UNIVERSITY OF MINES AND

TECHNOLOGY, TARKWA

MACHINE DESIGN I

MC 274

Course Instructor
Gideon Quartey

2023
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO THE DESIGN PROCESS

BASIC CONCEPTS OF DESIGN

MACHINE: It is a device for transforming or transferring energy. An apparatus consisting of

interrelated units (machine elements). A device that modifies force and motion.

Machine design is the art of planning or devising new or improved machines or systems to
accomplish specific purposes. In general the machine or system will consist of combination of
several different elements properly designed and arranged to work together as a unit.

During the initial planning of the machine or system fundamental considerations must be made
about the kinetics and kinematics elements to be used in the design and also the correct uses of
the properties of engineering materials. This presupposes a sound knowledge of Engineering
Science, Engineering Graphics, Systems Engineering, Engineering Economics and
Environmental Science.

Economic considerations are usually of prime importance when the design of a new system is
undertaken. In general the lowest overall cost is desired. Consideration should be given not only
to the cost of the design, manufacture, sale and installation but also to the cost of serving.

The machine should of course incorporate the necessary safety features and be of pleasant
external appearance. The objective though is to design machine, which is not only sufficiently
designed to function properly for a reasonable lifespan but at the same time reasonably priced to
become economically affordable to the targeted market.

Knowledge in machine design enables engineers to formulate their own philosophy about the
system in question, gather data and organize the methodology needed to proceed from product
conceptualization to the release of the final product.

TYPES OF MECHANICAL DESIGN

A mechanical design can fall into one of three categories:

(a) New Design: Design created from scratch through the application of scientific laws,
technical ability and creative thinking. It is also known as creative or inventive design. It
needs lots of research, skill, and daring. The most important thing in new design is the
creativity. Only those designers with personal qualities of sufficiently high order can take
up the work of a new design. Such designs generally can qualify for a patent.

(b) Development Design: This also needs special design related training and skills
(considerable knowledge and skills) and ability. Although the designing starts with
existing design the final product is distinctly different from the existing one in terms of
material, cost or functionality or a different method of manufacture. It, therefore, leads to
a major modification of an existing design.

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 (c) Adaptive Design: It concerns with adaptation of existing design. The designer makes
minor alterations or changes in design or product to suit the requirement. Minor changes
usually in the dimension of the product. It needs no special training or skills. Such a
design can therefore be completed by someone with minimal design skills.

Depending on the methods used, design may be classified as;

(a) Empirical Design: This type of design depends upon empirical formulae based on the
practice and past experience.
(b) Industrial Design: This type of design depends upon the production aspects to
manufacture any machine component in the industry.

(c) Optimum Design: It is the best design for the given objective function under the
specified constraints. It may be achieved by minimizing undesirable effects.

(d) System Design: It is the design of any complex mechanical system like motor car,
aero plane etc.

(e) Rotational Design: This type of design depends upon mathematical formulae of
principles of mechanics.

(f) Computer Aided Design (CAD): It depends on the use of computer systems to assist in
the creation, modification, analysis and optimization of a design.

DESIGN PROCEDURE

When a new machine or its elements are to be designed, no rigid rules can be specified for a
designer to follow. The problem can be solved in many ways. However, a designer may proceed
as follows:

1. Make a written statement of the problem, as completely and as clearly as

possible, and also of the purpose for which the machine is to be designed.

2. Make a selection of a possible mechanism which will give the desired motion or
group of motions.

3. Determine the forces acting on and the energy transmitted by each element of the
machine.

4. Select the material best suited for each element of the machine.

5. Determine the allowable or design stress considering all the factors that affect the
strength of the machine part.

6. Determine the size of each member, with a view to preventing undue distortion or
breakage or failure of the member under the applied load.

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 7. Modify the machine elements in parts to agree with the experience and judgment
and to facilitate manufacture.

8. Make assembly and detailed drawings of the machine with complete specification
for the materials and the manufacturing methods i.e. accuracy, surface finish etc.

It will be a wrong procedure to design a machine without the benefit of the past knowledge and
experience about that machine. The design of a machine is based on the past experience, factual
knowledge and Engineer’s skill. Factual knowledge means that the Engineer or Designer must
know the theory and have the knowledge in the appropriate branch of engineering. For example,
for machine design, the Engineer must have knowledge of kinematics, statics, dynamics,
mechanical technology of metals, mechanics of materials etc. The factual knowledge and the
experience are then combined with creativity of Engineer’s skill to evolve a new machine.

SYSTEM DESIGN CYCLE

For solving any design problem, there is a general procedure that must be followed. This general
procedure is known as System Design Cycle. The sequence of events in this cycle has been
codified by Asimow considered to be the father of System Design. The activities are shown by a
block diagram, Figure 1.1.

The process begins with recognition of a need and a decision to do something to meet the need
and after many iterations ends with the presentation of the plans for satisfying the need.

Recognition of a Need: This is the first stage in Designing, where the need for a particular
design or product is brought to the notice or knowledge of the engineer, through any of the
following ways:

(a) Holding discussions with the management to arrive at something which when designed
and put into use can improve the production system of an organization.
(b) A customer approaching the engineer with a specific problem at hand.

(c) Problem arising from the production line of a company or an industry.

(d) Focusing on the need to design something, which is highly marketable and beneficial to
many users.
(e) Making consideration of previous design.

Recognition of the need and defining the need often constitutes a creative act, because the need
may be only a vague discontent, a sense that something is not right. Recognition is usually
triggered by particular adverse circumstances. The need may be existing or may not yet exist,
but the evidence may be existing that the need is latent i.e. the need can be evoked when
economic means for its satisfaction becomes available.

