CHAPTER ONE

SIMPLE STRESS AND STRAIN

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Structural and solid body mechanics is concerned with analysing the effects of applied loads.
These are external to the material of the structure or body and result in internal reacting forces,
together with deformations or displacements conforming to the principles of Newtonian
Mechanics.

The strength of a material is defined largely by the internal stress or intensities or force in the
material. Thus, the concern of this subject will be internal effects of forces acting on the body.
The bodies themselves will no longer be perfectly rigid as was assumed in statics, instead the
calculation of deformation of various bodies under variety of loads will be one of primary
concern. Usually, the objectives of our analysis will be the determination of stress, strains and
deflections produced by the loads. If these quantities can be found for all values of load, then we
will have a complete picture of the mechanical behaviour of the body.

Knowledge of these stresses is essential to the safe design of a machine, an aircraft, or any type
of structure. Most of these practical structures consist of a complex arrangement of many
component members.

The detail stress analysis is a difficult task even when the loading conditions are simple. The
problem is further complicated because the loads experienced by a structure are variable and,
sometimes unpredictable.

Forces acting on the body result in four basic deformations or displacements of structure or solid
bodies and these are tension, compression, bending and twisting.

1.2 Tension and Compression (Direct Stresses).

The fundamental concepts of stress and strain can be illustrated by considering a straight metal
bar loaded at its ends by collinear (or axial) forces P coinciding and acting through the centroid of
each cross – section as shown in Figure 1-1.

P P

a
Fig. 1-1 Bar in tension

1
The axial forces produce a uniform stretching of the bar; hence the bar is said to be in tension.
To investigate the internal stress produced in the bar by the axial force we make an imaginary cut
at the section a-a. This section is taken perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the bar hence it is
known as cross section.

P P
a
σ

We now isolate the right part of the bar as a free- body. The tensile load P acts at the right-hand
end of the free body. At the other end are forces representing the hatching of the removed part of
the bar or the part that remains. These forces are continuously distributed over the cross-section.
The intensity of these forces (Force /Area) is called stress and is represented by σ (sigma).

If the load has a uniform distribution over the cross-section, then it is readily seen that its
resultant is equal to the intensity σ x area of cross section of the bar. From the equilibrium of the
body shown, the resultant must be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the applied
load P, hence

σ = P/A
Units: Nm-2 (Pascal)
where σ = stress
P = applied load,
A = cross-sectional area.

The above equation is the equation for uniform stress in an axially loaded bar of arbitrary cross-
sectional shape. When the bar is stretched by a force P, the resulting stresses are tensile. If the
forces are reversed in direction at each end of the bar i.e directed towards the bar, the bar is said
to be in a state of compression and the resulting stresses are compressive stresses (Figure 1-2).

P P

Fig. 1-2 Bar in compression

Tensile and compressive stresses are together referred to as Direct or Normal (Perpendicular)
stresses. They are referred to as normal stresses because the stresses act in a direction
perpendicular to the cut surface.

Customarily, tensile stresses are defined to be positive and the compressive stresses to be
negative. It is important to realise that the stress equation gives the average normal stress acting
on the cross-sectional area. With concentrated loads or where the material being loaded changes

2
in shape i.e., a hole through the bar, then the stress will generally not be the same over each
segment of the cross section. The maximum stress will depend on the bar’s geometry and the type
of discontinuity. Tables and graphs are available which enable stress concentration factor K to be
determined. The maximum stress is then being K times the average stress.

Example 1.1
A steel bar of rectangular cross-section 25 mm x 20 mm carries an axial tensile load of 3 kN.
Estimate the average tensile stress in the cross-section.

Example 1.2
A steel bolt 25 mm in diameter carries a load of 4 kN in tension. Estimate the tensile stress of the
section A and at the screw section B when the diameter of the thread is 20 mm.

1.3 Strain

P P

L+δ

Fig 1-3

An axially loaded bar undergoes a change in length becoming longer when in tension and shorter
when in compression. The change in length can be denoted by δ (delta), Figure 1-3, for the bar in
tension. This elongation is the cumulative result of the stretching of the material throughout the
length of the bar.

Now assuming that the material is the same everywhere in the bar then, if we consider half of the
bar, it will have an elongation equal to δ/2. Similarly, if we consider a unit length of the bar, it
will have an elongation of 1/L times the total elongation δ. In this manner we arrive at the
concept of elongation per unit length which is strain, and it is denoted by ε (Epsilon) and is given
by the equation:

ε = δ/ L.
where δ = elongation (change in length)
L = original/ initial length
ε = strain.
3
Strain is a measure of the deformation produced in the member by the load.
Direct stresses produce a change in length in the direction of the stress. The above definition of
strain is useful only for small distortions in which the extension δ is small compared to the
original length L. It is however, adequate for most engineering problems where values of strain
are of order of 0.001.

If the bar is in tension the strain is called a tensile strain representing an elongation or stretching
of the material. If the bar is in compression the strain is known as compressive and the bar
shortens.

Tensile strain is taken as positive and the compressive, negative. The strain ε is call Axial or
Normal strain because it is associated with normal stresses.

Normal strain is a dimensionless quantity since it is a ratio of two lengths and hence has no units.

Example 1.3
A cylindrical block of concrete is 300 mm long and has a circular cross section of 100 mm in
diameter. It carries a total compressive load of 67 kN and under this load contracts 0.2 mm.
Estimate the compressive stress and the compressive strain.

Example 1.4
A bar with a rectangular cross section 20 mm x 40 mm and length L = 2.8 m is subjected to an
axial tensile force of 70 kN. The measured elongation of the bar δ is 1.2 mm. Calculate the tensile
stress and the strain in the bar.

4
1.4 Tensile Test

(Stress –Strain Diagrams)

Mild Steel or low carbon steel

σ High Ductility
D
B C E
A

Cold drawn or heat-treated steel

Low Ductility
σ

ε
σ
Brittle (High Carbon Steel)

ε
5
The mechanical properties of materials used in engineering are determined by tests performed on
small specimens of the material. These tests are conducted in material- testing laboratories
equipped with testing machines capable of loading the specimens in a variety of ways including
static and dynamic loading in tension and compression. Most common material test is the tensile
test, in which tensile loads are applied to the ends of a cylindrical specimen. As the specimen is
pulled, the load P is measured and recorded either automatically or by reading from the dial
gauge. The elongation over the gauge length is measured simultaneously with the load, usually
by mechanical gauges or extensometers. The load is applied very slowly.

The axial stress in the test specimen is calculated by dividing the load P by the cross-sectional
area A. When the initial area of the bar is used in this calculation, the resulting stress is called the
Nominal Stress (Conventional or Engineering Stress). More exact value of the axial stress
known as the true stress can be calculated by using the actual area of the bar, which can become
significantly less than the initial area for some materials.

The average axial strain in the bar is found from the measured elongation δ between the gauge
marks by dividing δ by the gauge length L. If the initial gauge length is used, then the nominal
strain is obtained. If the actual is used in calculating the strain, the true strain or natural strain
is obtained.

After performing tension and the compression test in determining the stress and strain of various
magnitudes of a load, the plot of stress versus strain diagram can be made. Such a diagram is a
characteristic of the material and conveys important information about the mechanical properties
and types of behaviour of the material. The stress – strain diagram for typical mild steel (low
carbon steel) in tension is shown in Figure 1-4.

σ E′

D
Ultimate Stress B C
A
Fracture E
Yield Stress

Limit of
Prop.

O ε
Elasticity Perfectly Strain Necking
Plastic Hardening

Fig 1-4 Stress- strain diagram for typical mild-steel

Strains are plotted on the horizontal axis and stresses on the vertical axis. The diagram begins
with a straight line from O to A. In this region, the stress and strain are directly proportional, and
the behaviour of the material is said to be linear. Beyond point A, the linear relationship between

6
stress and strain no longer exists, although the material may still be in the elastic state, in the
sense that, if the load were removed, the strain also would return to zero. Hence A is the
proportional limit and B the elastic limit.

With an increase in load beyond the proportional limit, the strain begins to increase more rapidly
for each increment in stress. The stress – strain curve has a smaller and smaller slope, until at
point B, the curve becomes horizontal. Beginning at this point, considerable elongation occurs
with no noticeable increase in tensile force from B to C in the diagram. This phenomenon is
known as yielding of the material and the stress at point B is called the Yield Stress. From B to C
the material becomes perfectly plastic which means the material can deform without an increase
in the applied load.

The elongation of the mild steel specimen in a perfectly plastic region is typically 10 – 15 times
the elongation that occurs between the onset of loading and the proportional limit. After
undergoing the large straining that occurred during yielding in the region BC the steel begins to
strain harden. During strain hardening the material undergoes changes in its atomic and
crystalline structure, resulting in increased resistant of the material to further deformation. Thus,
additional elongation requires an increase in tensile load and the stress – strain diagram has a
positive slope from C to D.

The load eventually reaches its maximum value and the corresponding stress at point D is called
the Ultimate Stress. Further stretching of the bar is accompanied by a reduction in the load and
fracture finally occurs at a point such as E.

Lateral contraction of the specimen occurs when it is stretched resulting in a decrease of the
cross-sectional area. If the actual cross-sectional area of the narrow part of the neck is used to
calculate the stress, the true stress –strain curve will follow the dashed line CE′. In the vicinity of
the ultimate stress, the reduction in area of one bar becomes visible. A pronounced necking of
the bar occurs.

Brittle Material is one showing relatively little elongation at fracture in the tensile test i.e., they
fail in tension at relatively low values of strain.
Examples are:
Concrete, Stone, Cast Iron, Ceramic Materials

Ductile Material is one that undergoes large strains before failure, thus stretch appreciably
before breaking.
Examples are:
Mild steel, Copper, Aluminium, Magnesium, Manganese, Brass (Zn Cu), Bronze (Zn S)

1.4.1 Proof Stresses

When a material such as aluminium does not have an obvious yield point and yet undergoes large
straining after the proportional limit is exceeded, an arbitrary yield stress may be determined by
the proof stress or off –set method.

7
A line is drawn on the stress-strain diagram parallel to the initial linear part of the curve but is
offset by some standard amount of strain, such as 0.002 (0.2 %). The intersection of the offset
line and the stress-strain curve defines the yield stress. This stress is also known as Proof Stress.
The 0.1 % proof stress (say) is the stress required to produce a permanent strain of 0.001 on
removal of the stress.

σ 0.2% Proof
Stress

0.1% Proof
Stress

0.002 off set

0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 ε

Fig. 1-5 Proof Stress Determination

Ductility and Brittleness

The capacity for being drawn out plastically before breaking is called the ductility of the material
and is measured by the following two quantities: - Percentage elongation and percentage
reduction in area (contraction).

PERCENTAGE ELONGATION is defined as:

L f − Lo
x 100 %
Lo

where Lf – Distance between the gauge marks at fracture.

Lo – Original gauge length.

PERCENTAGE REDUCTION is defined as:

Ao − A f
x 100 %
Ao

where Af – final area of the fracture section

Ao – Original cross-sectional area.

8
A material is generally classified as brittle if the percentage elongation is less than 5 in a gauge
length of 50 mm.

1.4.2 Factor of Safety

When designing a structure, a safety factor must be considered to ensure the working stresses
keep within safe limits.

It has been pointed out that stress is calculated from knowledge of the magnitude and position of
application of the load, the dimensions of the member, and the properties of the material. In
practice none of these factors is known exactly, and possible errors arise from various sources.

Despite all these approximations and assumptions, a body of theory has been developed which in
many cases can be shown to agree with experimental results within a reasonable margin of error
and forms the basis for sound design.

The maximum permissible stress, or working stress or design stress, is determined from a
consideration of the above factors, taking into account the social and economic consequences of
failure, and the factor of safety is normally defined as the ratio between the failure stress and the
working stress.

