G-11 Bio Unit 2 Final (1)

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UNIT TWO: ANIMALS

2.1. Characteristics of animals
Animals
 are eukaryotic
 are multicellular
 are heterotrophic
 are sensitive to stimuli
 they reproduce
 protect themselves
 move
 respire
 excrete
 grow
 have different body symmetries.
Body symmetry:
 Symmetry in biology is the balanced arrangement of body parts or shapes around
a central point or axis.
 Animals can be broadly classified into three groups based on the type of
symmetry in their body.
 These are bilaterally, radial and asymmetrical (no symmetry).
 Bilateral Symmetry. Symmetry in which similar anatomical parts are arranged on
opposite sides of a median axis so that only one plane can divide the individual into
essentially identical halves.
 Radial Symmetry. is a symmetry in which the sides exhibit correspondence or regularity

of parts around a central axis.
 It is lacking the left and right sides.
 Asymmetrical organisms a type of symmetry where no radial plane that passes through
the centre of the organisms can divide it into two equal halves.
Biology short note G-11 Unit 2 Animals

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 Animals can be categorized into two major groups based on the presence or absence of a
backbone:
o Vertebrates and
o Invertebrates.
 Vertebrates are further classified into:-
o homoeothermic (warm-blooded)_ animals that include mammals and birds, and
o Poikilothermic (coldblooded)_animals that include fish, reptiles, and amphibians.
 Invertebrates are also classified into:
 porifera,
 platyhelminthes,
 cnidaria,
 arthropoda,
 Annelida,
 echinidermata, and
 mollusca.
 Arthropods are again classified into crustacean, spiders, insects, and others as shown
below (Figure 2.1).
In this unit we will focus on the general characteristics and reproductive cycles of invertebrates and
vertebrates, using some examples from mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and insects.
2.2. Invertebrates and Vertebrates
2.2.1 Invertebrate Animals

 Invertebrates are animals that do not have a backbone or vertebral column.
 This group of animals is the most diverse group of animals in the world.
 They are found almost everywhere, from the hottest deserts and the deepest sea beds to
the darkest caves and the highest mountains.
 Invertebrate animals lack a rigid internal skeletal system.
 Many invertebrates are soft-bodied.
 Some of them have an external skeleton called an exoskeleton which usually made of
chitin
 Invertebrates are cold-blooded.
 This group includes earthworms, insects, spiders, snails, sponges, jellyfish, lobsters,
crabs, sea stars, and squid.

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2.2.2 Vertebrate Animals

 Vertebrates are the most advanced groups in the animal kingdom.
 These groups of animals possess a well-defined internal skeleton system with;-
 cartilage and
 backbone or vertebral column
 Backbone is separated into :-
 an axial skeleton (skull, vertebrae, ribs and sternum)
 Located along plane of axis.
 appendicular skeleton (girdles and appendages).
 Associated with limbs.
 The skull and vertebrae protect the highly developed brain and the nerve cord
respectively.
 Vertebrates have more complex and specialized organ systems such as the circulatory
systems, respiratory systems, nervous systems, and excretory systems.
 The circulatory system is a closed circulatory system with a ventral heart having 2-4
chambers and a median dorsal artery.
 The respiratory system consists of either gills or lungs.
 They have a centralized nervous system with a brain and sensory organs (eyes, ears,
nostrils).
 The excretory system of vertebrates consists of paired kidneys.
 They have bilaterally symmetrical.
 This group includes mammals, birds, fish, reptiles, and amphibians.
 Vertebrates such as fish, reptiles, and amphibians are cold-blooded animals, whereas
birds and mammals are warm-blooded animals
Comparison of Invertebrate and Vertebrates

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The phylum chordate includes:
 All vertebrates (like mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish)

o This subphylum includes animals with backbone or spinal column
 Urochordata (Tunicates)
o Marine animals that typically have a larval stage with a notochord but lose it as
adults
 Cephalochordata (lancelets)
o Small, fish-like marine animals that retain the notochord throughout their lives
Key characteristics of chordates:
1. Notochord:
 A flexible rod-like structure that provide support.
 In vertebrates, it is replaced by the vertebral column (spine) during development.
2. Dorsal Hollow Nerve Cord
 A nerve cord that runs along the back, which develops into the central nervous
system (brain and spinal cord) in vertebrates)
3. Pharyngeal slits
 Openings in the throat region that may develop into gills in aquatic species or other
structures in terrestrial species.
4. Post-anal tail
 An extension of the body past the anal opening, which can be present during
embryonic development throughout life.
Why not all chordates are vertebrates?
 The non-vertebrates chordates (like tunicates and lancelets) do not possess a vertebral
column or complex structures associated with vertebrates.
2.3 Reproduction in Animals

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 Reproduction ensures the continuity of species.
 It is the process by which living organisms duplicate themselves.
 Two types of reproduction in animals. These are:
 Asexual and sexual reproduction.
 The majorities of animals undergo sexual reproduction and A few groups of animals also
undergo asexual reproduction.
2.3.1. Asexual reproduction in animals

 Involves a single individual and does not require the fusion of gametes from two parents.
 More common among invertebrates than in vertebrates.
 Budding and fragmentation are the most common forms of asexual reproduction especially
in aquatic animals.
 The other form of asexual reproduction in animals is parthenogenesis.
 In this type of reproduction, unfertilized eggs develop into new offspring as in

some insects and vertebrates
2.3.2 Sexual reproduction in animals

 Requires the fusion of gametes from two parents (male and female).
 It produces offspring that have genetic material from both parents.
 The parents are diploid organisms with a complete set of chromosomes (2n).
 Involves different male and female reproductive structures.
 They produce haploid cells called gametes (n).
 Males produce sperm in the testes which are stored in the epididymis until
ejaculation
 Females produce an ovum or egg haploid cell (n) that matures in the ovary.
 The fusion of sperm cells with female gametes produces a zygote (single celled which
is diploid) through the process of fertilization.
 There are two types of fertilization:
 external and
 Internal.