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Specification and Requirement: A specification is a description of the problem to be solved,
showing exactly what the design must achieve, whilst taking into account the design limitations
which will affect the final solution. At this stage, the engineer or designer finds out specifically
how the machine should be designed so as to satisfy the need with regard to the specific function
of the machine. The specification may include the dimensions of the space the object will
occupy, the cost, input and output quantities, the characteristics, the number to be manufactured,

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the expected life, the minimum and maximum range, the operating temperature, the reliability
and weight limitations (any limits on the design are called constraints).

The engineer also takes into consideration, the form of energy the machine is going to use, type
of engineering materials suitable, considering the environmental factors associated with the site
of installation.

Feasibility Study: Once the problem’s need has been established and the specifications have
been prepared, accepted and submitted, the feasibility study is done. The purpose is to check the
possibility of success or failure of the proposed project both from technical and economic stand
point. Feasibility can cut short fruitless design effort. It is at this stage where the engineer finds
out the best of the possible ways or methods through which the project can be practically and
economically brought into reality. Along this stage, the designer does the following:

(a) Market survey to find out the availability of materials that can be used to construct the
project, based on the specification and requirements of the project.

(b) Take decisions as to whether to manufacture some components locally or obtain them
from a component manufacturer.

(c) The relative cost of getting each raw material, items, components etc. for the project.

(d) Selecting the best effective and most economically feasible method out of the lot
considered.

(e) Find out if any natural law is being defied.

Creative Design Synthesis:

This phase is the most challenging and interesting part of design. Here the designer can act as
engineer, inventor and even an artist, all in one, because he is now called upon to create. This is
the stage where the designer uses his own creativity, knowledge, skills and innate potentials to
make sketchy designs and diagrams of the various components of the machine prior to
preliminary designs of the project.

Preliminary Design and Analysis

After the process of creativity design is complete, there will be one or more possible designs that
satisfy the given set of specifications and requirements. It becomes necessary to decide which of
the solutions to choose for the preliminary design and development stage. So here the designs
and sketches obtained from the previous stage are scientifically analyzed in this stage. The
designer considers the following:

(a) Application of standard engineering calculations.

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 (b) Suitability of the selected engineering materials for various parts, based on the forces that
will act on those parts.

(c) Preliminary design data, construction details and projected characteristics.

Detailed Design (Detailed Engineering Drawing)

Here, the designer makes more complete drawing and specifications of selected design, as well
as making more complete data supporting projected design. This is the stage where
dimensioning and other technical drawing techniques are applied. The designer may also confer
with colleagues and others to obtain information and confirm design features as well as giving
approval of most promising design.

Prototype Building and Testing

After completing all the details, the sub-assemblies and assembly drawings including the
materials and parts list, the completed design is sent to the prototype or model shop for
fabrication. At this juncture the parts are fabricated, and commercial components are purchased.

The first example (design model) form which other forms may be developed is built and tested
as to the proof of operating characteristics of components and also, the proof of soundness of
complete entity. The prototype serves several functions. Generally, it is used to show what the
machine will really look like in full scale; and also the testing of the prototype helps in
establishing several factors including:

(a) Producing acceptable performance.

(b) Revealing flaws.
(c) Verifying design hypotheses.
(d) Developing improved design concepts.
(e) Exposing difficulties overlooked in the theoretical design.
(f) Increasing the validity of results.

Design for Production (Production from Design)

Depending on a satisfactory result during the testing of the prototype, the final permission for
production is granted. This is where the manufacturing processes and various techniques of
production are employed to carry out the design.

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Product Release
After going through the production process successfully, the product is then released for testing
in a limited market. It is only when management is satisfied that all the problems associated with
the product are solved that the product is finally released to the wider market.

Note: In the system design cycle, any drawback at any stage can be easily corrected by following
each feedback loop to the appropriate previous stages.

GENERAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

There are a number of characteristics which should be considered when designing an element or
the entire design. Here are some of the important characteristics:

1. Strength 14. Noise

2. Stiffness or rigidity 15. Styling

3. Wear 16. Shape

4. Corrosion 17. Size

5. Safety 18. Control

6. Reliability 19. Thermal properties

7. Friction 20. Surface finish

8. Usability 21. Lubrication

9. Utility 22. Marketability

10. Cost 23. Maintenance

11. Processing 24. Volume

12. Weight 25. Liability

13. Life 26. Recovery

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REQUIREMENT OF A GOOD DESIGN
A design must be:

Functional: Fill a need or customer expectation.

Safe: Not hazardous to users or bystanders.

Reliable: Conditional probability that the product will perform its intended function without
failure to a certain age.

Competitive: Contender in the market.

Usable: To be able to accommodates human size and strength

Manufacturable: Having minimal number of parts and suitable for production.

Marketable: Product capable of being sold and serviced.

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 CHAPTER TWO
ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND THEIR RELEVANT PROPERTIES

ENGINEERING MATERIALS

The selection of a material for a machine part or a structural member is one of the most
important decisions the designer is called on to make. The decision is usually made before the
dimensions of the part are established. After choosing the process of creating the desired
geometry and the material (the two cannot be divorced), the designer can proportion the member
so that loss of function can be avoided or the chance of loss of function can be held to an
acceptable risk.

Methods for estimating stresses and deflections of machine members are presented. These
estimates are based on the properties of the material from which the member will be made. For
deflections and stability evaluations, for example, the elastic (stiffness) properties of the material
are required, and evaluations of stress at a critical location in a machine member require a
comparison with the strength of the material at that location in the geometry and condition of
use. This strength is a material property found by testing and is adjusted to the geometry and
condition of use as necessary. As important as stress and deflection are in the design of
mechanical parts, the selection of a material is not always based on these factors. Many parts
carry no loads on them whatever. Parts may be designed merely to fill up space or for aesthetic
qualities. Members must frequently be designed to also resist corrosion. Sometimes temperature
effects are more important in design than stress and strain. So many other factors besides stress
and strain may govern the design of parts that the designer must have the versatility that comes
only with a broad background in materials and processes.