Failure Stress
Factor of Safety =
Working Stress

To avoid failure, the following conditions must be satisfied.

Maximum Induced Stress ≤ Allowable Stress

The allowable stress can be obtained easily if the material proper ties and the desired safety factor
are known.

For ductile materials subjected to static loading, the allowable stress is often defined as:

Yield Stress
Allowable Stress =
Factor of Safety

For those ductile materials with no well-defined yield stress, the allowable stress is defined as:

Pr oof Stress
Allowable Stress =
Factor of Safety

9
For brittle materials it is often defined as:

Ultimate Stress
Allowable Stress =
Factor of Safety

1.4.3 Relationship between Stress and Strain

(Hooke’s Law)

Within the elastic region, there is a linear relationship between stress and strain. The linear
relationship between stress and strain for a bar in simple tension or compression can be expressed
as:

σ = Eε
where σ – stress
ε – strain
E – constant of proportionality known as Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s
Modulus for the material

The above equation is commonly known as Hooke’s law.

Deductions:
σ = Eε

σ = P/A

ε = δ/L

E = σ/ε

PL
E=
A

or δ = PL/AE
Also,
F = kx

F/x = k
Implying,
P/ δ = k = AE/L

The modulus of elasticity is the slope of the stress – strain diagram in the linearly elastic region
(within the proportional limit) and its value depends upon the particular material being used. The
unit of E is N/m2.

10
Typical Values of E

200 GPa (steel)

70 GPa (aluminium)
11 GPa (wood)

Example 1.5
A tensile test is carried out on a bar of mild steel of diameter 20mm. The bar yields under a load
of 8 kN. It attains a maximum load of 15 kN and breaks finally at a load of 7 kN.
Estimate:
(i) The tensile stress at the yield point.
(ii) The ultimate stress.
(iii) The average stress at the breaking point if the diameter of the neck is10 mm.

Example 1.6
A concrete cube 150 mm x 150 mm x 150 mm is loaded in a compression-testing machine. If the
compressive force acting normal to one face of the cube is 250 kN, calculate the compressive
stress in the concrete.

11
1.5 Poisson’s Ratio (ν)

When a bar is loaded in tension, the axial elongation is accompanied by a lateral contraction
(normal to the direction of the applied load), Figure 1-6, in which the dashed lines represent the
shape before loading and solid lines give the shape after loading. The lateral strain is proportional
to the axial strain in the linear elastic range. The ratio of the strain in the lateral direction to the
strain in the axial direction is known as Poisson’s ratio and is denoted by ν (xu).

P P

Fig. 1-6 Axial elongation and lateral contraction of a bar in tension

Lateral strain,  y
ν =–
Axial strain,  x

The minus sign is because when one strain is tensile the other is compressive.

y
ν =–
x
or εy = – νεx

or εy = νεx

The lateral strain εy is also given as

εy = ∆d/d or ∆t/t
where d and t are diameter and thickness respectively of a material.

The lateral strain represents a decrease in width (negative strain) and the axial strain represent
elongation (positive strain). For compression, the opposite situation occurs with the bar becoming
shorter (negative axial strain) and wider (positive lateral strain). Therefore, the Poisson’s ratio has
a positive value for most materials.

Poisson’s ratio ranges from 0.25 to 0.35 for many metals. 0.3 is commonly used for metals.
Concrete has values from 0.1 to 0.2, and cork approximately 0.0. The theoretical maximum value
is 0.5.

12
1.6 Volume Change

Because the dimensions of the bar in tension or compression are changed when the load is
applied, the volume of the bar also changes. The change in volume can be calculated from the
axial and lateral strains. The unit volume change ℮ is defined as:

the change in volume, ∆v

Original volume, vo

V
℮=
Vo


But ∆v is given as; ∆v = Vf – Vo = Vo (1 – 2ν)
E


Hence ℮= (1– 2ν)
E

= ε (1– 2ν)

If there are stresses σx, σy and σz acting in each of the three coordinate directions, then

( x +  y +  z )
℮= (1– 2ν)
E

The quantity ℮ is also known as Dilation or Volumetric Strain.

As the bar is loaded along each of the three coordinate axes, the total strains in the bar in the
respective directions will be given as;

1
x = ( x −  y −  z )
E

1
y = ( y −  x −  z )
E

1
z = ( z −  x −  y )
E

If the body is subjected to three mutually perpendicular stresses of equal intensity

(σx = σy = σz = σ), then the ratio of the direct stress (σ) to the corresponding volumetric strain
(e) is known as Bulk Modulus. It is usually denoted by K.

Direct Stress
K =
Volumetric Strain

13
 
=
V Vo

The Bulk Modulus is related to Modulus of Elasticity (E) as;

E
K =
3(1 − 2 )

Example 1.7
A bar of circular cross-section is loaded by tensile forces P = 85 kN. The bar has length
L = 3.0 m and diameter, D = 30 mm. It is made of aluminum with Modulus of Elasticity
E = 70 GPa and Poisson’s ratio, ν = 1/3. Calculate the elongation δ, the decrease in diameter ∆d,
and the increase in volume ∆V of the bar. Assume the proportional limit of the material is not
exceeded.

Example 1.8
A steel pipe of length L = 1.2 m, outside diameter d2 = 150 mm, and inside diameter
d1 = 110 mm is compressed by and axial force P = 620 kN. The material has modulus of elasticity
E = 200 GPa and Poisson’s ratio ν = 0.3. Determine the following quantities for the pipe:
(a) the shortening δ
(b) the lateral strain
(c) the increase ∆d2 in the outer diameter and the increase ∆d1 in the inner diameter
(d) the increase ∆t in the wall thickness
(e) the increase ∆V in the volume of the material and,
(f) the dilation ℮.

14
1.7 Strain Energy

As a tensile specimen extends under load, the forces applied to the ends of the test specimen
move through small distances. These forces perform work in stretching the bar. To evaluate the
work done by the load we use the load deflection diagram (Figure 1-7).

Load
P

∆P1

L
P1

δ1 δ1+ dδ1 δ Elongation

Fig. 1.7 Load – deflection diagram for a bar

Consider a bar of length, L subjected to a variable tensile force P. The bar gradually elongates as
the load is applied eventually reaching its maximum elongation δ at the same time the load
reaches it full value P. Thereafter the load remains at a constant value. During the loading
process, the load moves through the distance δ.

Let us denote by P1, any value of the load between zero and the maximum value P; the
corresponding elongation of the bar is denoted by δ1. Then an increment ΔP1, in the load will
produce and increment dδ1 in the elongation. The area of the shaded strip represents the work
done by P1 during this incremental elongation P1dδ1. The total work done, W by the load as its
value P1, varies from zero to the maximum value P and as δ1 varies from zero to the maximum
elongation δ, is the summation of all such elemental strips:

W = ∫ Pdδ

That is the work done by the load is equal to the area under the load deflection curve.
The application of the load produces strains in the bar. The effect of these strains is to increase
the energy level of the bar. If the limit of proportionality of the material is not exceeded, the work
done in extending the bar is stored as strain energy, which is directly recoverable on the removal
of the load. Hence the strain energy is defined as the energy absorbed by the bar during the
loading process. The strain energy is denoted by U and is equal to the work done by the load
provided no energy is added or subtracted in the form of heat.

15
 U = W = ∫ P1dδ1 ----------------- (I)

The strain energy is sometimes referred to as internal work to distinguish it from external work,
W.

PL
δ= ----------------------- (a)
EA
Rearranging (a), we have;

EA
P= ----------------------- (b)
L

Substituting equation (b) into ( I ), gives

U = W = ∫ (δEA/L) dδ


EA
= d 
L

EA 2
U= ----------------------- (I*)
2L
In terms of P,
P2L
U= ----------------------- (I**)
2 EA

In terms of σ,
 2 AL
U= ----------------------- (I***)
2E
In terms of ε,
E 2 AL
U= ----------------------- (I****)
2

AL = V is the original volume of the bar so that the strain energy per unit volume (u) is given by;

2
u= ------------------------ (K)
2E

The strain energy per unit volume of a material is also called the strain energy density or
Resilience. The resilience of a material is its capacity to absorb potential energy within the elastic
range. The strain energy density is equal to the area under the stress– strain curve from the origin
to the point on the curve representing the stress σ and the strain ε.

The strain energy density when the material is stressed to the proportional limit is called the
Modulus of Resilience and is denoted by ur. It is found by substituting the proportional limit
stress σPL into the equation (K) and this gives;

16
 ur =
( PL )2
—— (Modulus of Resilience)
2E
Note: The Modulus of Resilience is equal to the area under the stress – strain curve up to the
proportional limit.

Toughness:
It refers to the ability of the material to absorb energy without fracturing. Hence the Modulus of
Toughness (ut ) is the strain energy density when the material is stressed to the point of failure.
It is equal to the area under the stress-strain curve.

Example 1.9
Calculate the strain energy of the bolt shown in the figure below under a tensile load of 10 kN.
Show that the strain energy is increased, for the same maximum stress by turning down the shank
of the bolt to the root diameter.

50 mm 25 mm

10 kN 10 kN 16.6mm 20 mm

Take E = 205000 N/mm2.

Example 1.10
A round bar having the length L but different shapes is shown below. The bar has diameter d over
one-fifth of its length and 2d elsewhere. It is subjected to axial load P. Find the strain energy
stored in the bar.

2d

L d L/5

17
Problems 1

1.1 Figure 1.1 shows one end of a beam resting upon a bearing pad made of a rubber
compound and which is 250 mm square in plan area. If the vertical reaction at the end of
the beam is 3000 kN, calculate the compressive stress in the bearing pad.
[Ans: – 48.0 N/mm2]

250 mm

Fig. 1.1

1.2 A metal bar ABC having two different cross-sectional areas is loaded by an axial force P
(Figure 1.2). Parts AB and BC are circular in cross-section with diameters 50 mm and 38
mm, respectively. If normal stress in part AB is 40 MPa, what is the normal stress σBC in
part BC?
[Ans: 69.3 MPa]

Fig. 1.2

1.3 Calculate the compressive stress σc in the piston rod (Figure 1.3) when a force
P = 40 N is applied to the brake pedal. (Note that the line of action of the force P is
parallel to the piston rod. Also, the diameter of the piston rod is 5 mm, and the other
dimensions shown in the figure are measured perpendicular to the line of action of the
force P.)
[Ans: 11.2 MPa]

Fig. 1.3

18
1.4 A compression member 0.3 m long has a rectangular cross section 150 mm by 100 mm. It
passes through a slot in a rigid block as shown in Figure 1.4 such that there is complete
restraint in the x direction. Therefore, no change of dimension can take place in the x
direction. There is however no restriction of movement in the y direction. If a load of
3800 kN is applied to the member as shown. Calculate:
(i) the stress in the x direction
(ii) the strain in the z direction
(iii) the strain in the y direction
Assume that E = 200 kN/mm2 and Poisson’s ratio ν = 0.3.
[Ans: – 76.0 N/mm2, – 1.153 x 10-3, 0.494 x 10-3]

Fig. 1.4

1.5 A specimen of a metharcrylate plastic is tested in tension at room temperature (Figure

1.5), producing the stress-strain data listed in the accompanying table. Plot the stress –
strain curve and determine the proportional limit, modulus of elasticity and yield stress at
0.2 % offset. Is the material ductile or brittle?
[Ans: σpl ≈ 47 MPa, E ≈ 2.4 GPa, σy ≈ 53 MPa, Brittle]

Stress-strain Data for 1.5

Stress (MPa) Strain
8.0 0.0032
17.5 0.0073
25.6 0.0111
31.1 0.0129
39.8 0.0163
44.0 0.0184
Fig. 1.5 48.2 0.0209
53.9 0.0260
58.1 0.0331
62.0 0.0429
62.1 fracture