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 In animals that use internal fertilization, the eggs are released from the ovary into the uterine
tubes for fertilization.
 In animals that use external fertilization, eggs are released into the aqueous environment.
A zygote (2n):-
 Produced by fertilization of an egg by sperm
 Develops into an embryo and then into an individual organism.
Developmental stages of embryo

 Cleavage:
 The first stage during embryonic development.
 It involves a series of mitotic cell divisions of the zygote.
 It is a special type of mitotic cell division in which daughter cell have half size of the parent
cell.
 This cell division results in an eight-celled structure.
 Blastulae
 The second stage during embryonic development
 It involves cell division and rearrangement of cells into hollow structures called blastula.
 Gastrulation.

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 The third stage during embryonic development
 During this process, blastula undergoes further cell division and rearrangement.
 It produces gastrula that has different cell layers called “germ layers”.
 There are three germ layers of a gastrula from which tissue, organs, and organ system
are developed.
o These are ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.
 The ectoderm, which is the outer germ layer, gives rise to the nervous and
integumentary systems like the epidermis and other tissue
 The mesoderm or the middle germ layer gives rise to the muscular system as well as
the different connective tissue in the body.
 The endoderm or the inner germ layer gives rise to the digestive system and other
many internal organs and organ systems.
 Organogenesis
 During this process germ layers develop into different tissue types, organs, and organ systems.
 Organogenesis is the formation of organs during embryonic development.
 The embryo eventually develops into an adult with all tissue types, organs, and organ systems.
2.3.3 Reproduction in insects (complete and incomplete metamorphosis)

 Insects
 Constitute the most diverse groups of animals
 The largest class of the phylum Arthropoda
 Have segmented bodies, jointed legs, and external skeletons (exoskeletons).
 Insects include: flies, grasshoppers, lice, butterflies, bees, and beetles etc.

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 They undergo sexual reproduction and have their own life cycle.
 During sexual reproduction, eggs are usually fertilized internally.
 However, some insects undergo parthenogenesis.
 In sexual reproduction, the male produces sperm and fertilizes the egg produced by the female
during mating.
 After fertilization, the female insect lays eggs and hatches them after completing their
development.
 After hatching, insects undergo a series of major changes in body structure as they develop.
 This series of changes is called metamorphosis.
 Chemical substances in the insects control the process of metamorphosis.
 It is ecdysteroids and juvenile hormones
 Ecdysteroids
 Triggering molting and metamorphosis.
 Promote the transition from one developmental stage to another.
 Synthesized in the prothoracic glands of insects.
 Juvenile hormones(JHs)
 Regulate development and preventing premature metamorphosis
 Maintain larval characteristics and inhibit the transition to pupal or adult forms
 Produced in the corpora allata, a pair of glands located behind the brain.
 There are two types of metamorphosis:

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 Complete metamorphosis & incomplete metamorphosis.
 Complete metamorphosis
 Has four stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult
 During the pupa stage, wing development begins.
 Include: beetles, bees, ants, butterflies, moths, and mosquitoes.
 Incomplete metamorphosis
 Have three stages: egg, nymph, and adult.
 Includes: Grasshoppers, cockroaches and termites
2.3.4 Reproduction in Frog
 The common frog (Rana temoraria) is the most common in Europe.
 The grass frog genus Ptychadena goulenger is found throughout sub-Saharan Africa, including
Ethiopia.
 Frogs such as Ptychadena harenna and Leptopelis ragazzi are found in the Bale Mountains and
Shoa forests, Ethiopia.
 Frogs undergo sexual reproduction and have male and female reproductive structures.

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 Cloaca: Serves as an exit cavity for the excretory, urinary, and reproductive systems (genital
organ)
 Unlike birds, frogs do not produce amniotic eggs.
 Frog eggs are usually covered in a jelly-like substance.
o Function of jelly-like substance
 Protection against physical damage and predation.
 Moisture retention
 Buoyancy- ensuring the eggs is well-positioned for development and reducing the risk
of being buried in sediment.
 Create favorable chemical environment for embryo(regulate pH and provide some level
of nutrients)
 Frogs must lay their eggs in water to protect them from drying out.
 Frogs have external fertilization (female release eggs into the water and the male releases its
sperm to fertilize the eggs.
 Usually, frogs lay a large number of eggs in the same place at the same time.
 However, internal fertilization also occurs in a few species of frogs.
 In a process called metamorphosis, the fertilized eggs of frogs develop into a larval stage called
a tadpole that is different from the adult frog.
2.3.5 Reproduction in Crocodiles
 Crocodilians are large semi-aquatic reptiles that live in different parts of the world.
 Crocodiles reproduce sexually.

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 The mating season usually begins in July or August and mating takes place under water.
 Crocodiles have internal fertilization.
 They lay their eggs and bury them in sand or deposit them in mound vegetation.
 The number of eggs a crocodile deposits varies from 10 to 100, depending on the type of species.
 Unlike frogs, crocodiles have hard, leathery eggs that enable them to protect their young.
2.3.6 Reproduction in Birds
 Birds reproduce sexually and have internal fertilization.
 Most bird species are monogamous but there are also polygamous species.
 Monogamous
It is usually a mating system between a single adult male and a single adult
female for entire breeding seasons,

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Both parents typically participate in incubating eggs and feeding the young,
increasing the survival rate of the offspring
Example: Swan, Eagles, many Songbirds
 Polygamous
 It is a mating system with several partners during a single breeding season.
 Involves one individual having a multiple mates
 It can be further divided into two types
Polygyny
 One male mates with multiple females
 Male often establish territories and attract multiple females to mate with them
 Males can increase their reproductive success.
 Example: red-winged blackbird
Polyandry
 One female mates with multiple males
 Increased genetic diversity in offspring.
 Example_ certain shorebirds
 Unlike other animals, male birds do not have external genital organs.
 Female birds have a single ovary.
 Reproduction in birds starts by the joining of an egg or ovum with a sperm cell in the oviduct.
 The ovum is produced in the ovary.
 The oviduct consists of: infundibulum, magnum, isthmus, uterus, and vagina.
 Both male and female birds have a structure called the cloaca.
 During mating, the male brings its sperm to the female cloaca and fertilizes the egg.