The functions of the product parts, appearance, availability, suitability and cost are guidelines in
the selection of the appropriate material.

Classification of Engineering Materials

Engineering materials are mainly classified as:

1. Metals and their alloys such as iron, steel, copper and aluminum.

2. Non-metals such as glass, rubber, plastic, wood etc,

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Metals are further classified as:

(a) Ferrous metals: Those metals having iron as their main constituent, such as cast iron,
steel and wrought iron.

(b) Non-ferrous metals are those which have a metal order than iron as their main
constituent, such as copper, aluminum, brass, tin, zinc etc.

The following table gives the available materials, their families and classes.

Table 2.1 Material Families and Classes

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Table 2.1 Continued

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RELEVANT PROPERTIES

Properties of materials are used by the designer in determining the size, shape and fabrication
method of component and machine elements.

Properties of interest are metallurgical, mechanical and physical. Frequently, the limitations
imposed by the material are the controlling factors in a design.

Physical Properties

The physical properties of materials include luster, colour, size and shape, density, electric and
thermal conductivity, melting point and coefficient of linear expansion.

Mechanical Properties
These are properties associated with the ability of the material to resist mechanical forces and
loads. The properties are as listed below:

1. Homogeneity
It is an exhibition of the same properties throughout a material. This is an ideal state and it is not
achieved in real materials particularly metals. However, variations are small such that
calculations for stress and deflections in a material are considered homogenous throughout.

2. Elasticity
This is the ability of the body when subjected to an external load to return to its original size and
shape when the external load is removed.

3. Isotropy

It is the property of a material that displays the same elastic properties in all loading directions.
This is the basic assumption of all equations of elasticity and strength of materials. Filament
mound plastic and fibrous materials are not isotropic.

4. Plasticity
A material is said to be plastic when it is subjected to an external load of such magnitude that
deformation continues with no apparent further increase in load. The material then experiences a
permanent rest and will not return to its original size or shape when the load is removed.

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5. Tensile Strength ( u)/Ultimate Strength
This is the highest point plotted on a stress – strain curve for a material in a tensile test.

6. Fracture Strength (Breaking Strength)

It is that value at which the test specimen separates and is obtained by dividing the breaking load
by the original cross sectional area. Dividing the breaking load by the cross sectional area at
failure gives the true fracture strength.

7. Proportional Limit

It is that point on the stress - stain curve beyond which the stress is no longer proportional to the
stain. This is used in engineering calculations only when it is absolutely necessary because of the
difficulty in determining its actual value.

8. Elastic Limit

It is that point on the stress strain curve where the material being tested begins to display a slight
deviation on a straight line. Very often, the value is taken to be equal to the proportional limit.

9. Proof Stress

It is that stress which will cause a small but permanent strain of 0.1 % or 0.2 % of the material.

10. Yield Point y / Yield strength

Ideally, for perfectly plastic and elastic material, the yield point is that point on the stress- strain
curve where the test specimen experiences a relatively large increase in deformation with no
increase in load.

11. Young’s Modulus

It is also called modulus of elasticity which is E for tension and G for shear. It is the ratio of
stress to strain within the proportional limit. This is a measure of stiffness in case of tension and
compression, and rigidity, in case of shear.

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12. Poisson Ratio

It is the absolute value of the ratio of transverse strain to the axial strain when an axial load is
being applied to a body.

13. Direct Shear Strength

This is the load at separation divided by the cross sectional area being sheared.

14. Shear Yield Point

These values are generally not available. Torsional testing uses the equation s = , where r
is the radius of the test specimen, is the angular deformation over the length L to give a
plotted curve from which the shear point is determined using the proof stress method.

15. Malleability

It is the property of a material that allows a material to deform without fracture in compression.
This is a high property requirement of materials that are to be rolled or flattened without pre-
heating. For example, Gold, Aluminum, Copper and Lead.

16. Machinability

It is a property of a material which refers to relative ease with which the material can be cut.

17. Brittleness

It is a property of breaking of a material with little permanent distortion. The ability of a material
when subjected to tensile loads to snap off without giving any sensible elongation.

18. Ductility

It is the property of material that allows the material to be deformed without fracture. It is a
property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire with the application of a tensile force.
The material is said to be ductile when the ductility is greater than 5 % and brittle when it is less
than 5 %.

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19. Resilience

It is the ability of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock and impact loads. It is measured
by the amount of energy absorbed per unit volume within the elastic limit.

20. Modulus of Resilience

It is defined as the ability of a material to absorb energy within the proportional limit.

21. Modulus of Toughness

It is the ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform before fracture. It is
measured by the amount of energy that a unit volume of the material has absorbed after being
stressed up to the point of fracture. Toughness, sometimes, is usually associated with the ability
of a material to withstand impact and shock loads.

22. Hardness

It is the ability of the material to generally resist plastic indentation and providing good
resistance to wear and corrosion. It is also defined as the resistance of a material to penetration
by a pointed tool.

23. Endurance Strength (Fatigue Strength)

It is the maximum completely reversed stress under which the material will fail after it has
experienced stress for a specified number of cycles. Values for fatigue strength are therefore
given by the number of cycles to fail. Fatigue is when a material fails below its yield point stress
after being subjected to repeated stresses.

24. Endurance Limit

This is the maximum completely reversed stress for which it is assumed that the material will
never fail regardless of the number of stress cycles. It is stated without the number of stress
cycles to failure.

25. Creep

It is a slow and permanent deformation of a material when the material is subjected to a constant
stress at high temperatures for a long period of time.

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Metallurgical Properties

The structure of materials especially ferrous metals allows manipulations with various processes
to impart specially required properties to the metal. The properties imparted using the
metallurgical processes are physical, mechanical or aesthetics such as electroplating. Typical
among metallurgical processes is the heat treatment of ferrous materials affecting the grain
structure to impart various properties.