19
1.6 A high -strength steel wire, 3.2 mm diameter, stretches 35 mm when a 15 m length
of it is stretched by a force of 3800 N.
(a) What is the modulus of elasticity E of the steel?
(b) If the diameter of the wire decreases by 0.0022 mm, what is Poisson’s ratio?
(c) What is the unit volume change for steel?
[Ans: 202.8 GPa, 0.3, 932 x 10-6 (increase)]

1.7 A prismatic bar is loaded in tension by axial forces. Find Poisson’s ratio for the material if
the ratio of the unit volume change to the unit change in cross-sectional area is equal to –
2/3.
[Ans: 3/10]

1.8 A flexible string of length Ls = 1.4 m is fastened to supports at points A and B (Figure
1.8). Points A and B are at different elevations, with B being lower than A. The horizontal
distance L between the supports equals 1.2 m. A load P hangs from a small roller that
slides without friction along the string until it comes to rest in the equilibrium position at
C. If the string has a breaking strength F = 160 N, and if a factor of safety S = 2.5 is
required, what is the allowable load P?
[Ans: 65.9 N]

L
A

Fig. 1.8

1.9 A bar 3 m long is made of two bars, one of copper having E = 105 GN/m2 and the other of
steel having E = 210 GN/m2. Each bar is 25 mm broad and 12.5 mm thick. This
compound bar is stretched by a load of 50 kN. Find the increase in length of the
compound bar and the stress produced in the steel and copper. The length of copper as
well as steel is 3 m each.
[Ans: 1.52 mm, 106 MPa, 53 MPa]

20
 CHAPTER TWO
AXIALLY LOADED SPRINGS/ BARS
This chapter is devoted to the behaviour of axially loaded members, which are structural elements
having straight longitudinal axes and carrying only axial forces (tensile or compressive). Their
cross-sections may be solid, hollow or tubular or thin-walled and open.

2.1 Displacement of Axially Loaded Members

An axially loaded spring is analogous to a bar in tension. Consider a spring axially loaded by a
force P.

Under the action of the force, P, the spring elongates by an amount δ so that its total length
becomes (L+ δ), where L is the original length. The spring constant, K is given as;

K = P/ δ

The compliance of the spring is the reciprocal of the spring constant, or the deflection produced
by a load of unit value and is given as

f = δ/P

The terms stiffness and flexibility are commonly used rather than spring constant and
compliance in structural analysis. The stiffness, K of an axially loaded bar below is defined as
force required to produce a unit deflection, hence stiffness of the bar, K is;

P EA
K= =
 L

The flexibility, f is defined as the deflection given to a unit load. Thus, the flexibility of an
axially loaded bar is
L
f=
EA

A prismatic bar of length L is loaded in tension by axial forces P as shown in Figure 2.1. The
uniform stress is given by the equation σ = P/A and the axial strain is ε = δ/ L. Assuming
Hooke’s law is being obeyed then σ = Eε. The above expressions are combined to give the
following equation for the elongation of the bar:
PL
δ=
EA

21
 L

δ
P P

Fig. 2.1 Axially loaded bar in tension

Thus, when a prismatic bar of linearly elastic material is loaded only at the ends, we can obtain
its change in length from the above equation.

Suppose that a prismatic bar is loaded by one or more axial loads acting at intermediate points
along the axis of the bar Figure 2.2 and 2.3.

A P1
a
P1 A
B
a
b
C P2 B
P2
c
b
P3 D
C

Fig. 2.2, 2.3 Bar with intermediate axial loads/ Bar consisting of prismatic bars

We can determine the axial force in each part of the bar (that is in part AB, BC, and CD, say, by
statics). We then calculate the elongation or shortening of each part separately. Finally, the
changes in lengths can be added algebraically to obtain the total elongation. This method can be
used if the bar consists of several prismatic segments, each having different axial forces, different
dimensions, and different materials. The change in length may be obtained from the equation

n
 Eii Aii
PL
δ=
i =1

In which the subscript i is a numbering index for the various segments of the bar. Note especially
that Pi is not an external load but is the internal axial force in segment i.

If either the axial force or cross-sectional area varies continuously along the axis of the bar, the
above equation is not suitable. Instead, the elongation can be found by considering a differential
element of the bar, obtaining an expression for its elongation and then integrating over the length
of the bar.

22
Consider a tapered bar shown in Figure 2.4(a). The bar is subjected to a continuously distributed
load, as shown by the arrows in the Figure.

A B A C B
P P
L x dx

Fig. 2.4a Fig. 2.4b

A continuous axial load of this kind may be produced by centrifugal forces, magnetic forces or
the weight of a bar hanging vertically. Now consider any intermediate cross-section C, at a
distance x from the left- hand end (Figure 2.4b). The internal axial force P(x) acting at this
section may be determined from static equilibrium using part of the bar AC or CB as a free body.
Thus, the force P(x) is known in terms of x. Also, the cross-sectional area A(x) at section C may
be expressed as a function of x. Next, we consider an element of the bar of length dx at section C,
the elongation dδ of this element may be obtained as follows;

P ( x)dx
dδ =
EA( x)

The elongation of the entire bar is obtained by integrating over the length L as;

P( x )dx
δ =  d =  EA(x )
This same procedure is applied to a prismatic bar hanging vertically under its own weight, Figure
2.5.

A
x

dx L

Fig. 2.5 A bar hanging vertically under its own weight

The elongation of the entire bar AB is given as;


P ( x)dx
δ=
EA

23
Example 2.1
A steel bar 2.5 m long has circular cross-section of diameter d1 = 20 mm over one-half of its
length and diameter d2 = 13 mm over the other half.
(a) How much will the bar elongate under a tensile load P = 22 kN?
(b) If the same volume of the material is made into a bar of constant diameter d and
length 2.5 m, what will be the elongation under the same load P?
(Assume E = 210 GPa).

d1= 20 mm d2 = 13 mm
P P = 22 kN
1.25 m 1.25 m

Example 2.2
A steel bar AD (see figure) has a cross-sectional area of 260 mm2 and is loaded by forces
P1 = 12 kN, P2 = 8 kN, and P3 = 6 kN. The lengths of the segments of the bar are a = 1.5 m,
b = 0.6 m, and c = 0.9 m.
(a) If the modulus of elasticity E = 210 GPa, calculate the change in length δ of the bar.
Does the bar elongate or shorten?
(b) By what amount P should the load P3 be increased so that end D of the bar does not
move when the loads are applied?

P1 P2
P3
A B C D
a b c

24
2.2 Statically Indeterminate Structures/ Bars

In the preceding section we deal with axially loaded bars and other simple structures that could
be analysed by static equilibrium. Such structures are classified as statically determinate. For
many structures, however, the equations of static equilibrium alone are not sufficient for the
calculation of axial forces and reactions in the members; these structures are called statically
indeterminate. Structures of this type can be analysed by supplementing the equilibrium
equations with additional equations pertaining to the displacement of the structure.

Consider a prismatic bar AB of cross-sectional area A attached to rigid supports at both ends and
axially loaded by a force P at an intermediate point C (Figure 2.6a). From the free-body diagram
Figure 2.6b, the reactions RA and RB cannot be found by statics alone, because only one equation
of equilibrium is available.

RA
A A
P a P

C C
L
b

B B
RB

Fig. 2.6a Fig. 2.6b

∑Fvert = 0 RA + RB − P = 0 --------------------- (1)

We need an additional equation to be able to solve for the two unknowns. This equation is
obtained based on the observation that a bar with both ends fixed does not change in length. That
is

δAB = 0. --------------------------- (2)

This also means that the total change in length of the bar caused by the three forces is zero. This
equation is called Compatibility Equation expressing the fact that the change in length of the
bar must be compatible with the conditions at the supports.

Considering Figure 2.6b, the changes in lengths of the upper and lower segments of the bar are
respectively,

R Aa R Bb
δAC = and δCB = −
EA EA

25
where the minus sign indicates a shortening of the bar.
Equation (2) now becomes:

R Aa R b
δAB = δAC + δCB = − B = 0
EA EA

Or
R A a RB b
− =0 ---------- (3)
EA EA

We now solve simultaneously equations (1) and (3) to get;

Pb Pa
RA = and RB =
L L

With the reactions known, all other forces and displacement equations can be found. Stresses in
the two segments of the bar can also be found directly from the internal axial forces.
Note: The analysis of structurally indeterminate structures involves setting up and solving
equations of equilibrium and equations of compatibility.

Example 2.3
The axially loaded bar ABCD shown in the figure is held between rigid supports. The bar has
cross-sectional area Ao from A to C and 2Ao from C to D.
(a) Obtain formulars for the reactions RA and RD at the ends of the bar.
(b) Determine the displacement δB and δC at points B and C respectively.

Ao 2Ao
P
A B C D
L/4 L/4 L/2

26
2.3 Strain Energy

The strain energy of an axially loaded bar of a linearly elastic material is given as

P2L
U= ---------------------- (1)
2 EA

For linearly elastic spring the strain energy is obtained by replacing the stiffness EA/L of the
prismatic bar by the stiffness k of the spring, and is given as;

P2
U=
2K

The total strain energy U of a bar consisting of several segments is equal to the sum of strain
energies of the individual segments. Considering Figure 2.7, the total strain energy is the strain
energy of segment AB plus the strain energy of segment BC.

P1
B

C
P2

Fig. 2.7 Bar consisting of prismatic segments having

different cross-sectional areas and different axial forces

Therefore, for a bar of any prismatic segment and constant internal axial force within each
segment, and made up of different materials, the total strain energy is given as;

n
Pi2 Li
U=  2 Ei Ai
i =1

in which Pi is the axial force acting in segment i and Li, Ei and Ai are properties of segment i.

For a non-prismatic bar – Figure 2.8 with continuously varying axial force, equation (1) is
applied to a differential element shown in the figure and integrating along the length of the bar
gives the strain energy of the bar as;

P ( x) 2 dx
L
U= 
0 2 EA( x )

27
P(x) and A(x) are the axial force and cross-sectional area at distance x from the end of the bar.

dx L

B
P

Fig. 2.8 Non-prismatic bar with varying axial force

The same procedure is applied to a bar hanging vertically under its own weight. For such a bar –
Figure 2.9, the strain energy is also given as;

P( x) 2 dx
L
U= 
0 2 EA

L
dx

Fig. 2.9 Bar hanging vertically under its own weight

Example 2.4
The bar ABC shown in the figure is loaded by a force P acting at end C and by a force Q acting at
the midpoint B. The bar has constant axial rigidity EA.
(a) Determine the strain energy U1 of the bar when the force P acts alone (Q = 0).
(b) Determine the strain energy U2 when the force Q acts alone (P = 0).
(c) Determine the strain energy U when the forces P and Q act simultaneously upon the
bar.
Q
P
A L/2 B L/2 C

28
Example 2.5
Determine the strain energy stored in a bar suspended from one end due to its own weight.
Assume linear elastic behaviour.

2.4 Pre-Stress or Strain (Initial Stress)

Sometimes, it happens that before any load is applied to any part of a machine or structure, it is
already in state of stress. For example, the bolts holding down the heads of the cylinder of a
steam engine are put into tension by tightening up the units. The same applied to the bolt in a
flanged coupling of a steam pipe, or the big end bolts of the connecting rod.

In some cases, relative rigidity of the bodies must be considered while in others it is not
considered. For example, in the case of a cylinder head, there will be little deformation, under
the pressure, of nuts compared with the deformation of the bolts, so that the head can be treated
as rigid and the stress in the bolt when there is steam in the cylinder will be the same as the initial
stress before steam come to the cylinder.

On the other hand, in dealing with flanged joints, the elasticity of the packing must be considered.
Any tension applied to the joints will be taken up partly by extra tension in the bolt and partly by
reduced compression in the packing.