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 The fertilized egg travels down to the uterus, forming a layer of albumen around it, which is
followed by the shell membranes in the uterus.
 Then, the hard-shelled egg develops within the female with a fluid-filled amnion, a thin
membrane forming a closed sac around the embryo.
 Birds lay eggs after the egg completes its development.
 The number of eggs a bird lays varies from a few to more than 10, depending on its species.
 For example, penguins and albatrosses lay few eggs, but chickens and ducks can lay more than 10
eggs
 The egg of a bird has different parts.
 The major parts of the egg of a bird are:

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 Shell_ provide protection from physical damage and microbial invasion while allowing
gas exchange.
 Shell membrane_ inner and outer found just inside the shell provide protection against
bacteria, moisture loss and play a role in gas exchange.
 Air sac _respiration and pressure adjustments.
 Albumen_ the white part of an egg; being mostly the protein albumin and water. 90% of
this is water with proteins, minerals, fat, and glucose making up the remainder. The
albumen also contains globulins which help provide immunity from disease. Provides
cushioning for the embryo, supplies water and protein.
 Chalaza_ either of two spiral bands which attach the yolk of an egg to the eggshell,
suspending it in the white. Hold the yolk in the centre of egg, providing a balanced
environment for developing embryo.
 Yolk, primarily function is to supply nutrients to the developing embryo. Spherical in

shape and suspended in the egg white. It is usually yellow in colour ranging from just a
hint of yellow to a deep orange depending on the species and diet of the bird. If ovulation
occurs too rapidly an egg may be formed with a double yolk. Double yolked eggs will
rarely produce chicks.
 Incubation: incubation or brooding is the process of keeping eggs warm with body heat whiles
the embryos inside continue to develop after birds lay their eggs (Figure 2.15).
 In most cases, the female parent incubates the eggs, although males sometimes participate.
 When a breeding season approaches, the female will develop a brood patch to help transfer heat
effectively.
 This brood patch has an area of skin with densely packed blood vessels that produces more heat
and facilitates heat transmission to the egg.
 The brood patch will disappear at the end of the breeding season.
 Birds rotate their eggs periodically to ensure an even distribution of warmth.

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 This helps the embryo to finish its development inside the egg (Figure 2.16)
Hatching
 After incubation, the embryo completes its development and hatching occurs.
 During hatching, the chick develops a tooth-like structure at the beak‟s tip to break the eggshell
 The chick communicates with its parents a day or two before hatching, with some vocal sounds.
 The chick uses the hard tip of its bill, a tooth-like structure called an egg tooth, to break out of
the egg.
 The young loses the egg tooth after hatching.
Parental Care in Birds:
 Many birds build nests to protect their young from predators with some exceptions
 Some birds that lay their eggs in an open area have camouflaged eggs.
 Camouflaged eggs are a vital adaptation for many bird species, enhancing their
reproductive success by minimizing the risk of predation.
 This strategy not only protects the eggs but also contributes to the overall survival of the
species in diverse environments.
 Parental care of offspring lies on one or both parents.
 The length and type of parental care varies widely amongst different species of birds.
 In some species, parental care ends at hatching.
 Other species care for their young for an extended time.
2.3.7 Reproduction in rat

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 Rat (genus Rattus) is the name generally applied to numerous members of several rodent
families.
 The black rat (Rattus rattus) and the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) are among the most
common types of rats species.
 The black rats predominantly live in warmer climates, and the brown rats are dominantly found
in the temperate regions.
 Giant Mole rat (Tachyoryctes macrocephalus), also known as the giant root rat, is endemic to
Ethiopia where it is confined to high altitude shrub and grasslands in the Afro-alpine habitat
such as the Bale Mountains.
 Reproduction in rats is representative of mammalian sexual reproduction.
 The male reproductive structure of a rat consist testes (singular testis), scrotum, seminiferous
tubules, epididymis, vas deferens and penis with bacula.
 Similarly, the female reproductive structure of a rat consists of two ovaries, oviducts, uterine
horns and vagina with vulva.
 Like in other mammals, fertilization is internal.
 The zygote develops in the mother during a gestation period known as pregnancy.
Pregnancy and Development:
 The average pregnancy time or gestation period of a rat varies depending on the species.
 The gestation period for:
 a brown rat is 22 to 24 days,
 black rats is usually 22 days
 giant mole rats is 37- 49 days.

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 After fertilization, each zygote divides and forms a hollow ball of cells that further develops into
a blastocyst called a blastula.
 The blastulae travel down the oviducts, implant in the uterine horns, and begin to differentiate
into embryonic tissue and extra embryonic tissue.
 The umbilical cord connects blood vessels and nourishes the embryo from the mother.
 The placenta transports oxygen from the mother to the embryo and removes waste from the
embryo‟s environment.
 The amniotic sac protects the embryo during pregnancy.
 Gradually, the embryo forms a neural plate, which later develops into brain and spinal cord.
 The rat gives birth to hairless, deaf with sealed eyelids offspring.
 Rats normally give birth from 7 to 12 offspring per litter on average (at once).
 The number is fewer than this for giant mole rats.
 The mother feeds milk and, after 45 days, the young rats are fully weaned and are actively
foraging and feeding.
 The age of sexual maturity also vary depending on species.
 In brown-black rats, the age of sexual maturity is 3–4 months old.
 Giant mole rats become reproductively mature when they are 4-6 months old.
Parental care in rats:
 Parental care in mammals is often critical for the survival and development of the offspring.
 Rats build nests to rear their young, called pups or kittens.
Figure 2.20 Pregnancy and development in rat

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 The pups stay in the nest built by their mother until they are weaned.
 The female rats care pups regardless of which their true mothers are.
 If a mother dies, the other females will take over nursing her pups.
 Male rats do not participate in the parental care
2.4 The economic importance of animals (insects)