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 CHAPTER THREE
FABRICATION METHODS

How the materials are fabricated or manufactured is of great concern and importance for a
design engineer. Since these fabrication processes may impair positively or negatively on the
relevant properties of the materials involved.

From study point of view, we can divide the manufacturing process used in mechanical
engineering into the following topics;

 Foundry processes:

 Heat treatment
 Hot working metal
 Cold working metal
 Press work and tooling
 Numerical control
 Machining and metal cutting
 Shaping, sawing, and broaching
 Welding and brazing
 CAM
 Rapid prototype

Foundry products are most often used in automobiles, plumbing fixtures, train locomotives,
planes and as metal pieces in other kinds of equipment. Foundry processes consists of: cast
making, metal melting, metal casting, cleaning the castings and reclaiming the sand for re-use’

Casting
It allows the components of any material of any shape and size to be produced in one operation.
Molten metal is poured directly into a mould having cavity corresponding to the shape of the
desired part. On solidification, the metal assumes the shape of the cavity and it is then removed
from the mould. In all casting processes, the basic requirement is the production of the mould
cavity which is capable of reproducing the desired shape in the finished product (with allowance
for shrinkage which occurs as the metal solidifies) which permit the casting to be removed after
solidification. The types of casting are:

i. Sand casting

ii. Shell moldings

iii. Precision – investment casting

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 iv. Die casting

v. Centrifugal casting

vi. Powder metallurgy

Sand Casting

It is used to produce components in cast iron, steels and non – ferrous metals such as aluminum
based alloys, Magnesium and Copper based alloys etc. It consists of pouring molten metal into a
cavity in sand. To produce the shape of the cavity in the sand mould, the sand is pressed around
a pattern.

Shell Molding

It is used for the casting of light alloys. It has the advantage of permitting the production of
components having greater dimensional accuracy and better surface finishing than in sand
casting. It also involves pouring the molten metal into a shell formed from a mixture of sand and
thermosetting resin positioned around a metal pattern. The shell is positioned in a box and
supported by sand before the metal is poured.

Precision – Investment Casting

Precision casting is also known as lost wax or hot investment casting since the pattern in this
case is made up of wax, plastic or frozen mercury. This method is used for metals which were
not amenable to fabrication by other casting methods. It permits the production of somewhat
more complex casting to a high degree of accuracy (lost – wax process). The method for
precision casting can be described as follows:

1. Wax is used to make the mold.

2. Refractory slurry is used to coat the wax pattern to form the skin. This skin is
dried and the wax pattern is coated with successive layers of slurry until a robust
thickness is achieved.

3. The wax pattern is placed in an oven and the wax is melted away.
4. The mold thus formed can be filled with the molten metal
5. The wax pattern itself can be made using a stereo lithography (or similar) model,
which has been fabricated using a computer solid model master.
6. Intricate forms with undercut can be cast.

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The properties of this method are;

 A very smooth surface is obtained without a parting line.

 Dimensional accuracy is good.

 Certain unmachinable parts can be cast to pre-planned shape.
 It may be used to replace die casting where short runs are involved.
 The types of material that can be cast are aluminum alloys, bronze, tool steels, stainless
steel and precious metals.

Die Casting

It uses a permanent type of mould generally divided into two halves which opens along a vertical
line. There are two types namely;

a) Gravity casting: It is a permanent mould casting where a molten metal flows into the
mould under the action of gravity only. It is used in producing components of aluminum
based alloys. Eg. Copper and magnesium based alloys.

b) Pressure casting: It is a casting in which the molten metal is introduced into the mould
under pressure. The pressure required at any time depends on the metal being cast. The
usual pressure range is 10 – 210 MPa.

The final product results in a uniform part, generally good surface finish and good dimensional
accuracy, within 0.2 % of casting dimension. Complicated and very thin shapes can be achieved
by using pressurized casting. Post- machining can be totally eliminated, or very light machining
may be required to bring dimensions to size. It is more popular for casting non – ferrous metals.

Centrifugal Casting

It also uses a permanent mould. The molten metal is introduced whilst the mould itself rotates
either about its vertical or horizontal axis. The centrifugal force causes the metal to be forced
against the surfaces of the mould, thus providing a dense structure. The speed of rotation
depends upon the size of component being cast. It is employed to produce in quantity such items
as pipes, cylindrical liners, brake drums and similar parts. It produces components which are
hollow and radially symmetrical.

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Powder Metallurgy

It consists of producing fine metallic powders which are mixed together, pressed into the shape
required under high pressure and finally sintered by heating to a temperature less than the
temperature of the major constituents of the mixture. One disadvantage is that its mechanical
properties are usually inferior to those of conventional parts produced as wrought or cast iron. It
is used for producing items as refractory materials and iron base alloys or bronze.

Other Casting Methods

There are various other casting and molding processes. The selection of process depends highly
on design and cost.

 Injection molding is more cost effective for mass-production parts.

 Rotor molding can be used with parts that have circular or cylindrical shapes. Low
cost but relatively slow, hence not always used for mass-production of parts.

 Plaster or Antioch casting is used for making special engineering parts which are
complex in shape and requires fine details and thin sections.

Heat Treatment
Heat treating is the method of controlled heating and cooling of a metal in its solid state to
change its physical and mechanical properties. Heat treatment can alter the strength, improve
machining, improved formability, refine grain size and restore ductility after cold working
operation. Steels are particularly suitable for heat treatment, because they respond well to
temperature. The commercial use of steel exceeds that of any other material.

Softening

Softening is used to reduce strength or hardness, remove residual stresses, and improve
toughness, restore ductility, refine grain size or change electromagnetic properties. Annealing
(full process, spheroidizing, normalizing) and tempering (austempering, mastempering) are the
two main ways by which steel is softened.