29
Problems 2

2.1 A high strength steel rod with diameter d = 25 mm and modulus of elasticity E = 200 GPa
must transmit a tensile load P = 134 kN.
a) If the length L of the rod is 1 m, what is its final length?
b) What is the ratio of the length of the rod to the increase in length?
c) If the increase in length is limited to 3.8 mm, what is the maximum load Pmax that
can be permitted?
d

P P
L

[1.00136m, 735, 373.4]

2.2 A prismatic bar AD is subjected to loads P1, P2, and P3 acting at points B, C, and D,
respectively, as shown in the figure. Each segment of the bar is 500 mm long. The bar has
cross-sectional area A = 900 mm2 and is made of copper with E = 120 GPa.
a) Determine the displacement δD at the free end of the bar.
b) What should be the load P3 if it is desired to reduce the displacement at end D to
half of its original value?

P1 = 13 kN P2 = 13 kN
P3 = 50 kN
A 500 mm B 500 mm C 500 mm D

[0.755 mm, 22.8 kN]

2.3 A bar ACB having two different cross-sectional areas A1 and A2 is held between rigid
supports at A and B. A load P acts at point C, which is distance b1 from end A and b2
from end B.
a) Obtain formulars for the reactions RA and RB at supports A and B, respectively
due to load P.
b) Obtain a formular for the downward displacement δC of point C.

30
 AP
A1 b1
C

A2 b2
B

b2 A1P b1 A 2 P b1 b 2 P
[RA = , RB = , δC = ]
b1 A2 + b2 A1 b1 A 2 + b 2 A 1 E ( b1 A 2 + b 2 A 1 )

2.4 A bar AD of length L, cross-sectional area A, and modulus of elasticity E is subjected to

loads 5P, 3P, and P acting at points B, C, and D, respectively. Segments AB, BC, and CD
have lengths L/6, L/2, and L/3, respectively.
a) Obtain a formular for the strain energy U of the bar.
b) Calculate the strain energy if P = 21 kN, L = 1.2 m, A = 1,780 mm 2, and the
material is aluminium with E = 72 GPa.

5P 3P
P
A B C D
L/6 L/2 L/3

23P 2 L
[U = , 8 kJ]
12EA

2.5 Determine the strain energy in a bar suspended from one end if in addition to its own
weight, it supports a load P at the lower end.

31
2.6 The truss ABC shown in the figure supports a horizontal load P1 = 9 kN and a vertical
load P2 = 18 kN. Both bars have cross-sectional area A = 1,290 mm2 and are made of steel
with E = 210 GPa.
a) Determine the strain energy U1 of the truss when the load P1 acts alone (P2 = 0).
b) Determine the strain energy U2 when the load P2 acts alone (P1 = 0).
c) Determine the strain energy U when both loads act simultaneously.

813 mm

C B
P1 = 9 kN
P2 = 18 kN
1524 mm

[U1 = 5.69 J, U2 = 191.62 J, U = 155.55 J]

32
 CHAPTER 3
TEMPERATURE AND SHEAR STRESSES
3.1 Temperature Stresses
External loads are not the only sources of stresses and strains in a structure. When the
temperature of a body is raised or lowered the material expands or contracts. If the expansion
and contraction is wholly or partially restricted stresses and strains are set up in the structure.

Consider a long bar AB of a material – Figure 3.1 at a temperature θo. The bar is now subjected to
an increase ∆θ in temperature.

A B
Fig. 3.1 A bar of material subjected to an increase in temperature

As the bar is unrestrained, when it is heated, every element of the material will undergo thermal
strains in all directions resulting in increase in the dimensions of the bar. If A is taken as the
reference point and side AB maintained its original position, the block will have the shape shown
by the dashed lines. For most homogeneous structural materials if the temperature changes the
uniform thermal strains εt undergone by the materials is seen to be proportional to the
temperature change ∆θ. The strain is thus given as

εt = α (∆θ) ---------------------- (1)

α is a property of the material known as the coefficient of thermal expansion or coefficient of

linear expansivity. α has unit of 1/K or 1/ oC.
Conventionally the thermal strain resulting from expansion is taken to be positive and that
resulting from contraction is taken to be negative.

If the expansion of the bar is prevented, it is as if the bar is compressed to its original shape and
dimensions above. The compressive strain is given by equation 1 above. The corresponding stress
is;

σ = Eε

= α E (∆θ)

By a similar argument the tensile stress set up in a constrained bar subjected to a temperature
difference ∆θ is given as
σ = α E (∆θ)

It is assumed that the material remains elastic.

33
3.1.1 Change in Length of Unrestrained Bar

Consider a prismatic bar of length L (Figure 3.2) subjected to a temperature difference ∆θ. δt is
the elongation of the bar due to the temperature change ∆θ.

∆θ

L δt

Fig. 3.2 Increase in length of a prismatic bar subjected to temperature change ∆θ.

If the bar is homogeneous and isotropic and the temperature increase is uniform throughout the
bar, the increase in length δt is given by

δt = εtL = α (∆θ) L

Thus, the change in any dimensions of the bar can be obtained by multiplying the original
dimensions by the thermal strain.

For a bar of length L subjected to a temperature increase ∆θ, the increase in length is δt and
therefore the final length Lf becomes,

Lf = L + δt

= L + α (∆θ) L

= L [1 + α (∆θ)]

Example 3.1
A steel bar of length 200 mm is at a temperature of 10 oC. If the material properties are E = 210
GPa and α = 12 x 10-6/K. Find:
i The thermal strain induced in the bar
ii The new length of the bar when it is heated to 23 oC.

Example 3.2
A 150 mm diameter steam pipe is laid in a trench at a temperature of 13oC. When steam passes
through the pipe, its temperature rises to 120 oC;
(a) What is the increase ∆d in the diameter of the pipe if the pipe is free to expand in all
directions?
(b) What is the axial stress σ in the pipe if the trench restrains the pipe so that it lengthens only
one-third as much as it would if it could expand freely? (Note: The pipe is made of steel
with modulus of elasticity E = 200 GPa and coefficient of thermal expansion
α = 12 x 10-6 /oC).

34
3.1.2 Statically Indeterminate Bars

In the previous discussion the bars and structures considered are free to expand or contract. There
are, however, certain structures that can be restrained and depending on their character and nature
of the temperature changes may or may not develop temperature stresses. The analysis of
statically indeterminate structures that develop temperature stresses is done by establishing
equilibrium equations, compatibility equations- temperature displacement relations together with
force- displacement relations.

Consider a prismatic bar AB (Figure 3.3a) of linear elastic material, rigidly constrained at the two
ends and subjected to a temperature difference of ∆θ. Figure 3.3b is a free-body diagram of
Figure 3.3a and 3.3c, 3.3d are the increase and the decrease in the length of the bar due to
temperature change ∆θ and external load RA respectively.

RA RA
A A A δt A δRA

∆θ L L ∆θ

B B B B
RB

Fig. 3.3a Fig. 3.3b Fig. 3.3c Fig. 3.3d

As the temperature is raised the bar tends to elongate but is restrained by the supports A and B.
Consequently, reactions RA and RB are developed at the supports and the bar is subjected to
compressive stresses. Considering Figure 3.3b, the equilibrium equation is determined as;

ΣFvert = 0, RA – RB = 0 --------------- (1)

The compatibility equation is given as;

δAB = 0

In Figure 3.3c, when only the temperature change is acting, the bar elongates by an amount δt. In
Figure 3.3d when only the reaction RA acts the bar shortens by an amount δRA. The compatibility
equation then becomes

δAB = δt – δRA = 0

RAL
= α (∆θ) L – = 0 --------- (2)
EA

35
Solving equations (1) and (2) gives
RA = RB = EAα (∆θ)

From which the thermal stresses σt can be obtained.

RA R
I.e. σt = = B = E α (∆θ)
A B

Example 3.3
A composite bar made up of aluminum bar and steel bar, is firmly held between two unyielding
supports as shown in figure below.

B Steel C
A Aluminium
200 kN
1000 mm2
1500 mm2

100 mm 150 mm

An axial load of 200 kN is applied at B at 47 0C. Find the stress in each material, when the
temperature is 97 0C. Take Ea = 70 GPa; Es = 210 GPa; αa = 24 x 10-6/ 0C and αs =12 x 10-6/ 0C.

3.1.3 Creep of Materials under Sustained Stresses

At ordinary temperatures, most metals will sustain stresses below the limit of proportionality for
long periods without showing additional measurable strains. At these temperatures metals deform
continuously when stressed above the elastic range. This process of continuous inelastic strain is
called creep. At high temperatures metals lose some of their elastic properties and creep under
constant stress takes place more rapidly.

Strain

Primary Secondary Tertiary

c
a b
Fracture
εo
Instantaneously
Plastic

Time
Fig. 3.4 Creep Curve for a Material in the Inelastic Range

36
When a tensile specimen of a metal is tested at a high temperature under a constant load, the
strain assumes instantaneously some values εo; if the initial strain is in the inelastic range of the
material, then creep takes place under constant stress. At first, the creep rate is fairly rapid but
diminishes until a point (b) is reached on the strain –time curve. The point ‘b’ is a point of
inflexion in this curve, and continued application of the load increases the creep rate until fracture
of the specimen occurred at ‘c’.

3.1.4 Fatigue under Repeated Stresses

When a material is subjected to repeated tensile stresses within the elastic range, it is found that
the material tires and fractures rather suddenly after a large but finite number of repetitions of
stress; the material is said to fatigue.

σ
50 Endurance Limit

40
Medium strength
30 Titanium alloy

20
Mild Steel
10 Aluminium light
alloy

104 105 106 107 108 109 No. of cycles

to failure

Fig. 3.5 Forms of the stress-endurance curve for steel, aluminium light alloy, and titanium alloy.

The endurance to fatigue at a given stress level is the number of complete cycles of loading to
that stress level required to bring about fracture of the materials. Failure of the material after a
large number of cycles of tensile stress occurs with little or no permanent set. Fractures show the
characteristics of brittle materials. Fatigue is primarily a problem of repeated tensile stresses; this
is due, probably, to the fact that microscopic cracks in a material can propagate more easily when
the material is stressed in tension. In the case of steels, it is found that there is a critical stress
called the endurance limit below which fluctuating stresses cannot cause a fatigue failure.
Titanium alloys show a similar phenomenon. No such endurance limit has been found for other
non-ferrous metals and other materials.

37
3.2 Shearing Stresses

Apart from the direct stresses (tensile and compressive stresses), and thermal stresses, there is
another type of stress which plays a vital role in the behaviour of the materials and structures,
especially metals. This stress acts parallel or tangential to a surface.

Consider a thin block of a material, which is glued to a table. Suppose a thin plate is now glued to
the upper surface of the block (Figure 3.6).

Thin plate

A B

Block of material

Fig. 3.6 A block glued to a table on top of which is glued a thin plate

If a horizontal force P is applied to the plate, the plate will tend to slide along the top of the block
of the material, and the block itself will tend to slide along the table. So that, provided the glued
surfaces remain intact, the table resists the sliding of the block, and the block resists the sliding of
the plate on its upper surface. This is equivalent to applying two equal and opposite parallel
forces not in the same line to two parts of a structure. There is a tendency for one part of the
body to slide over or shear from the other part across any section. Assuming the block is to be
divided by any imaginary horizontal plane such as AB, the part of the block above this plane will
be trying to slide over the part below the plane. The material on each side of this plane is said to
be subjected to a shearing action, the stresses arising from these actions are called Shearing
Stresses.

Shear stress is denoted by the symbol τ (thaw), and shearing stress on any surface is defined as
the intensity of shearing force tangential to the surface. The average shear stress is obtained by
dividing the total shear force V by the area A over which it acts.