 Insects have plenty of economic importance in the world.
 Insects are the most diverse animals in the world.
 They have both positive and negative impacts on our economy, our lives, and the ecosystem.
 While there are many harmful pests, there are also beneficial insects.
 The aspects of insects in agriculture, food, industry, health, and medicine.
2.4.1 Beneficial aspects of insects
A. Agriculture
 Insects provide services to agriculture through pollination and regulation of pests.
Pollinators:
 Flower-visiting insects that forage on flowering plants to obtain plant-provided food (nectar,
pollen).
 They have the potential to transfer male gametes to the female gametes, resulting in
pollination.
 Many plants depend on pollination for seed and fruit production.
 For instance, an estimated 35% of crop production yielded in the world is a result of insect
pollination.
 This has huge economic value in the world as well as in the country.
Pest regulation:
 Insect predators and parasitoids that attack and feed on other insects, particularly on insect
pests of plants are used in pest control.
 This type of pest regulation is known as a natural biological control, which destroys harmful
insects that infect both animals and plants.
 This natural biological control limits potential pest populations.

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 Important insects in pest regulation include mantis, lady beetles, ground beetles, rove beetles,
flower bugs, lacewings and hover flies.
Ex:
 Stagmomantis insects, species of mantis feed on grasshoppers and caterpillars that

damage crops.
 Cheilomenes, a ladybird beetle, feed on aphids that damage cotton plants and destroys
scale worms that are pests of orange and lemon trees respectively.
 Epicauta, a blister beetle, eat up masses of the eggs of locusts.
Insects improve soil aeration
 By creating channels for smaller organisms, water, air, and roots to travel through.
 Their activities can enhance the nutrient cycle and physical properties of the soil, such as soil
structure and tilt.
 From this, decomposers can help in the biochemical cycling of nutrients.
B. Food
 Many species of insects are being used as a food for people in many countries.
 They are widely recognized as a sustainable source of animal protein.
 There are over 1,462 recorded species of edible insects in the world.
 Most insects are consumed in Asia and Central America.
 Usually crickets, grasshoppers, beetle and moth larvae and termites are eaten there.
 Being rich source of protein, grasshoppers have been eaten in many parts of the world.
Moreover, insects are important sources of food for many vertebrates, including birds, amphibians,
reptiles, fish and mammals

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 Insect farming is one way of addressing food and feed security.
 Insects :
 Found everywhere.
 Reproduce quickly.
 Have high growth and feed conversion rates.
 Have a low environmental footprint over their entire life cycle.
 Are nutritious, with high protein, fat and mineral contents.
 Can be reared easily.
C. Industry
 Insects are being used to produce different materials at home and in industries.
 The following are some of the examples.
Production of Honey and Bee Wax:
 For example, the honeybees (Apis meliffera L.) produce millions of tons of honey and wax every
year around the world.
Production of Silk:
 These are the silk worms (Bombyx mori) and other silk worms.
 Silkworms produce silk fibers, which are woven into the delicate, smooth material used for
luxurious textiles and for different purposes in the textile industry.
Production of shellac:
 Shellac is a resin secreted by Lac insects.
 Among the many species of lac insects, Laccifer lacca is the commercially cultured lac insect.
 Shellac is still in use as dyes, inks, polishes, sealing waxes, and as stiffening agents in the
fabrication of felt hats.
 It is an animal originated commercial resin.
Production of Cochineal:
 Cochineal pigment
 extracted from scale insects such as Dacylopius coccus.

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 important for the intensity and permanency of colors in painting.
 still giving the colors in foods, beverages, cosmetics (lipsticks) and art product.
 Production of Tannic Acid:
 Tannic acid is a chemical compound used in dyeing goods made of leather in leather
industries, for tanning and in manufacturing some inks.
 Tiny wasps in the family Cynipidae secrete some chemical and in response to this, the tree
produces gall tissues that contain tannic acid.
D. Health and medicine
 Some insects are used to treat different human and animal diseases.
 For instance,
 Honey is applied to treat burns, chronic and post- surgical wounds.
 Bee and ant venom are used to treat joints pain/arthritis.
 Recent research confirms that bee products:
 Promote healthy immune systems
 Improve circulation and
 Decrease inflammation.
 Blister beetles secrete cantharidan, which acts as:
 a powerful protein blocker in the human body and is effective in treating severe viral
infections because it prevents the reproduction of some viral particles.
 Researchers subsequently discovered that cantharidan reacts with genetic material of

hostile cells, and therefore may be useful in the treatment of cancerous tumors most
resistant to radiation and chemotherapy.
 Several African cultures use poultices made from ground grasshoppers as pain relievers,
especially for migraines (severe headache affecting only one side of head).
2.4.2 Harmful aspects of insects
 Insects can also be harmful to humans and animals.
 Some insects are pests of plants, fruits, and grains in a store.
 They feed on leaves, stems, buds, flowers, fruits, and seeds on fields and in stores. Hence they
damage crops and reducing production.

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 These insects include locusts, caterpillars, bugs, hoppers (immature form of locusts), aphids
(sap sucking insect) etc.
 Locusts are among the most destructive of all insect pests.
 Countries have faced threats of swarms (large number when in motion) of desert locusts.
 Locusts are particularly destructive in hot and dry regions when there is a sudden increase in
their numbers.
 The prevalence of food shortage has further forced them to migrate.
 They migrate in huge swarms, for several kilometers away devouring virtually every green plant
in their path.
 The most common insect pests of stored cereal grains are:
 Rice Weevil (Sitophilus oryzae);
 Lesser Grain Borer (Rhyzopertha dominica);
 Rust Red Flour Beetle: (Tribolium spp.);
 Saw tooth Grain Beetle: (Oryzaephilus surinamensis);
 Flat Grain Beetle: (Cryptolestes spp.)
 Several insects transmit diseases from one organism to another serving as a vector or
intermediate hosts for several pathogens.
Example
 Anopheles mosquitoes: transfer Plasmodium from one person to another.
 Culex mosquitos spread filariasis and transmit filarial worms from infected to healthy people.
 Filariasis is a parasitic disease caused by infection with filarial worms, primarily

transmitted through mosquito bites.
 The most common filarial infections are caused by Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia
malayi and Loa loa.