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Annealing
It consists of heating the steel at a temperature at or near to the critical point, holding there for
proper time and then allowing it to cool slowly in the furnace itself.

Normalizing
This process consists of heating the steel approximately 50 oC above the upper transformation
range, holding there for a specified period (depend on the type of steel) and then allowing it to
cool in the air at room temperature. It is used to make grain structure more uniform.

Spheroidizing

In this process the steel is heated 20-40 below lower critical temperature, held there for a time
from 3-8 hours and then allowed to cool very slowly in the furnace itself. This process is used to
increase the machinabilty, toughness and ductility of steel.

Hardening

This process is used to increase the strength and wear properties. A prerequisite for hardening is
sufficient carbon and alloy content. Direct hardening is possible if there is sufficient carbon
content, otherwise the surface of the part has to be carbon enriched.

Material Modification

These processes modify the behavior of the material in a beneficial manner to maximize service
life. E.g. stress relieving, or strength properties, e.g. cryogenic treatment, or some other desirable
properties.

Cyaniding

Cyaniding is a process of superficial case hardening which combine the absorption of carbon and
nitrogen to obtain the surface hardness in low carbon steels that do not respond to ordinary heat
treatment.

Nitriding

The steel in this process is heated to a temperature of about 654 in the atmosphere of
ammonia gas NH3 and held there for a period of time. Hard nitride gets formed due to due to the
introduction of nitrogen into the steel. This method does not give any scaling, cracking and
distortion
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Hot Working Processes

Hot working is the shaping of an ingot or strand into structural product, bar stock, sheet or plate.
Hot working is a re-forming process. Ingots, strands and intermediate shapes are rolled, forged,
or extruded into other shapes. By hot working process the metals are given the desired shape by
subjecting them to pressure/forces which causes them to undergo plastic deformation at the
temperature above the crystallization range (at temperature sufficiently high not to create strain
hardening). This process is also used to give suitable surface finish for commercial purposes.

Advantages

i. It enables the shape of the material to be deformed without fracture/rapture occurring at a

temperature above recrystallization temperature.

ii. Less force and less massive equipments is required.

iii. It greatly improves and refines the grain structure.

iv. It is a rapid process.

v. No residual stress generation.

vi. Porosity in the metal can be eliminated.

Disadvantages

i. It requires expensive tools.

ii. It produces poor surface finish, due to rapid oxidation and scale formation on the metal
surface.

iii. Due to poor surface finish, close tolerance cannot be maintained.

The types of hot working processes are; hot rolling, hot forging, hot drawing, hot extrusion, hot
spinning and hot piercing.

Rolling

Molded ingots/continuous strands are rolled into intermediate shapes – blooms, billets and slabs.
Intermediate slabs are rolled further into plates, sheets, bar stocks, structural shapes, strips,
expanded metal grates etc. Figure 3.1 shows the process of rolling.

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Forging

Forging can be defined as the controlled plastic deformation or working of metals into
predetermined shapes or size at elevated temperature by pressure or impact blows or a
combination of both. Forging is generally applied for those components which require high
strength or resistance to shock or vibration.

Forging provides fine crystalline structure to the metal, improves physical properties, closes all
voids and forms the metal to shape. Cleaning is required after forging since scaling is formed at
the time of forging. It is either done by pickling in acid or tumbling depending upon the size of
the component and its composition.

Almost all metals and alloys are forgeable. The low and medium carbon steels can easily be
forged without difficulty but high carbon steels and three alloys require great care while forging.

The heating device used for forging operations are box or batch types of furnaces, rotary hearth
furnaces, conveyor furnaces, resistance furnaces, open fire or stock fire furnaces, etc. Figure 3.2
is a Horizontal Impact Forging Machine. Following are the various methods used in today’s
industry for forging:

a) Hand forging

b) Power-hammer forging

c) Drop forging

d) Upset forging

e) Roll forging

f) Press forging
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Extrusion

This process is used to form uniform cross sectional shapes. The basic principle is similar to the
principle of squirting toothpaste from the tube. Generally in this process a heated slug of metal is
pushed through an orifice into the die, thus forming an elongated uniform cross-sectional part.
To generate the required high pressure to push the slug/billet either mechanical or hydraulic
machinery is used.

This method is used in the production of rods, brick, hollow tile, and soil pipes.

This method produces shapes of high strength; good accuracy and surface finish at high
production speeds and low die cost. It is a faster process too. Dimensions of extruded parts can
be maintained within required tolerances.

24
Cold Working
It is carried out at a temperature below the recrystallization temperature and consequently a
refinement of the grain structure does not take place. It causes distortion of the grain and induces
residual stresses and strain hardening. It causes the material to change its mechanical properties
to some extent leading to increased tensile strength and hardness but a reduction in ductility. It
has better surface finish and greater dimensional control than hot worked ones.

In cold working, greater pressure is required compared to hot working since the metal is in more
rigid state. Metal doesn’t get deformed unless stress exceeds the elastic limits. Only a few metal
and alloys can be cold worked and some of them to a very limited extent.

The types of cold working processes are; cold rolling, cold forging, cold drawing and pressing,
impact extrusion, piercing and blanking, spinning and peening.

Cold Rolling

A metal strip is passed through two rolls that have only a narrow gap between them. The
hardness and other material properties of the finished product depend on the amount of strain
introduced. Advantages are good dimensional accuracy and surface finish. Figure 3.4 shows the
rolling process.

Drawing

 A blank of sheet metal is restrained at the edges, and the middle section is forced by a
punch into a die to stretch the metal into a cup shaped drawn part.

 Shallow drawing is the process where the depth of draw is less than the smallest
dimension of the opening; otherwise, it is considered deep drawing.