V
τ=
A

In many cases, the shear force is not distributed uniformly over the section; if δV is the shear
force on any elemental area δA of a section, the shear stress on that elemental area is;

lim V
τ=
A → 0 A

Shear stress arises in many practical problems. For example, Figure 3.7 (a) shows two flat plates
held together by a single rivet and carries a tensile force P.

38
 P a b
P

Fig. 3.7 (a) A rivet in a single shear

We imagine the rivet divided into two portions by the plane ab, then the upper half of the rivet is
tending to slide over the lower half, and a shearing is set up in the plane ab. The shearing takes
place at one cross-section of the rivet. The rivet is therefore said to be in a single shear. Figure
3.7 (b) shows three flat plates held together by a single rivet and carry a tensile force P.

P/2 a b
c d P
P/2

Fig. 3.7 (b) A rivet in double shear

In the above diagram, shearing takes place over two cross-sections of the rivet. That is in plane ab
and in plane cd. The rivet is therefore said to be in double shear.

Example 3.3
A punch of diameter 19 mm is used to punch a hole in a 6 mm steel plate. A force P= 116 kN is
required. What is the average shear stress in the plate and the average compressive stress in the
punch?

Example 3.4
Three steel plates are held together by a (sixteen) 16 mm diameter rivet. If the load transmitted is
5 kN, estimate the shear stress in the rivet.

2.5 kN a b
c d 5 kN
2.5 kN

39
3.2.1 Complementary Shearing Stress

Consider now the equilibrium of one of the elementary blocks of a rectangular block in a state of
shear – Figure 3.8.

τyx

τxy
b τxy
τyx
a

Fig. 3.8 An elementary block in a state of shear

Let τyx be the shear stress on the horizontal face of the element and τxy, be the shear stress on the
vertical faces of the element. Suppose ‘a’ is the length of the element and ‘b’ its height and that it
has unit breath. The total shear force on the upper and lower faces is then aτyx while the total
shear forces on the end faces bτxy, so that for rotational equilibrium;

aτyx b = bτxy a
or
τyx = τxy
This implies that whenever there is a shearing stress over a plane passing through a given line,
there must be an equal complementary shearing stress on a plane perpendicular to the given plane
and passing through the given line. The direction of the two shearing stresses must be either both
towards or both away from the line of intersection of the two planes in which they act.

NOTE:
• In direct stress there is a change in volume but in shear there is no change in volume.
• An element subjected to shear stresses only is said to be in pure shear.

40
3.3 Shear Strain

γ τ

Consider a rectangular block of material, subjected to shear stresses τ in one plane. The shearing
stresses distort the rectangular face of the block into a parallelogram as shown above. If the right
angles at the corners of the faces change by amounts γ, then γ is the shear strain. The shear strain
γ can be defined as the change in the right angle.

S I G N C O N VE N T I O N
The shear stress acting on a positive face of an element is positive if it acts in the direction of one
of the coordinate axes and negative if it acts in the negative direction of the axis. The shear stress
acting on a negative face of an element is positive if it acts in the negative direction of an axis,
and negative if it acts in the positive direction of an axis.

Positive shear stress Negative shear stress

The sign convention for shear strain is related to that of shear stresses. Shear strain in an element
is positive when the angle between two positive or (two negative) faces is reduced. The strain is
negative when the angle between two positive or (two negative) faces is increased.

Positive shear strain Negative shear strain

41
NOTE:
A face is said to be positive if it has its outward normal directed in the positive direction of a
coordinate axis. The opposite faces are negative faces.

+ve face
y

– ve face +ve face

x – ve face

3.4 Relationship between Shear Stress and Shear Strain

The τ versus γ diagram is similar in shape to the σ versus ε diagram. For many materials the
initial part of the shear stress–strain diagram is a straight line. Within the linear elastic region, the
shear stress and shear strain are directly proportional. That is;

τ=Gγ
where G is the shearing modulus of elasticity (Modulus of Rigidity). G is the ratio of the shear
stress to the shear strain, and it is also the slope of the linear portion of the shear stress- strain
diagram.

E
G is related to E as: G =
2 (1 +  )

3.5 Shear Strain Energy

For a member in pure shear the shear strain energy is given as;

1
U= G γ2 x Volume of the material
2

The shear strain per unit volume also known as the Shear Resilience is given as;

1
U= G γ2
2

42
3.6 Bearing Stresses

A localized compressive stress at the surface of contact between two members of a machine part
that are relatively at rest is known as bearing stress. It is used in the design of riveted joints,
knuckle joints et ce tera.

F d
t F

The bearing stress between the two members is given as;

F
b =
dtn

t = plate thickness
d = rivet diameter
n = number of rivet per pitch length

Example 3.5
A 15-mm-diameter steel rod AB is fitted to a round hole near end C of the wooden member CD.
For the loading shown, determine:
(i) The maximum average normal stress in the wood,
(ii) The distance b for which the average shearing stress is 500 kPa on the surface
indicated by the dashed lines,
(iii) The average bearing stress in the wood.

43
Problems 3

3.1 Find the minimum size of a hole that can be punched in a 20 mm thick mild steel plate
having ultimate shear strength of 300 N/mm2. The maximum permissible compressive
stress in the punch material is 1200 N/mm2.

[20 mm]

3.2 A block of wood is tested in direct shear using the loading frame and test specimen shown
in the figure. The load P produces shear in the specimen along plane AB. The height h of
plane AB is 50 mm, and its width (perpendicular to the plane of the drawing) is 100 mm.
If the load P = 16 kN, what is the average shear stress τaver in the wood?

P = 16 kN

Testing frame

A
h = 50 mm
B

[3.2 MPa]

3.3 A solid circular bar of aluminum fits inside a tube of copper having the same length
(Figure Q3.3). The outside diameter of the copper tube is 50 mm, and the inside diameter
is 45 mm. The diameter of the aluminum bar is 42 mm. At each end of the assembly, a
metal pin of 8 mm diameter goes through both bars at right angles to the axis. Find the
average shear stress in the pins if the temperature is raised 20 oC. (For aluminum, Ea =
70GPa and αa = 23 x 10-6 /oC; for copper, Ec = 120 GPa and αc = 17 x 10-6 /oC).

Pin Copper tube

Aluminum bar

Fig. Q3.3
[36.6 MPa]

44
3.4 A plastic bar ACB having two different solid circular cross sections is held between rigid
supports as shown in Figure Q3.4. The diameters in the left- and right- hand parts are
50 mm and 76 mm respectively. The corresponding lengths are 230 mm and 300 mm.
Also, the modulus of elasticity E is 6 GPa, and the coefficient of thermal expansion α is
100 x 10-6 /oC. The bar is subjected to a uniform temperature increase of 50 oC. Calculate
the following quantities:
(a) The compressive force P in the bar;
(b) The maximum compressive stress σc; and
(c) The displacement δc of the point C.

50 mm 76 mm
A C B

230 mm 300 mm

Fig. Q3.4

[86.885 kN; 44.26 MPa; – 0.544 mm (to the left)]

3.5 A flexible connection consisting of rubber pads (thickness t = 10 mm) bonded to steel
plates is shown in Figure Q3.5. The pads are 200 mm long and 150 mm wide.
(a) Find the average shear strain γaver in the rubber if the force P = 15 kN and the shear
modulus for the rubber is G = 800 kPa.
(b) Find the relative horizontal displacement δ between the interior plate and the outer
plates.

200 mm
X Rubber pad
P/2
P
P/2
X Rubber pad

150 mm t = 10 mm
t = 10 mm

Section X-X

Fig. Q3.5

[0.313; 3.13 mm]

45
 CHAPTER 4
CENTROIDS AND MOMENT OF INERTIA
4.1 Centroids of Shapes

A body or structure consists of parts each subjected to its own weight force. These forces are
vertical and parallel to each other. These forces may be replaced by a single vertical resultant of
magnitude equal to the total weight of the body and acting at the centre of gravity of the body.
This section is, therefore, concerned with locating the portion of the centre of gravity or centroids
of plane areas or geometric figures.

4.1.1 Centroids of Areas by Integration

To obtain formulas for locating of centroids, we consider an irregular shaped plate of material of
uniform thickness and having centre of gravity at C. We take the coordinate axes intersecting at
point O as shown.

−
x C

−
dA y
y

x
O x

δA is a differential element of area having coordinates x and y from y and x axes respectively.
Let A be the total area of the irregular shape, that is

A=  dA
First moment of area with respect to the x and y axes are defined as

Qx =  ydA , Qy =  xdA
For the whole figure, we can write
_ −
Qx = y  dA ; Qy = x  dA
46
 
−
x =
 xdA =
 xdA -------------------- (a)
 dA A

−
y  ydA
= =
 ydA ------------------- (b)
 dA A

Equations (a) and (b) are the formulas used in obtaining the coordinates of the centroids of
−
geometric figures. In general, the coordinates −x and y may be positive or negative depending
upon the position of the centroid with respect to the reference axes.

Example 4.1
Find the centroid of the triangle shown below

O x
b

A table of centroids for a variety of shapes is given in some textbooks and handbooks. Some
examples are shown below.
y y y

r
c
b c h c
r
x x
x b
b

For the above figures the centroids coincide with the geometric centres.

47
 y y
y

y = 34r
− y = 34r
−

r c r cr
c
−
x x x
x=0 −
x= d − 4r
2 y = 3
; 4r −

3
x=
For semi-circles For a quarter circle

4.1.2 Centroid of Composite Areas

Composite area is the one made up of several simple areas. To determine its centroid, composite
area is generally divided into two or more simple component areas each area having a familiar
geometric shape. The centroid of the composite area is then found by the following principle:

About any axis, the moment of area equals the algebraic sum of the moment of its component
areas. If the composite area is divided into n equal parts and the area of the ith part is Ai, then

n n n
A =  Ai ; Qx =  y i A i ; x
− −
Qy = i Ai
i =1 i =1 i =1

Where x− i and y− i are the coordinates of the centroids of the ith part with respect to the y and x
axes respectively.

The coordinates of the centroid of the composite area are then;

n n

− Qy  x− i Ai
i =1 − Q
y i =1
−
i Ai
x= = n
, y = x = n

 Ai A
A A
i
i =1 i =1

48
4.1.3 Symmetric Areas

In most cases obtaining centroids of geometric shapes becomes less of a work when the area is
symmetric about certain axes. Actually, if an area is symmetric about an axis, the centroid must
lie on that axis.

• For the single symmetric areas shown below the centroid must lie on the x-axis or the
y-axis which are the lines of symmetry and therefore only one coordinate must be
calculated to locate the centroid.
y
y

x
x

X-axis is the symmetry Y-axis is the symmetry

• If an area has two axes of symmetry the position of the centroid is located by inspection,
and it lies at the point of intersection of the two axes.
y
y

x x

Both x and y are axes of symmetry

• If an area is symmetric about a point (centre of symmetry) such that every line drawn
through that point contacts the area in a symmetrical manner, the centroid of such an area
coincides with the centre of symmetry and can be located by inspection.

y y

C x C x

49
Note:
−
1. In general, the coordinates x and y− may be positive or negative depending on the
location of the centroid with respect to the coordinate axes.

2. When a composite area is divided into two parts, the centroid C of the entire area
lies on the line joining the centroids C1 and C2 of the two parts. See the figure
below.

A1

C1

y−
x
x− C2
A2

3. For composite areas with absence of areas or with holes or notches or cutouts, they
are treated by subtraction or as negative areas.

Example 4.2
Determine the position of the centroid C of the area below.

y
100 mm
12 mm

100 mm

12 mm

50
Example 4.3
Find the centroid of the figure below.

y
r = 2 mm

10 mm

x
20 mm

4.2 Moment of Inertia

The second moment of area is known as the moment of inertia. It is the sum of the product of the
elemental areas and the square of their distances from the reference axis to their centroid. It is
denoted by letter I.