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 The tsetse fly: Trypanosoma gambiense also spreads the African sleeping sickness to the human
population.
 The housefly (Musca domestica) spreads food and water-borne diseases to human populations.
2.5 Animal Behavior

 Animals have different behaviors and behavioral patterns for survival and reproduction.
 Animal behavior = ways in which animals interact with other organisms and environment.
 It includes the movements of animals, interaction of animals within and with the environment
and learning about their environment.
2.5.1 Types of Animal Behavior
 Animal behavior can be categorized into two main types:
1. Innate or inherent behavior
2. Learned or acquired behavior.
Innate or inherent behavior is an inborn behavior that is:-
 independent of experience
 determined by genes
 Specific to a species.
 There are three types of innate or inherent behavior,
a. Instinctive
b. Reflexive
c. Orientative
Instinctive behaviors
 Complex behaviors that can involve multiple steps or stages

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 Behavior an organism already knows how to do for the first time.
 Most instinctive behaviors are driven by the need to survive, either in response to environmental
cues or internal signals from the organism itself.
 Examples of instinctive behaviors in animals.
 Web making in spiders
 Nest-building in birds
 Swimming with dolphins and other aquatic species.
 Opening of mouth in chicks of many bird species when their mother returns to the nest.
 Honeybees dance when they return to the hive after finding a source of food.
Reflex action
 A simple reflex action is a sudden, involuntary response to stimuli.
 Automatic, quick responses to specific stimuli.
 Examples of reflex behaviors in animals.
 Touching a sharp or hot object and pulling hand away rapidly.
 Blinking when something gets too close to your eye.
 Reflex actions travel only as far as the spinal cord.

 This allows you to respond to pain more quickly.
Orientation behavior
 Coordinated movements that occur in response to an external stimulus

 It have adaptive value for survival by helping the organism locate (or avoid) the source of the
stimulus
 Taxis
 It is orientation behaviors directed in relation to a given stimulus.
 It is the orientation of an animal (directed either towards or away) in response to the source
of stimulus.
 It involves single animal.
 Positive taxis = the orientation is towards the stimulus.

 Negative taxis = the orientation is away from the stimulus.

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 Example: The movement of cockroaches away from the source of light.
 Kinesis
 It is undirected, random movement
 The animal responds to the variation in the intensity of the stimulus and not the source
or direction of the stimulus.
 Example: The movement of woodlice in relation to the temperature around them.
Learned or acquired behavior
 This is not inherited and not determined by genes.
 It is acquired during the lifetime of an individual.
 It allows an individual organism to adapt to changes in the environment that are modified by
previous experiences.
 Examples of simple learned behaviors include: habituation, classical conditioning, operant

conditioning, sensitization, latent and insight learning.
Habituation
 It is a simple form of learning
 Animal stops responding to a stimulus, or cue, after a period of repeated exposure.
 It is a form of non-associative learning.
 The stimulus is not linked with any punishment or reward.

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Ex: Reading a book without noticing the sound of the TV while the television is on in the
same room.
Classical conditioning:
• Classical conditioning is creation of response to stimulus.
• It is the teaching of a response to a new stimulus by pairing it repeatedly with a stimulus for
which there is a biological reflex.
Operant conditioning is learning through positive and negative reinforcement:
• It is a form of learning that takes place when an instance of spontaneous behavior is either
reinforced by a reward or discouraged by punishment.
Classical conditioning:
 It is a result of associative learning in which a response already associated with one stimulus is
associated with a second stimulus to which it had no previous connection.
 Classical conditioning was discovered by Ivan P. Pavlov (Ivan Petrovich Pavlov), a Russian
physiologist.
 There are three stages of classical conditioning.
Stage 1: Before conditioning (before learning)
 Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) produces unconditioned response (UCR).
 Stimulus in the environment has produced a behavior or response which is unlearned (i.e.,
unconditioned).
 Therefore it is a natural response which has not been taught.
 In this case, no new behavior has been learned yet.
Stage 2: During conditioning
 Stimulus that produces no response is associated with the unconditioned stimulus, due to this it
is known as a conditioned stimulus (CS).
 For learning to take place, the UCS must be associated with CS on a number of occasions, or
trials at this stage.
Stage 3: After conditioning
 This conditioning happens once the CS has been associated with the UCS to create a new
conditioned response (CR).

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Operant conditioning
 It is a result of associative learning.
 It does not rely on an existing stimulus-response pair.
 Instead, whenever an organism performs a behavior or an intermediate step on the way to the
complete behavior, the organism is given a reward or a punishment.
 It was discovered by B.F. Skinner (Burrhus Frederic Skinner _ an American Psychologist,

behaviorist, inventor, and social philosopher).
Based on the theory of operant conditioning:-
 Behavior will likely be repeated when the organism is reinforced (rewarded), and
 Behavior will occur less frequently when it is punished.

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Skinner identified three types of responses or operant behavior.
1. Neutral operants
 Responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a
behavior being repeated.
2. Reinforcers
 Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated.
 Can be either positive or negative.
3. Punishers:-
 Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
 Punishment weakens behavior.
Insight learning
 learning which is based on past experience and reasoning
 Hallmark (distinguishing characteristics) of the human behavior.
 It requires reasoning ability – the skill to look at a problem and come up with an appropriate
solution
 Humans have used insight learning to solve problems ranging from starting a fire to traveling to
the moon.

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Sensitization
 Also referred to as reverse tolerance.

 It is a non-associative learning process in which repeated administration of a stimulus
results in the progressive amplification of a response.
 It occurs when a stimulus is presented above the tolerance threshold (Point/Level).
 It is an increase in the response to a harmless stimulus when that stimulus occurs after a
harmful stimulus.
 For example, repetition of a painful stimulus may make one more sensitive to a loud noise.
Latent learning
 Learning discovered later on.
 learning that is not apparent(actual) when it occurs, but that can be inferred later from improved
performance
 The word „latent‟ means „hidden‟
 Latent learning happens when the brain acquires knowledge at a certain time, without
reinforcement, but does not use it until later, at a time when that knowledge is needed.
Observational Learning
• Is the ability of an organism to learn how to do something by watching another individual do it

first, even if they have never attempted it themselves.
• Chimps would observe the chimp in the cage that had insight learning and stacked the boxes to
get to the bananas, see the failure, and then see the solution.
• When these chimps got in the cage, bang-zoom, they got to the solution a lot faster.