25
Various drawing process are as follows;

 Wire drawing

 Tube drawing

 Blank drawing

 Bulging

 Spinning

 Embossing

Squeezing

Squeezing is a popular forming method of ductile metals. Following are various squeezing
methods;

 Coining

 Sizing

 Riveting

 Staking

 Cold forking

 Thread rolling

 Knurling

26
Bending

The most common bending methods are

 Angle bending

 Roll forming

 Plate bending

 Curling

 Seaming

Shearing

 Punching

 Blanking

 Cutting off

 Trimming

 Perforating

 Notching

 Slitting

 Lancing

Shot Peening

Shot peening is done by blasting a rain of small shot high velocity against work piece to cause
slight indentations. This method is used to set up a superficial state of surface compressive
stress. An example of such a method is on gear pump wear plate which indirectly helps in
holding good oil film over the surface to reduce wear.

Hobbing

Hobbing is a cutting operation involving gear teeth cutting with a hub. The gear hub and gear
blank operate together (either vertically or horizontally) and mesh during the cutting operation.

27
Pressing
Pressing involves the cutting, forming, bending, coining and drawing of sheet metal material
using a punch and die. An example of pressing is the manufacture of automotive parts. This
process allows fast and simple production. Figure 3.6 is a form of hydraulic press.

Presses

A press consists of a machine frame supporting a bed, a ram, a source of power and a
mechanism to move the ram at right angles to the bed. The ram or slide exerts a force on the
working components through special tools called punches against a die mounted on the bed of
the press. In a typical mechanical press, the energy is stored or transferred via a rotating
flywheel, where as in a hydraulic press the required energy is supplied by the hydraulic system
as shown in Figure

The size of a press is expressed in tones i.e it maximum capacity to apply load, together with the
dimensions of the bed (generally rectangular). Pressing is used for forming, ironing, punching,
blanking; slotting etc. presses can be classified based on two factors:

 Classification based on the source of power

a) Hand press or ball press or fly press

b) Power press

28
  Classification based on design of frame

a) Gap

b) Inclined

c) Adjustable

d) Horn

e) Straight side

f) Pillar

Hydraulic Press

Hydraulic presses, as shown in Figure 3.7 operate on hydraulic power, i.e. a pressurized oil
system. Since oil (mineral or synthetic oil) is a non- compressible fluid it is possible to generate
pressure up to 250+ bars which can be utilized for operations like cutting, bending, shearing and
piercing.

29
Open – Back Inclinable Press

As shown in Figure 3.8, an OBI press has a ‘C’ shape frame which allows access to its working
space between bed and ram. The open back allows loading and unloading of components, mainly
the disposal of finished parts by the use of gravity.

Drive Mechanisms for Presses

Figure 3.9 shows different mechanisms used for imparting reciprocation motion to the arm in a
typical press.

The crank and connecting rod (single crank) is the simplest and commonly used mechanism.
Eccentric drive mechanism is used for shorter length of stroke of arm where as Rack and Gear
(alias rack and pinion) mechanism is used for imparting a long stroke length to the arm. To
impart uniform accelerating movement or a gentle action of arm, a screw drive mechanism is
used instead of rack and gear.

A hydraulic drive is used for applying pressure requirement more than 5000 tones at low speed
for operations like forming and drawing of big size components.

30
Welding and Allied Processes
Welding

It is the process of permanently joining two or more metal pieces or alloy by the fusion of a
localized common region brought about by the heating to a suitable temperature with or without
the use of pressure and with or without the use of added metal. Nowadays, welding is widely
used in fabrication and is the least expensive process. Many welding processes have been
developed which differs mainly on the basis of the manner in which heat is applied and in the
type of equipment used.

Fundamentals of Welding

 ‘Weldability’ refers to the effects of the welding heat on the base metal and to the effect
of the base metal to the weld deposit. Weldability indicates the degree of successfully
welding together the two pieces of material using appropriate materials and methods.
Successful welding results in a sound joint that is free from defects such as porosity, non
metallic inclusions, cracks and hard zones.

 Surface oxides should be removed, as they tend to become entrapped in the solidifying
metal.

 Fluxes are used to remove oxides in fusible slag that float on the molten metal and
protect it from atmospheric contamination.

 Welding speed and welding current are important variables.

31
  Weld porosity is determined by the weld bead shape, storage time after cleaning and prior
to welding.

There are two broad categories of welding namely;

a) Fusion welding: It uses heat alone.

b) Pressure welding: It uses the combination of heat and pressure.

In fusion welding, the parts to be joined are held in place/position and a molten metal is supplied
to the joint. The heat from the molten metal causes the adjacent parent or base material being
joined also to melt or at least become plastic and upon solidification, the separate parts are
rigidly joined together to produce a single unit.

Types of Fusion welding

1. Gas welding: It uses a torch or blow pipe and a suitable combination of oxygen
and acetylene gas to produce the heat source. Three different types of flame are
obtained by varying the ratios of oxygen and acetylene. These are:

a) Oxidizing flame

b) Neutral flame

c) Carburizing flame

The process consists of using the flame produced by the oxyacetylene torch to melt the parts
being joined together and at the same time providing some filler material in the form of a wire
or rod.

2. Arc welding: The heat source is an electric arc maintained between the work and
an electrode. The electrode as well as providing the arc, acts as a filler material.
The temperature obtained in arc welding is much higher than that obtained in gas
welding. Arc welding is therefore used for joining thick metals plates.

3. Thermit welding: It is used for forging heavy sections and for parts which need
to be joined (railways and heavy machine frames). It consists of mixing finely
divided aluminum with iron oxide to form the Thermit and igniting the mixture so
that the aluminum reduces the iron oxide to form the molten iron and pouring the
molten iron into a mould constructed around the joint.

In pressure welding, heat is supplied to the joint and pressure is used to combine (or help to
combine the parts being joined). There are two types namely forge and resistance welding.