For elemental area dA,

 y dA  x dA
2 2
Ix = ; Iy =

When the number of areas is finite,

n
I= a y
i =1
i
2
i

Moment of area is always a positive quantity since dA is multiplied by the square of the distance
from the reference axis.

51
4.2.1 Moment of Inertia of Simple Geometric Areas

These are also given in tables. Here are a few of them.

(a) Rectangle (b) Triangle

yc y
b

xc xc h
h xc xc

yc
b

bh 3 bh 3 bh 3
Ix = Ixc = ; Ix =
12 36 12

hb 3 hb 3
Iy = Iy =
12 48

(c) Square (d) Circle

b y
y
R

x c x
x x b

y y

b4 d 4
Ixx = Iyy = Ixx = Iyy = Ixc = Iyc =
12 64

52
(e) Semicircle
y

y = 34r
−

xc c xc
x x

 8 4
Ixc = ( − ) R4 = 0.110R4; Ix = Iyc = 0.3927R
8 9

Example 4.4
Find the moment of inertia of the rectangular area shown below with respect to:
(a) A centroidal axis parallel to the base,
(b) An axis coinciding with the base.

Example 4.5
Find the moment of inertia of the triangle below about;
(a) The centroidal axis,
(b) An axis through the base.

53
4.2.2 Moment of Inertia of Composite Areas

Moment of inertia of a composite area with respect to any axis is the sum of the moment of
inertia of its parts with respect to that same axis.

h
h1 C x

b1

For the composite figure above the moment of inertia is given as;

3
bh 3 b1h 1
Ix = −
12 12

Cut offs and holes are considered as negative areas.

4.2.3 Parallel Axis Theorem

This relates the moment of inertia with respect to the centroidal axis and the moment of inertia
with respect to any parallel axis. With respect to the shape on the next page, it states that the
moment of inertia of an area with respect to any axis in its plane is equal to the moment of inertia
with respect to a parallel centroidal axis plus the product of the area and the square of the
distance between the two.

54
 y yc
d2

C xc

d1
x x

That is
Ix = Ixc + Ad12

Similarly,

Iy = Iyc + Ad22

Moment of inertia about the centroidal axis is the least moment of inertia for an area (for a given
direction of the axes.) If it is required to transfer from one axis zz to a parallel axis xx neither
being through the centroid, it is done in two stages as shown below.

x x

k2

xc C xc

k1

z z

Izz = Ic + Ak12

Ixx = Ic + Ak22

Ixx − Izz = Ak22 − Ak12

Ixx = Izz + Ak22 − Ak12

55
Example 4.6
Determine the moment of inertia of the figure below through the centroid

12 cm

2 cm

12 cm 2 cm

2 cm

4.3 Polar Moment of Inertia

The moment of inertia discussed in the preceding sections is defined with respect to axes lying in
the plane of the area itself. For example, the x and y axes. Now we will consider an axis
perpendicular to the plane of the area and intersecting the plane at the origin O. The moment of
inertia with respect to the perpendicular axis is called the polar moment of inertia.

C
x dA

ρ
y
x
O

The polar moment of inertia with respect to an axis through O perpendicular to the plane of the
figure is defined as;

Ip =   2 dA

56
ρ is the distance from O to the differential element of area dA

2 = x 2 + y2

 I p =   2 dA =  ( x 2 + y 2 )dA
=  x 2 dA +  y 2 dA

Ip = Ix + Iy

Ix and Iy are rectangular moments of inertia.

4.3.1 Parallel Axis Theorem for Polar Moment of Inertia

Polar moment of inertia with respect to various points in the plane of an area is related by the
parallel axis theorem.

yc
y

C xc

d
1
x
O

I PO = I PC + Ad 2

where, IPc = the polar moment of inertia with respect to an axis through the centroid
perpendicular to the plane of the figure.
A = the area of the figure, and
d = distance between the two parallel planes perpendicular to the plane of the figure.

57
Example 4.7
Determine the polar moment of inertia for a crankshaft about the centroid.

Example 4.8
Determine the polar moment of inertia for a solid shaft about its circumference.

A circle is a special case in which the polar moment of inertia can be obtained by integration. For
others it is obtained by summing Ix and Iy.

4.4 Radius of Gyration

Radius of gyration of a plane area is defined as the square root of the moment of inertia of the
area divided by the area itself. It is the distance (from reference axis) at which the entire area
could be concentrated and still have the same moment of inertia as the original area.

I = Ak2

Ix Iy
rx = ; ry =
A A

rx and ry are the radii of gyration with respect to the x and y axes respectively

58
Problems 4

4.1 Determine the position of the centroid C of the area below.

104 mm

7 mm

104 mm

x
7 mm

− −
[ x = 28.59 mm , y = 75.41 mm ]

4.2 Locate the centroid of the figure below.

r = 6 cm

6 cm

x
12 cm

− −
[ x = 9.37 cm, y = 5.13 cm ]
59
4.3 Find the moment of inertia of the figure below about the xx- axis.

35 mm

10 mm

15 mm 15 mm 50 mm
x x

10 mm

[3.25 x 105 mm4]

4.4 Calculate the polar moment of inertia IPC with respect to the centroid C for the hollow
section of constant thickness shown in the figure.

[Ipc = 132 x 106 mm4]

60
4.5 The moment of inertia with respect to axis 1-1 of the scalene triangle shown in the figure
is 90 x 103 mm4. Calculate the moment of inertia I2 with respect to axis 2-2.

1 1
40 mm 15 mm
2 2

[I2 = 405 x 103 mm4]

4.6 Derive a formular for the polar moment of inertia Ip of an isosceles triangle of base b and
altitude h with respect to its apex.

61
 CHAPTER 5
TORSION
5.1 Fundamental Concepts

This refers to the twisting of structural members when it is loaded by couples that produce a
rotation about its longitudinal axis. We are concerned with circular bars subjected to torsion. For
example, axles drive shafts in machines, propeller shafts, steering rods etc.

P1 P2

T1 T2

P1 P2

Consider a bar of circular cross- section twisted by a torque T (Figure below). From
consideration of symmetry, it can be shown that cross-sections of the bar rotate as rigid bodies
about the longitudinal axis with radii remaining straight with cross-section remaining plane and
circular.

γ T B
A θ radius r

A longitudinal line on the surface of the shaft will rotate through a small angle γ while a radius at
the end of the face of the shaft turns through an angle θ (Angle of Twist). Hence

Lγ=rθ

γ is the shear strain experienced by the shaft. Thus;

r
 =
L

The same relationship is obtained for surfaces at a radial distance r, which is internal in the shaft.
The maximum values of the shear stress and shear strain for a circular shaft will thus occur at
surface of the shaft.

62
For linearly elastic material;

Gr
 = G = ---------------------- (i)
L

Shear stress varies linearly with the distance from the centre of the bar. This is a consequence of
Hooke’s law. If stress- strain relation is non-linear other methods of analysis are needed.

5.1.1 Relationship between Torque and Angle of Twist

Consider an element in the cross-section of radius r and area dA shown below. If at this radius the
shear stress is τ, then the shearing force = τdA.

τ Area dA
r

τ
dr

The moment of this force about the axis of the bar or shaft axis is

dM = τdAr
substituting for τ from (i),

G r 2 dA
dM =
L

Total moment for the shaft is the torque and is the sum of the moments of shearing forces on all
areas of the ring segments that made up the shaft section.

r G r 2 dA G r 2
T = dM =A 0 L
= 
L 0
r dA

But

 r dA = polar second moment of area = J

r
2
0
GJ
 T = ------------------------ (ii)
L

From equations (i) and (ii);

T G 
= =
J L r

63
 Variation of Shear Stress

τmax

r τmax

Tr
 max =
J

This equation is known as torsional formular. It shows that the shear stress is proportional to the
applied torque and inversely proportional to the polar moment of inertia J.

Example
• For a bar of solid circular cross section

Tr d 4 d
 max = ; J= ; r=
J 32 2

16T
  max =
d 3

• For a circular tube or a hollow shaft

Tr  d0
 max = J= (d 0 − d i ) ; r=
4 4
;
J 32 2

16T  d 0
  max =
 (d 0 4 − d i 4 )

The quantity J/r is known as polar sectional modulus.

64
5.1.2 Angle of Twist

The angle of twist of a bar of linearly elastic material is written as;

TL
 = , measured in radians
GJ

T GJ
kt = = = torsional stiffness. That is torque required to produce a unit angle of twist.
 L

 L
fr = = = torsional flexibility. That is the angle of rotation produced by a unit torque.
T GJ

The quantity GJ is referred to as torsional rigidity.

Example 5.1
A solid shaft has diameter 20 mm, length 1 m and shear modulus of elasticity G = 70 GPa. The
bar is subjected to torques T acting at the ends.
(a) If the torque T = 300 Nm, what is the maximum shear stress in the bar? What is the angle
of twist between the ends?
(b) If the allowable shear stress is 50 MPa and the allowable angle of twist is 2.2o, what is the
maximum permissible torque?

5.2 Non- Uniform Torsion

In the previous section we deal with bars in pure torsion. Pure torsion refers to torsion of a
prismatic bar subjected to torques acting only at the ends. For non-uniform torsion the bars need
not be prismatic and the applied torques may act anywhere along the axis of the bar.

1. Bar Consisting of Prismatic Segments with Constant Torque throughout the

Segment

T2 T3 T4
T1

A B
C D
LAB LBC LCD

65
The bar shown has two different diameters and loaded by torques acting at A, B, C and D. There
are three segments AB, BC and CD. We determine the magnitude and direction of the internal
torque in each segment by inspection or by cutting sections through the bar, drawing free-body
diagrams, and solving equations of equilibrium.

When finding the shear stress in each segment, we need only the magnitudes of the torque but not
the sign. That is the direction of the stresses is not important. However, for the angle of twist for
the entire bar we need to know the direction of twist in each segment so that we can combine
correctly.

SIGN CONVENTION
An internal torque is positive if its vector points away from the cut surface/section and negative
when it points towards the section.

The maximum shear stress in each segment of the bar is obtained from the torsional
Tr
formula,  max = . The maximum stress in the entire bar is the largest stress from among the
J
stresses calculated for each of the segments.

TL
The angle of twist in each segment is found from  = . The total at one end of the bar with
GJ
respect to the other end is obtained by summation.

θ = θ1 + θ2 + θ3 + ---------- + θn

n n
 i =  Gii Jii
TL
 =
i =1 i =1

Ti is the internal torque found from equilibrium.

2. Bar with Varying Cross- section and Constant Torque

T T
A B
x dx

66
When the torque is constant, the maximum shear stress in a solid bar always occurs at the cross-
16T
section having the smallest diameter. That is  max = . So, applying the equation to point B,
d 3
we can find the maximum shear stress in the bar.

For angle of twist, we consider a differential element of length dx at distance x from one end of
the bar. The differential angle of rotation for this element is;

L L Tdx
 
Tdx
d = ; For the entire bar, we have,  = d = ;
GJ (x) 0 0 GJ ( x)

J(x) is the polar moment of inertia of the cross-section distance x from the end.

3. Bar with continuously varying Cross- section and continuously Varying Load

t
TA TB
A B
x dx

There is distributed torque of intensity t per unit distance along the axis of the bar. Internal torque
therefore varies along the axis. Knowing the internal torque T(x) and polar moment of inertia J(x)
as functions of x, we can use the torsional formular to determine how the shear stress varies along
the axis of the bar. The cross-section of the maximum shear stress can then be identified, and the
maximum shear stress can be determined.