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2.5.2. Patterns of Behavior

 There are different behavioral patterns in animals.
 Different and common patterns of behaviors are exhibited by many species.
 Examples of behavioral patterns in animals include:
 Behavioral cycles
 Reproductive behavior
 Social behavior
 Competition
 Territory and
 Communication.
Behavioral cycles
 Behavioral pattern in which animals respond to periodic changes in the environment.
 It can be daily or seasonal cycles.
 Example:
 Seasonal migration (movement) _
 Refers to the movement of various species of birds, insects, and mammals from
one habitat to another during different times of the year.
 Reasons of seasonal migration are:
 Seasonal fluctuations in the availability of food, sunlight, temperature,

and breeding difficulty
 Example:
 Migration of various whale and bird species from their summer habitats
in the Arctic or Antarctic to the tropical waters near the equator and
warmer latitudes, respectively.
 Circadian rhythms (sleep and wake)_rhythmic behavior with a period of 24 hrs.
 It also referred as biological clocks, are 24-hour cycles that are part of the body‟s
internal clock, running in the background to carry out essential functions and
processes.
 Example: sleep-wake cycle.
Reproductive behavior:
 Behavioral pattern of animals to meet the needs of reproduction.

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 It is the coordination of the timing and patterning of reproductive activity.

 Reproductive behavior is vital for locating and selecting suitable mates, producing offspring, and
rearing them successfully to independence.
 Example:
 Courtship that involves sounds, visual displays or chemicals and paradise dance.
 Pigeons show a courtship behavior.
Social behavior:
 It is the behavioral pattern observed in animals that live in groups.
 Insects such as ants, termites, bees, and wasps exhibit some of the most well developed social
behavior
 One benefit of social behavior for these insects is:
 Different individuals perform better in certain activities or division of labor as workers

and soldiers.
 Other examples of social behaviors are observed in elephants, penguins, human beings and other
primates.

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Competition:
 Behavioral pattern of animals observed during struggle for resources.
 Example:
 Competition between animals for space, territory, water, mates and food.
 Competition occurs naturally between living organisms that coexist in the same environment.
 Two basic types of competitions:
 intraspecific _ competition among member of the same species
 interspecific_ competition among member of different species
Territoriality:
 Territory an area that an animal or a group of animals reserves for itself so as to exclude other
members of the same species
 Behavioral pattern that involves protecting spaces by an animal from others.

 The territories of animals contain all of the resources and conditions they need to survive.
 Many animals defend their area by using display behavior instead of fighting.
 The behavior gives signals for other animals to stay away.
 Displaying behavior is generally safer and uses less energy than fighting
 Examples:
Male dogs and lions use pheromones in their urine to mark their territory.
Male gorillas use display behavior to defend their territory by pounding on their
chests and thumping the ground with their hands.
Robin displays his red breast to warn other robins to stay away.
Communication behavior:
 Animals can communicate with the aid of sight, sound, tactile (with body touch), and chemical
cues (they produce special chemicals called pheromone)

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Examples:
 Birds sing and frogs croak to communicate with each other.
 Ants communicate with pheromones to mark trails to food sources so other ants can find them.
 Communication through the use of visual cues
 Example: Tail feather displays of male peacocks

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2.6 Homeostasis in animals
 Homeostasis is the self-regulatory process by which animals maintain stable internal conditions
in their bodies regardless of external condition.
 Homeostasis helps animals to maintain equilibrium in the internal conditions of their bodies or
cells at a set point (normal conditions).
 Animal body systems constantly adjust to internal and external changes in order to maintain this
normal condition.
 Generally, homeostasis involves four components: stimulus, receptor, control center, and
effector.
 Stimulus: is a change in the environment that forces the organism to response.
 Example: change in body condition, such as an increase or decrease in body

temperature, glucose, or water.
 Receptor: detects the change in the environment or body condition and send signal to
control center to counteract it.
 Example: Thermoreceptors (the end of sensory neurons).
 Control center: This receives messages from receptors and sends commands to the
effector.
 Example: The hypothalamus, a region of the brain, is a control center for

homeostasis.
 Effector: Acts on the stimulus based on the command control center.
 Organs or tissues such as the kidney, liver, or heart are effectors.
 Ex Cooling of animal body and lowering of the blood glucose level after
adjustments is homeostasis.
2.6.1 Thermoregulation
 It is the process of maintaining the internal body temperature constant.
 Many organisms use behavior, physiology, and morphology to keep their body temperatures.
 Based on temperature regulation, animals can be divided into two groups:
1. Poikilothermic animals: having a body temperature that is the same as the environment
where their body temperature varies with the environmental.
2. Homoeothermic animals: Animals that keep their body temperature constant in the face of
changing environmental temperatures.

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A. Poikilothermic Animals
 Also known as ectothermic animals.
 Lack internal control over their body temperature.
 However, individual organisms use different mechanisms to keep their body temperature
slightly below or above the environmental temperature.
 Example:
 Some may burrow themselves into the ground on a hot day.
 Some animals swim in water to cool their body.
 Some seek cooler areas during the hottest time of the day
 May climb onto rocks to capture heat during the coldest time of the day
 Bees use group activity or stay in a hive to survive in cold seasons.
B. Homoeothermic Animals:
 Also known as endothermic animals.