32
 1. Forge welding: It is the simplest and oldest form of welding process consisting
of heating the parts to be joined to a suitable forging temperature and then
hammering the ends together until the parts are satisfactorily welded. It is for
producing butt – welded pipes.

2. Resistance welding: It uses a current to generate the heat and pressure to provide
a forging action for producing welds well suited for mass production operations.
The parts to be joined are pressed together and an electric current is passed
through the work sufficient to raise the temperature of the parts being joined to
the forging temperature.

Allied Processes
Bolting

It is used where a semi – permanent or detachable connection is required or where the loading is
such that bolts are preferred to other methods of fixing.

Riveting

It provides permanent joint and joins either similar or dissimilar metals. It is carried out with the
rivet red hot, to ensure that after being closed the rivet contracts sufficiently to fill the hole and
provide a tight joint.

Seaming

It is used for fabricating thin sheet metals into containers, mainly for the packaging industry.

Soldering

It is a process for providing low strength joint used mainly in the electrical industry. It consists
of using molten metal or solder – an alloy of tin and lead with the addition of small amount of
antimony to form a bond between the two parts on solidification. It is performed with the use of
soldering iron.

33
Brazing

 Brazing is permanent joining of two metallic pieces by introducing a nonferrous alloy or

filler material in a liquid state (by heating with gas) that is allowed to solidify between
two pieces of metal.

 The filler metal should have a melting temperature of more than 450 oC, but lower than
the melting temperature of the parent material. Nor should there be any forging action.

 The filler material is distributed between the surfaces by capillary action (in the free
space available between the joining metals).

 Tensile strength of a properly made joint will often exceed that of the metals joined on
non-ferrous metals and steels.

 Brazing is considered as a welding process, which requires special fluxes to remove

surface oxides and to impart fluidity to the filler metal to wet the joint surface
completely. Borax is commonly used as flux.

 The metals which can be used for brazing are copper and its alloys, aluminum and certain
alloys of aluminum (which are having melting point above 550 oC.

It produces joints which are of greater strength and are capable of operating at high temperatures
than those achieved by soldering. As with soldering, the metals being joined are not themselves
melted, the filler metal or brazing material always has different properties from the base metal.

Types of Brazing

The heat required for brazing operation can be provided in different ways. The types of brazing
mainly depend on the way with which heat is produced:

 Torch Brazing: This is the most widely used and oldest type of method to heat the
metals, in which either an oxyacetylene flame or butane, propane or natural gas is used. It
is a laborious process which depends highly on the skill of labor and judgment of the
operator.

 Induction Brazing:

 Furnace Brazing

 Dip Brazing

 Resistance Brazing

34
Numerical Control (NC)
It is a method of controlling manufacturing equipment and systems that accept commands data
and instructions in symbolic form as input and converts this information into a physical output in
operating machines.

NC machines are more accurate, faster, and have lower long – run tooling cost than manually
operated machines.

NC Machine Components

 The actual NC tool

 The Machine Control Unit (MCU)

 The communication interface between the NC machine and the MCU

 A variety of accessories for performing specific jobs on the NC machine

 Many types of machines can be Numerically Controlled:

 Lathes

 Milling Machines

 Drilling machines

 Machine centres

 Automatic tool changes possible – e.g. from a facing tool to a parting tool and a lathe.

 Programming simple but requires some experience or training.

35
Merits of NC

 Direct labor savings

 Tool and fixture cost savings

 Consumable tool cost savings

 Inventory cost savings

 Tool setting cost savings

 Inspection savings

 Maintenance cost savings

 More consistent part quality

 Permanent memory of how a part was made

 Flexibility

 Employment of unskilled staff

Cons of NC

 Large initial expenditures on equipment or retrofitting

 Programming costs

 Training or retraining costs for the existing work force

 Potential rejection of the conversion by experienced

 Potential union problems

 Higher consumable tool costs per hour of operation.

Lathe – Turning

 Removes material by rotating the work piece against a single point cutter.

 Parts are held either between centres, attached to a faceplate, supported in a jaw chuck, or
gripped in a draw-in chuck or collets (Three Jaw Chuck or Four Jaw Chuck).

 Mainly used for turning cylindrical work. Cylinders can be turned off centre by holding
in four jaw and offsetting the center of work piece.

36
  Also used for drilling, boring and reaming operations, that are carried out when the tool
is approached from the ‘face; of the stock; also to cut threads and turn tapers.

 In the majority of Lathes coolant is provided to cool the cutting tool and to get a good
surface finish. The chips (removed material from work piece in form of small pieces) can
be collected and removed from a ‘chip pan’. Figure 3.11 shows a lathe machine.

Drill Press – Drilling

 Produce a hole in an object by forcing a rotating drill against it.

 Boring can also be accomplished on the drill press but a special tool for the boring tool is
necessary.

 Figure 3.12 shows a vertical drilling machine with an adjustable work table.

 The work table can be moved sideways or up-down within certain limits.

 The drill spindle holds the drilling tool and the feed is achieved manually by rotating the
feed lever.

 It is possible to mount stopper on the rod (which is above drill spindle) to control or
restrict the up down movement of drilling tool.

37
Boring Machines

 Boring is enlarging a hole that has already been drilled or cored.

 It is truing a hole previously drilled with a single-point lathe-type tool.

 Boring machines can be used to perform drilling and milling operations.

38
Milling Machines

 Milling removes metal when the work is fed against a rotating cutter.

 Cutters have a series of cutting edges on the circumference; each acting as an individual
cutter in the cycle of rotation.

 Work is held on a table, which controls the feed against the cutter.

 Three possible table movements: Longitudinal, crosswise, and vertical.

 Most versatile of all machine tools.

 Flat or formed surfaces machined with excellent finish and accuracy.

