristic was a westward downward tilt

terms of dynamic topography. Finally, a combi-

Stage 2: which has experienced little orogenic activity

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40˚ 40˚ 40˚ 40˚ 40˚ 40˚ 40˚ 40˚

-1.0 20˚ 20˚ 20˚ 20˚ 20˚ 20˚ 20˚ 20˚

10˚ 10˚ 10˚ 10˚ 10˚ 10˚ 10˚ 10˚

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Normalized tectonic subsidence [km]

Strain rate [b.y. ]

Anomalous subsidence [km]

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800 These extend back to 30 Ma and were integrated

results of Müller et al. (2008b) extend back to

logically inferred uplift from Virginia to Geor-

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