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 Can generate internal heat to maintain a constant internal body temperature.
 Use morphological, physiological and behavioral methods of temperature regulation.
 Homoeothermic animals can retain heat in a variety of ways when the environment is cold.
 Some of these ways heat conservation includes use fur, fat, and feathers.
 Arctic fox uses its fluffy tail as extra insulation when it curls up to sleep in cold weather.
 Some also use vasoconstriction_ the narrowing of blood vessels to by contraction of their
smooth muscle to retain heat.
 In some shivering_ involuntary contraction of muscle, which require energy from

respiration that releases heat to warm the body.
 Homoeothermic animals can loss heat in a variety of ways when the environment is hot
Example:
 Vasodilation _ widening of blood vessels at the skin surface to increase heat loss through
the surface of the skin.
 Sweating _sweat, which is produced by sweat glands travels up the sweat duct and out
of the sweat pore onto the skin surface.
 The hypothalamus (part of the brain) responds to the change by activating the process of
vasodilation, vasoconstriction, shivering and sweating to maintain the body temperature
constant.
 In controlling the body temperature, there are four mechanism of heat exchange between an
animal and its environment. These are:
 Radiation,
 Convection,

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 Conduction
 Evaporation
 Living organisms are continually gaining heat from cellular respiration and by
conduction, convection and radiation from their surroundings.
≈ Conduction: is the transfer of heat by physical contact. Eg. If you pick up an ice
cube you‟ll lose heat to the ice, if you walk barefoot on stone on sunny day, you
will absorb heat from the stone.
≈ Convection: wind helps move air away from your body by convection, bringing
along new cooler air and thus increasing the transfer of heat from skin to air
≈ Radiation: the transfer of heat from a warmer object to a cooler on by infrared
radiation, that is, without direct contact. Eg you‟ve been warmed by heat from
the sun, a fire or a radiator in a building.
≈ Evaporation: vaporization of water from a surface leads to loss of heat. Eg.
When sweat evaporates from your skin.
 They are also constantly losing heat by the evaporation of water from the body
surfaces and by conduction, convection and radiation to their surroundings.
Summary of temperature regulation in animals
Morphological methods Physiological methods Behavioral methods

1. Body size and shape_ 1. Thermoregulation_ 1. Seeking shade or
large animals tend to Warm blooded shelter_ animals
have lower SA/V, w/c maintain constant move to shaded areas
helps retain heat_ Eg internal temp. while or burrows to avoid
Elephant cold-blooded rely on direct sunlight.
2. Insulation_ Features
external source. 2. Changing activity
like fur, feather or
blubber help to retain 2. Vasodilation and levels_ some animals
body heat (Eg. Polar vasoconstriction_ may be more active
bears) Blood vessel widen or during cooler parts of
3. Coloration: Darker narrow to regulate the day. Eg.

38 | P a g e
colors can absorb more heat loss Nocturnal behavior

heat from sunlight, 3. Sweating and in desert animals)
while lighter colors panting/licking_
reflect it. Eg. Desert Evaporative cooling
animals often have mechanisms that help
lighter fur.
lower body
4. Body Appendages_
some animals have temperature. Eg. Dogs
adaptation like large panting and licking
ears (Eg. Fennec
foxes_help dissipate
heat)
2.6.2 Osmoregulation
 It is a process that regulates the osmotic pressure of fluids and electrolytic balance in organisms
to maintain homeostasis.
 About 60% of the human body is composed of fluids.
 2/3 of our body‟s water content is in our intracellular fluids and the remaining 1/3 forms our
extracellular fluid.
Osmoconformers -organisms that keep their internal fluids isotonic to their environment
 Extracellular fluid consists of the fluid between cells (interstitial fluid) and the blood plasma.
 A disruption in the osmotic pressure can result in an imbalance in the movement of water
between them and hence alter the concentration of their electrolytes.
 Hence, osmoregulation is important to balance osmotic pressure of fluids and electrolytes.
 Osmoreceptors detect changes in osmotic pressure.
 Humans and most other warm-blooded organisms have osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus and
in the kidneys.
 There are two major types of osmoregulation:
A. Osmoconformers: organisms that try to match the osmolarity of their body with their
surroundings.
 They maintain the same osmotic pressure inside the body as outside water (aquatic
animals).
 Examples: are invertebrates like starfish, jellyfish and lobsters.
B. Osmoregulators: organisms that actively regulate their osmotic pressure, independent of the
surrounding environment.

39 | P a g e
 Examples are many vertebrates, including humans.
 The kidney is the main organ responsible for osmoregulation in humans.

o When the water level in the body is high, the kidney releases a large amount
of hypotonic urine.
o When the water level is low, it retains water and produces a low amount of
hypertonic urine.
 If there is an increase in our body water, plasma osmolality falls.
 All of the major systems of our body depend on water to work properly.
 Water helps our body: regulate temperature, prevent constipation, flush out waste
products and perform all major bodily functions.
 The decrease in the amount of water in our body affects all these major body systems.
 However, too much water in our body causes over hydration.
 Over hydration can lead to water intoxication.
 Too much sodium has been linked to kidney stones, high blood pressure, and
cardiovascular disease.
 Too little sodium can lead to hyponatremia, and symptoms of dizziness, confusion,
muscle twitches and seizures.
 Ultimately, the kidneys and the hormonal system play a vital role in helping the body to find
equilibrium when it comes to sodium and fluid balance.
 Hyponatremia A condition where sodium levels in the blood are abnormally low. This causes
nausea, vomiting, fatigue, headache or confusion

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2.6.3 Blood Sugar Regulation
 Glucose is the main source of energy for the normal functioning of our body systems.
 Two hormones (insulin and glucagon) produced from pancreas are responsible for
controlling the concentration of glucose in the blood.
 When blood glucose level is high and the glucagon level is low, more insulin is released by
the pancreas into the liver.
 Insulin promotes the conversion of glucose into glycogen so that the excess glucose can be
stored for a later use in the liver.
 Low blood sugar in our body causes hypoglycemia and high blood sugar causes diabetes.
 The symptoms of hypoglycemia include
 sweating, * fatigue,
 slurred speech * loss of coordination
 headache, * dizziness
 hunger or nausea * lightheadedness
 an irregular or fast heartbeat * blurry vision or tunnel vision.
 tingling or numbness (absent or reduced sensitivity) of the lips, tongue or cheek
Type 1 diabetes
 Occurs when the pancreas in our body can no longer produce insulin.
 People with type 1 diabetes need to take insulin every day to stay alive.
Type 2 diabetes
 occurs when:
 enough insulin is not made, or
 your body can‟t use it properly.
 Too much insulin or oral diabetic medication can lead to hypoglycemia.
 Untreated high blood sugar can damage our nerves, eyes, kidneys, and other organs.
 When blood glucose level is low and glucagon level is high, more glucagon is released by
pancreas into the liver.
 Glucagon promotes the conversion of glycogen into glucose.
 Glycogen Glucagon Glucose.