The angle of twist of the bar is given as;

L L T ( x)dx
0
 = d = 0 GJ ( x)

67
5.3 Transmission of Power by Circular shafts/ Solid Circular Bars

Shafts are used to transmit power from one device to another. The amount of power transmitted
depends on magnitude of the torque and speed of rotation. The power P is given as,

P = T

P is measured in Watts (W) and  is measured in rad/s and is also given as  =2πf.
The commonly used speed is n measured in number of revolutions per minute (rpm).  is
therefore written as;

2n
=
60

2nT
 P=
60

Example 5.2
A steel shaft 35 mm in diameter and 1.2 m long held rigidly at one end has a hand wheel 500 mm
diameter keyed to the other end. The G of the material is 80GPa.
(i) What load applied tangential to the rim of the wheel will produce a torsional shear of
60 MPa?
(ii) How many degrees will the wheel turn when this load is applied?

Example 5.3
A shaft is transmitting 97.5 kW at 180 rpm. The allowable shear stress in the material is 60 MPa,
find the suitable diameter for the shaft. The shaft is not to twist more than 1o in a length of
3 metres. Take G = 80 GPa.

5.4 Strain Energy

A θ B
T

68
For a bar in pure torsion under the action of torque T, the bar will twist, and the free end rotates
through angle θ, given as;
TL
=
GJ

The work done by the torque is equal to the area under the torque deflection curve.

Torque T

dθ Angle of Twist θ

W = U = ∫ Tdθ

GJd
=  L


GJ
= d
L
0

GJ 2
=
2L

GJ 2 T 2L
 U= in terms of angle of twist; and , in terms of torque or load.
2L 2GJ

Non- uniform Torsion

1. For a prismatic bar/ prismatic segments with constant torque in each segment;

n
U =  Ui
i =1

69
 Ui = strain energy of segment i, implying U = summation of the strain energies in each
segment.

n 2
T L
 U= i i
i = 1 2G i J i

Ti is the internal torque in segment i, Li, Gi and Ji are the properties of the ith segment.

2. For a bar of varying internal torque or varying cross-section, we determine the strain
energy of an element and then integrate along the axis to find that of the entire bar.

T ( x ) 2 dx
dU =
2GJ ( x )

T ( x ) 2 dx

L
U=
0 2GJ ( x )

Strain energy density u in pure shear is given as;

2 G 2
u= or u= , measured in J/ m3.
2G 2

When the body is subjected to torsion, then strain energy density in torsion is given as;

Example 5.4
A solid circular bar AB of length L is fixed at one end and free at the other. Three loading
different conditions are to be considered.
(a) Torque Ta acting at the free end,
(b) Torque Tb acting at the midpoint of the bar, and
(c) Torque Ta and Tb acting simultaneously.
For each case of loading obtain a formular for the strain energy stored in the bar. Then evaluate
the strain energy for the following data:
Ta = 100 Nm, Tb = 150 Nm, L = 1.6 m, G = 80 GPa and J = 79.52 x 103 mm4.

A C B
Tb Ta

L/2 L/2

70
Problems 5

5.1 (a) Determine the diameter of a solid steel shaft which can transmit 45 kW at 400 rev/ min
if the maximum shear stress is not to exceed 45 N/mm2.

(b) If the weight of the shaft is reduced by 50 % by drilling an axial hole through
the centre, what will be the maximum stress if the power and speed remains
unchanged?

[49.5 mm, 60.8 MN/ m2]

5.2 (a) Determine the maximum allowable power which can be transmitted by 150 mm
diameter shaft running at 240 rev/min when the permissible shear stress is 50 N/ mm2.

(b) The shaft shown has a coupling on it which has 6 bolts on a 260 mm diameter pitch
circle. Determine the diameter of the bolts if the maximum shear stress in the bolts
must not exceed 100 N/ mm2, and the power transmitted is 314 kW at 500 rev/ min.

260 mm P. C. D.
D = 150 mm

[833 kW; 10 mm]

5.3 Under normal operating conditions, the electric motor exerts a torque of 2.8 kN.m on shaft
AB. Knowing that each shaft is a solid, determine the maximum shearing stress in:
(a) Shaft AB
(b) Shaft BC
(c) Shaft CD

71
 [τAB = 81.2 MPa; τBC = 64.5 MPa; τCD = 23.0 MPa]

5.4 Shaft AB has a 30-mm diameter and is made of a steel with an allowable shearing
stress of 90 MPa, while shaft BC has a 50-mm diameter and is made of an aluminum alloy
with an allowable shearing stress of 60 MPa. Neglecting the effects of stress concentration,
determine the largest torque T that can be applied at A.

[T = 477 N.m]

5.5 The design specifications of a 1.2-m-long solid shaft require that the angle of twist of the
shaft not exceed 4o when a torque of 750 N.m is applied. Determine the required diameter
of the shaft, knowing that the shaft is made of a steel with an allowable shearing stress of
90 MPa and a modulus of rigidity of 77.2 GPa.

[d = 36.1 mm]

72
 CHAPTER 6
BEAMS, SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENTS

6.1 Beams

A beam is a structural member that is designed to resist forces acting transverse to its axis.

Types of Beams

1. Simple Beam
A beam which has a pin support at one end and a roller support at the other is called a
simple supported beam.

P
Reactions at supports
RA,H A B

RA,V RB,V

2. Cantilever (Built-in, fixed end)

A beam which is completely supported at one end by being framed in a solid wall (built –
in) and free at the other end.

P P
M Reactions at supports
RH
A B A B

RV

3. Overhang Beam (Overhanging beam)

If one or both ends of a beam project beyond its supports and is free at its ends it is called
an overhang beam.

P P
A B C A B C D

73
6.1.1 Statically Determinate and Indeterminate Beams

A beam is said to be statically determinate if all the support reactions can be determined by the
laws of static equilibrium. That is;

M = 0, (F x = 0, F
y =0 )
If all the support reactions cannot be determined by the laws of static equilibrium, then the beam
is said to be indeterminate.

• A cantilever beam supported at its unrestrained end is called a supported cantilever

• A simple beam extended continuously over more than two supports is called a continuous
beam

A supported cantilever and a continuous beam are statically indeterminate.

6.1.2 Loads on Beams

Loads acting on beams may be concentrated, distributed or couple.

(a) Concentrated/ Point Load

It is one which is supported on an area of a material relatively small that it may for
convenient calculation be assumed to be a point.

P1 P2 P3

74
(b) Distributed Load

Distributed loads act over a distance. Such loads are measured by their intensity which is
expressed in units of force per unit distance, N/m along the axis of the beam.
Distributed loads may be uniform or non-uniform.

(i) Uniformly distributed loads (udl) have constant intensity q.

q N/m q N/m

(ii) Non- uniformly distributed loads are varying loads that have intensity q that
changes with distance along the axis.

q1 N/m q N/m q N/m

qo N/m
0 0 0

(c) Couple or Moment

P
M

P
b P
D
a a M = Pb
≡

75
6.2 Shear Force and Bending Moment

When a beam is loaded internal stresses or strain are created. To determine these stresses and
strains, the internal forces or couples that act across a cross- section on the beam must be found.

6.2.1 Shear Force

Consider a simply supported beam shown. The algebraic sum of all the forces including reactions
is zero and the algebraic sum of moments of all the forces about any point x- x is zero. If,
however only the forces to any side of the section at x- x are considered, the algebraic sum will
not in general be zero.

x
W1 W2 W3

R1 x R2

A shearing force at a section of the beam such as x- x is the algebraic sum of the forces on either
side of that section. The sum of the forces to the left of the section must be numerically equal but
opposite in direction to the sum of those to the right.

SIGN CONVENTION

CORRESPONDING DEFORMATION

A positive shear stress tends to deform element by causing the right-hand face to move
downward with respect to the left hand face.

76
6.2.2 Bending Moment

The bending moment at a section x- x is the algebraic sum of the moments of the forces on either
side of the section. Since the moment of the forces on the whole beam about x- x must be zero,
it implies that moment of those forces to the left of x- x must be numerically equal but opposite to
the moment of those on the right of x- x.

SIGN CONVENTION

M M

M M

CORREPONDING DEFORMATION

M Compression M Tension

Tension M Compression M

M Sagging M
M Hogging M

A positive moment elongates the lower part of the beam and compresses the upper part, and vise-
versa.

6.2.3 Relationship between Bending Moment, Shear Force and Load Intensity

At any section, distance x from some datum on a beam,

dM dV d2M
=V and =−q=
dx dx dx 2

q = intensity of loading
V = shear force
M = bending moment

77
 dM dM
Bending moment is maximum or minimum if = 0 ; it follows that as = V , then the
dx dx
bending moment is maximum or minimum if V = 0.

6.3 Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams

A shear force diagram is one which shows the variation of shear force along the length of the
beam. A bending moment diagram is one which shows the variation of bending moments along
the length of the beam.

These variations provide necessary information for the design analysis of the beam. The
maximum value of the bending moment is usually the primary consideration in the design and
selection of beams.

6.3.1 Drawing of Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams

STEPS
1. Establish the values of all external reactions on the beam
2. Isolate a portion of the beam either to the left or to the right of any transverse section and
apply the equations of equilibrium.
3. Get expressions for V and M.
4. Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams.

NOTE:
• In drawing bending moment diagrams, it is advisable to always sketch the
deflected shape before any calculations and using this as a guide to the corrected
shape of the bending moment diagrams.

• Always draw the bending moment diagram on the side of the beam which is in
tension. Plotting this way enables the values of shearing force (SF) and bending
moments (BM) at any point in the beam to be rapidly determined by vertical
projections.

• In drawing bending moment diagram, one can work from left to right and or from
right to left but for shearing force diagram it is better to work symmetrically from
left to right.

6.3.2 Point of Contra flexure

If the direction of curvature of a beam changes at a point, the point is called point of
contraflexure or point of inflexion. This coincides with the point on the BM diagram where the
bending moment changes sign from positive bending (sagging) to negative bending (hogging)

78
and vise-versa. Bending moment at the point of contraflexure is zero. Therefore, to locate the
point of contraflexure, we write down the equation for the bending moment at a point to the left/
right of the point of contraflexure within the appropriate interval. The bending moment equation
is then equated to zero and solving for x, specifying this distance with respect to the left or the
right end of the beam.

6.3.3 Principle of Superposition

This principle helps in more rapid construction of the SF and BM diagrams when the beam is
subjected to complex loading.

It states that: If a structure is made of linear elastic material and is loaded by a combination of
loads which do not strain the structure beyond the linear elastic range, then the
resulting shearing force and bending moment are equal to the algebraic sum of the
shearing forces and bending moments which would have been produced by each of
the loads acting separately. The principle is illustrated below:

Consider a beam having a single concentrated load at mid span and self-weight w kN/m as
shown.

W
w kN/m
A B

By superposition, we consider the loads to be applied separately.

W W
w kN/m w kN/m
+ =

SF Diagram

+ =

BM Diagram

+ =

79
The maximum bending moment under the action of the total load is equal to the maximum
bending moment WL/4 under the action of concentrated load plus maximum bending load under
the action of uniformly distributed self-weight (WL2/8).

WL WL2
 BM max = +
4 8

Example 6.1
Draw the shear force (SF) and bending moment (BM) diagrams of the beam below:

P
a b
C
A B

Example 6.2
Draw the shear force (SF) and bending moment (BM) diagrams of the beam below:

q N/m

A B

Example 6.3
Draw the shear force (SF) and bending moment (BM) diagrams of the beam below:

80
Example 6.4
Draw the shear force (SF) and bending moment (BM) diagrams of the beam below:

q N/m

Example 6.5
Draw the shear force (SF) and bending moment (BM) diagrams of the beam below:

N N/m

A B

81
Problems 6

6.1 A beam 10 m long is simply supported at its ends and carries constant loads of 30 kN and
80 kN at distances of 3 m from each end. Draw the shear force and bending moment
diagrams.

6.2 In the following problem, sketch the shearing force and bending moment diagrams
marking the values of all important points.