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2.6.4 Control of homeostasis

 Animals have feedback mechanisms for the stimulus( change in the environment)
 A feedback mechanism is a physiological regulation system to return the body to its normal
internal state.
 In the feedback mechanism
 Receptors_ senses stimulus and sends a signal to the brain
 Brain_ generates a response that is signaled to an effector ( Muscle to contract or

relax and glands to secrete hormones).
 There are two types of feedback mechanisms.
 Negative and positive feedback.
Negative feedback
 Occurs when a change in a variable triggers a response that reverses the initial change. Or
 It occurs when the activation of one component results in the deactivation of another.
 Negative feedback mechanism is a homeostatic process that reverses the direction of the
stimulus or any deviation from the normal.
This means that if the level is too high from the normal, the body brings it down, and
if the level is too low from the normal, the body lifts it up.

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Positive feedback
 Occurs when a change in a variable triggers a response that causes more change in the same
direction. Or
 It occurs when the activation of one component causes the activation of another.
 Positive feedback mechanism accelerates a change in the body‟s physiological condition rather
than reversing it.
 The positive feedback takes you further away from homeostasis.
 The negative feedback brings you back to homeostasis.
 A negative feedback system has four basic components. These are :
 Stimulus
 Sensor (receptor)
 Control center
 Effector.
 There are numerous examples of negative feedback mechanisms. One of the examples in humans
is the feedback mechanism in temperature regulation.
 This mechanism works by promoting either heat loss or heat gain.
 For instance, when the sensor (receptor) receives a stimulus that indicates an increased body
temperature from the normal range, it sends its message to the brain‟s temperature regulation
center, where the control center stimulates a cluster of brain cells. Then,
 The control center causes vasodilatation.
o More blood flows to the surface of the skin allowing the heat to radiate into
the environment
 Activate sweat glands to increase their output through diaphoresis (excessive
sweating) to remove heat through evaporation across the skin surface into the
surrounding environment.
 When the body temperature drops from the normal range the reverse occurs.
o It means that vasoconstriction and deactivation of sweat glands occurs.
 However, if heat loss is severe, the brain (control center) causes skeletal muscles to
contract and produce shivering to release heat while using up ATP for muscles
contraction.

43 | P a g e
 In the opposite process, a positive feedback loop would continue to cause the body to
sweat even though it was no longer hot
2.7 Renowned zoologists in Ethiopia
 Zoology is the study of animals in relation to their evolution, anatomy, physiology, behavior,
habitats and health.
 Many zoologists from various Ethiopian universities have studied animals found through the
country.
 Some researchers have invested their time and energy in studying animals in Ethiopia
throughout their lives.
 Such researchers are patriots for their country.

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UNIT TWO: ANIMALS

 Radial Symmetry. is a symmetry in which the sides exhibit correspondence or regularity

 It is lacking the left and right sides.

Biology short note G-11 Unit 2 Animals

2.2. Invertebrates and Vertebrates

2.2.1 Invertebrate Animals

 Invertebrate animals lack a rigid internal skeletal system.

 Many invertebrates are soft-bodied.

 Invertebrates are cold-blooded.

Biology short note G-11 Unit 2 Animals

2.2.2 Vertebrate Animals

Comparison of Invertebrate and Vertebrates

Biology short note G-11 Unit 2 Animals

The phylum chordate includes:

 All vertebrates (like mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish)

Key characteristics of chordates:

Why not all chordates are vertebrates?

Biology short note G-11 Unit 2 Animals

 Reproduction ensures the continuity of species.

 It is the process by which living organisms duplicate themselves.

 Two types of reproduction in animals. These are:

 Asexual and sexual reproduction.

2.3.1. Asexual reproduction in animals

 More common among invertebrates than in vertebrates.

 The other form of asexual reproduction in animals is parthenogenesis.

 In this type of reproduction, unfertilized eggs develop into new offspring as in

2.3.2 Sexual reproduction in animals

 It produces offspring that have genetic material from both parents.

 Involves different male and female reproductive structures.

 They produce haploid cells called gametes (n).

 There are two types of fertilization:

Biology short note G-11 Unit 2 Animals

 Produced by fertilization of an egg by sperm

 Develops into an embryo and then into an individual organism.

Developmental stages of embryo

 The first stage during embryonic development.

 It involves a series of mitotic cell divisions of the zygote.

 This cell division results in an eight-celled structure.

 The second stage during embryonic development

Biology short note G-11 Unit 2 Animals

 The third stage during embryonic development

 Organogenesis is the formation of organs during embryonic development.

2.3.3 Reproduction in insects (complete and incomplete metamorphosis)

 Constitute the most diverse groups of animals

 The largest class of the phylum Arthropoda

 Have segmented bodies, jointed legs, and external skeletons (exoskeletons).

Biology short note G-11 Unit 2 Animals

 During sexual reproduction, eggs are usually fertilized internally.

 However, some insects undergo parthenogenesis.

 This series of changes is called metamorphosis.

 Chemical substances in the insects control the process of metamorphosis.

 It is ecdysteroids and juvenile hormones

 Triggering molting and metamorphosis.

 Promote the transition from one developmental stage to another.

 Synthesized in the prothoracic glands of insects.

 Regulate development and preventing premature metamorphosis

 There are two types of metamorphosis:

Biology short note G-11 Unit 2 Animals

 Complete metamorphosis & incomplete metamorphosis.