4 kN 8 kN 2 kN

A B C D E
VB VD
5m 5m 5m 5m

6.3 Use the diagram below to answer the following questions:

4 kN/m
2 kN/m

4m 4m

(a) Sketch the deflection curve,

(b) Draw the shear force diagram,
(c) Draw the bending moment diagram.

6.4 For the figure below, sketch the shear force and bending moment diagrams and use them
to find the position of the point of contraflexure.

10 kN 5 kN
2 kN/m
1 kN/m
A B C D
4m 6m 4m
VA VC
[8.12 m from end A]

82
6.5 A beam L m long is supported symmetrically with equal overhangs at each end of 2 m.
Each overhang carries a concentrated load of W at its extreme end, and there is a
concentrated load W in the centre of the beam. If the bending moment at mid-span is equal
to that at each support, calculate the distance between the supports. Sketch the SF and BM
diagrams and find the position of the points of contraflexure.

[16 m; 6 m and 14 m from the end A]

6.6 Draw the shear and bending moment- diagrams for the beam and loading shown, and
determine the maximum absolute value;
(a) of the shear,
(b) of the bending moment.

[140 N; 33.6 N.m]

83
 CHAPTER SEVEN
BENDING
7.1 INTRODUCTION

When a beam is loaded and bends then its axis is bent into a curve with the upper surface
becoming extended (in tension) and lower surface shortened (in compression). There is therefore
a plane intermediate between the surfaces experiencing no tension or compression i.e., no change
in length. This plane is called the Neutral Plane. The intersection of the neutral plane and any
cross section of the beam is the Neutral Axis.

7.2 The Bending Equation

Consider a beam that is bent into an arc of a circle. The cross section of the beam is symmetrical
about the axis of bending. The beam is bent by an application of a couple of moment M (Pure
bending). The radius of the neutral axis is R.

S T Neutral axis

P Q
M M

For segment PQ the neutral axis does not change in length and is the length of the section and
hence layer ST before it was bent. ST is at a distance y from the neutral axis.

Initial length of ST

ST = PQ = Rθ

The change in length on bending is yθ

The strain of layer ST

y y
Strain = =
R R

84
If the material is within the limit of proportionality, the stress acting normally to the cross section
of the beam on layer ST, will be

yE
=
R

The stress is proportional to the distance from the neutral axis which implies the maximum stress
will occur at the beam surface.

−σb

NA

+σb

7.3 Position of the Neutral Axis

The stress acting on the cross section of layer ST of the beam is given as

yE
=
R

If the layer has a cross sectional area dA then the longitudinal force acting on the layer

EydA
d P = dA = (a force on one layer)
R

The total longitudinal force acting on the beam is the sum of the forces acting on all such layers
forming the beam. That is:

E
R
P= ydA

But if the beam is acted on only by bending moments, there is no net longitudinal force; the beam
will not suffer any overall extension or contraction longitudinally.

85
 E
R
 ydA = 0 ; This is the first moment of area about the neutral axis and is zero if
y = 0, since dA  0. This can be zero if the moment has been taken about the centroid.

This means the neutral axis must pass through the centroid.

7.4 The General Bending Formular

For the beam bent into the arc of radius R considered previously,

yEdA
dP =
R
Moment of dP about the neutral axis

yEdAy Ey 2 dA
dM = =
R R

Ey 2 dA E 2
(M) = 
R
Total moment = y dA = external bending moment applied to the load.
R

 y dA = I ; second moment of area about the neutral axis

2
But

EI
Hence M= ------------------------------------- (*)
R

Since the stress (σ) on a layer distance y from the neutral axis is given by

Ey
= -------------------------------------- (**)
R

We combine * and ** to have

 E M
= = ; General bending formular.
y R I

Where,
M = Bending moment acting at a given section;
σ = Bending stress;
I = Second moment of area of the cross section about the neutral axis;
y = Distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fibre;
E = Young’s modulus of the material;
R = Radius of curvature of the beam.

86
Assumptions for the derivation:
1. Material is linearly elastic
2. E is same in tension and compression
3. The material is homogeneous (same physical properties throughout)
4. Plane sections at right angles to the longitudinal axis remain plane after bending
5. The beam is in pure bending.

7.5 Strain Energy of Bending

Consider a beam in pure bending subjected to couples M.

θ
M M

Let the radius of curvature be R and angle subtended by the arc θ

L 1 M
= ; but =
R R EI

ML
  =
EI

As the bending couples are gradually increased in magnitude from zero to their maximum values
M, they perform work W on the beam. This work is evaluated from the moment- rotation
diagram.
M

o θ θ + dθ Θ

87
 Work done = Mdθ = dW

EI
W=  Md ; but M = L


EI EI 2
L 0
 W= d =
2L

EI 2
 U= ---------- strain energy in terms of the angle.
2L

ML
Substituting θ = , we have
EI

M2L
U = ------------ strain energy in terms of load M.
2EI

If the bending moment varies along the length of the beam (non-uniform bending) then we apply
the equations to an element of the beam and integrate along the length,

dθ
M
M

dx

Mdx M 2 dx
dθ = ; dU =
EI 2EI

M 2 dx
U=  2EI

88
Example 7.1
A rectangular timber beam 50 mm wide and 150 mm deep carries a bending moment of
1.12 kNm. Determine the maximum bending stresses.

Example 7.2
A beam with symmetrical cross-section, an Ixx value of 25 x 106 mm4 and depth 150 mm is
simply supported over a span of 5 m. The beam supports a single concentrated load of 40 kN at
the mid span. Determine the maximum bending stress at the mid span and at a point 1 m from
one end of the beam. Neglect the self-weight of the beam.

Example 7.3
Determine the strain energy of a cantilever beam loaded below:

A B
Mo

(a) If P acts alone

(b) If Mo acts alone
(c) If both P and Mo act simultaneously.

89
Problems 7

7.1 For the beam and loading shown, determine the maximum normal stress due to bending on
a transverse section at C.

4 kN/m 6 kN

A C B

1.5 m 2.1 m

Take the elastic sectional modulus of the beam as 415 x 10−6 m3.

[51.6 MPa]

7.2 Draw the shear and bending - moment diagrams for the beam and loading shown and
determine the maximum normal stress due to bending. Take the elastic sectional modulus
as 2400 x 103 mm3.

150 kN 150 kN
90 kN/m

C D E
A B

0.8 m 0.8 m 0.8 m 2.4 m

[136.0 MPa]

90
7.3 For the beam and loading shown, determine;
(a) The distance a for which the absolute value of the bending moment in the beam
is as small as possible,

(b) The corresponding maximum normal stress due to bending.

500 kN 500 kN
12 mm
500 mm 500 mm
C D
A B 18 mm

[866 mm; 5.74 MPa]

7.4 A beam of uniform rectangular cross section is fixed at one end and carries an electric
motor weighing 400 N at 300 mm from the fixed end. The maximum bending stress in the
beam is 40 MPa. Find the width and depth of the beam if depth is twice that of width.

7.5 If a timber beam 50 mm wide and 150 mm deep is used as a cantilever 0.75 m long, and if
the maximum permissible bending stress is 12 N/mm2, calculate the maximum single
concentrated vertical load which can be supported at the end of the cantilever.

[3.0 kN]

91
 Contents
CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................ 1
SIMPLE STRESS AND STRAIN .................................................................................... 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Tension and Compression (Direct Stresses). ........................................................... 1
1.3 Strain........................................................................................................................ 3
1.4 Tensile Test ............................................................................................................. 5
1.4.1 Proof Stresses ..................................................................................................... 7
1.4.2 Factor of Safety .................................................................................................. 9
1.4.3 Relationship between Stress and Strain ............................................................ 10
1.5 Poisson’s Ratio (ν) ................................................................................................. 12
1.6 Volume Change ..................................................................................................... 13
1.7 Strain Energy ......................................................................................................... 15
Problems 1 ..................................................................................................................... 18

CHAPTER TWO
AXIALLY LOADED SPRINGS/ BARS ....................................................................... 21
2.1 Displacement of Axially Loaded Members ........................................................... 21
2.2 Statically Indeterminate Structures/ Bars .............................................................. 25
2.3 Strain Energy ......................................................................................................... 27
2.4 Pre-Stress or Strain (Initial Stress) ........................................................................ 29
Problems 2 ..................................................................................................................... 30

CHAPTER THREE......................................................................................................... 33
TEMPERATURE AND SHEAR STRESSES ............................................................... 33
3.1 Temperature Stresses ............................................................................................. 33
3.1.1 Change in Length of Unrestrained Bar ............................................................. 34
3.1.2 Statically Indeterminate Bars............................................................................ 35
3.1.3 Creep of Materials under Sustained Stresses .................................................... 36
3.1.4 Fatigue under Repeated Stresses ...................................................................... 37
3.2 Shearing Stresses ................................................................................................... 38
3.2.1 Complementary Shearing Stress ....................................................................... 40

i
 3.3 Shear Strain ........................................................................................................... 41
3.4 Relationship between Shear Stress and Shear Strain ............................................ 42
3.5 Shear Strain Energy ............................................................................................... 42
3.6 Bearing Stresses ..................................................................................................... 43
Problems 3 ..................................................................................................................... 44

CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................... 46

CENTROIDS AND MOMENT OF INERTIA ............................................................. 46
4.1 Centroids of Shapes ............................................................................................... 46
4.1.1 Centroids of Areas by Integration .................................................................... 46
4.1.2 Centroid of Composite Areas ........................................................................... 48
4.1.3 Symmetric Areas .............................................................................................. 49
4.2 Moment Of Inertia ................................................................................................. 51
4.2.1 Moment of Inertia of Simple Geometric Areas ................................................ 52
4.2.2 Moment of Inertia of Composite Areas ............................................................ 54
4.2.3 Parallel Axis Theorem ...................................................................................... 54
4.3 Polar Moment of Inertia ........................................................................................ 56
4.3.1 Parallel Axis Theorem for Polar Moment of Inertia......................................... 57
4.4 Radius of Gyration ................................................................................................ 58
Problems 4 ..................................................................................................................... 59

CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................. 62

TORSION ......................................................................................................................... 62
5.1 Fundamental Concepts .......................................................................................... 62
5.1.1 Relationship between Torque and Angle of Twist ........................................... 63
5.1.2 Angle of Twist .................................................................................................. 65
5.2 Non- Uniform Torsion ........................................................................................... 65
5.3 Transmission of Power by Circular shafts/ Solid Circular Bars ............................ 68
5.4 Strain Energy ......................................................................................................... 68
Problems 5 ..................................................................................................................... 71

ii
CHAPTER SIX ................................................................................................................ 73
BEAMS, SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENTS ........................................... 73
6.1 Beams .................................................................................................................... 73
6.1.1 Statically Determinate and Indeterminate Beams ............................................ 74
6.1.2 Loads on Beams ............................................................................................... 74
6.2 Shear Force and Bending Moment ........................................................................ 76
6.2.1 Shear Force ....................................................................................................... 76
6.2.2 Bending Moment .............................................................................................. 77
6.2.3 Relationship between Bending Moment, Shear Force and Load Intensity ...... 77
6.3 Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams........................................................ 78
6.3.1 Drawing of Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams ............................... 78
6.3.2 Point of Contra flexure ..................................................................................... 78
6.3.3 Principle of Superposition ................................................................................ 79
Problems 6 ..................................................................................................................... 82

CHAPTER SEVEN ......................................................................................................... 84

BENDING ........................................................................................................................ 84
7.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 84
7.2 The Bending Equation ........................................................................................... 84
7.3 Position of the Neutral Axis .................................................................................. 85
7.4 The General Bending Formular ............................................................................. 86
7.5 Strain Energy of Bending ...................................................................................... 87
Problems 7 ..................................................................................................................... 90

iii