 Angles, slots, gear teeth, and recess cuts can be made with various cutters.

 Drills, reamers, and boring tools can also be held in the socket.

Figure 3.14 is a milling machine.

39
Sawing
 Linear metal cutting operation.

 Important first operation in manufacturing.

 Sawing machines include hacksaws, circular saws, abrasive disk saws, and band saws.

Figure 3.15 indicates sawing.

40
Broaching
 Broaching is the removing of metal by an elongated tool.

 Each successive tooth removes metal, therefore either each tooth must be larger than the
preceding one, or each tool is set higher than the other one.

Figure 3.16 shows broaching machines.

41
Shapers and Shaping
 Shapers have a reciprocating tool that takes a straight-line cut.

 A plane surface is machined by successive movement of the work across the path of the
cutting tool.

 With special tools, a shaper is able to cut external and internal keyways, spiral grooves,
gear racks, dovetails and T-slots.

Figure 3.17 shows a shaper.

Computer-aided Manufacture (CAM)

 NC codes are generated with the help of a computer

 A type of computer application that helps to automate a factory. For example, the
following are types of CAM systems:

 Real-time control

 Robotics

 Materials requirement

42
  All these systems are concerned with automatically directing the manufacturer and
inventory parts.

 Reduces cycle time from design to manufacture.

 Designs can go directly from design to NC machines.

 CAM software automatically generates optimal tool paths (NC codes) to manufacture
part uploaded by computer.

 When design changes are made, NC code can be swiftly updated i.e. nowadays CAD and
CAM go hand in hand. The designed Model remains associative with NC code
generated. Software programs loaded in computers sense any changes done in the Model
and update the NC code automatically.

 CAM generated NC programs are generally more effective than those programmed by
humans. The softwares like UGS Catia, Pro-E, Edge-CAM, etc are well known in CAM
field.

 It is possible to simulate the cutting operation on computer with the help of latest tools
CAM softwares). The interference of tool to workpiece can be detected on the computer
screen and any modification can be done in the NC code to avoid damage to tools or
machinery.

Rapid Prototyping

Rapid Prototyping (RP) is a group of techniques used to quickly fabricate a scale model of a part
or assembly using three-dimensional computer aided design CAD) data:

 Iterative and evolutionary process of product development.

 Implemented throughout the preliminary and detail design phases.

 Implemented in the development of large software-intensive systems (CAM, CNC

machines).

 Used to verify system accuracy.

 Develop a prototype early in the system design process.

 Design the applicable software.

 Involve the user in the operation of the prototype.

 Identify areas that need improvement.

 Incorporate the necessary changes.

 Involve the user once again.

43
Its advantages are:

 Increase effective communication.

 Decreases development time.

 Reduces mistakes which can be expensive.

 Minimizes sustaining engineering changes.

 Extends product lifetime by adding necessary features and eliminating redundant features
early in the design.

Manufacturing Processes in Oil and Gas Industry

In the onshore oil and gas exploration, drilling, and production operations are involved. Testing,
delineation, and production drilling are integral to hydrocarbon reservoir development, which
involves the use of drilling rigs, associated equipment such as casing and tubing, large quantities
of water, and drilling mud. In the process, oil and gas are moved to the surface through the well
bore either through natural means (if the reservoir has enough pressure to push the oil and gas to
the surface) or through induces pressure by means of a pump or other mechanism.

At the surface, oil, gas, and water are separated. The crude oil may require further processing,
including the removal of associated gas. Oil produced at the wells is piped or shipped for use as
feedstock in petroleum refineries.

Natural gas is predominantly methane with smaller amounts of ethane, propane, butanes,
pentanes, and heavier hydrocarbons. Gas wells produced small quantities of condensates, which
may require processing. Separation processes generally use pressure reduction, gravity
separation, and emulsion “breaking” techniques. The gas that is produced may be used directly
as duel or as feedstock for the manufacture of petrochemicals. It may also contain small amounts
of sulphur compounds such as mercaptans and hydrogen sulphide. Sour gas is sweetened by
processes such as amine scrubbing.

Many manufacturing processes explained in the previous sections are used at some stage in the
oil and gas industry processing. NC machines have specific applications in the oil and gas
industries.

44
 CHAPTER FOUR
CODES AND STANDARDS

Standard is a set of specifications for parts, materials, or processes intended to achieve

uniformity, efficiency, and a specified quality. These standards are documents whose
stipulations are obligatory to all manufacturers. They are based on experience from
performances of parts designs.

It is very difficult to think without standards and uniformity; it will be costly and inefficient. Just
imagine if one bolt manufacturer produced a 20 mm bolt with a 2.5 mm pitch; the same bolt
produced by another manufacturer had 2 mm pitch, another made it with a left-handed thread.
Which one will you know how to order?

A Code is a set of specifications for analysis, design, manufacture, and construction of an item.
The purpose of the code is to achieve a specified degree of safety, efficiency, performance or
quality.

The standardization of parts and units covers the following;

a) General standards classification and terminology, method of calculation and drawing

standards.

b) Machine design standards which include basic specifications of machines, connections

and overall dimension.

c) Production standards covering the manufacturing process and the processing tools
normally used.

d) Quality level and operational standards for the material of construction, quality indices,
manufacturing specification and testing procedures.

Consequently, the standardization of machine parts provides for;

1. Mass production which requires little labor input and reduction of metal waste due to
minimal chip removal.

2. The possibility of using standard cutting and measuring tools.

3. Easy replacement of damaged parts during repairs.

4. Designer has an easier task in terms of labor.

5. Improving the quality of manufactured goods.

Most nations have their own edition of standard documents which take into account the
recommendations for international organization on standardization. This is necessary to ensure

45
interchangeability of parts and standard units of machines manufactured in various countries. It
also ensures convenience of usage. Standardization bodies include the following:

 Aluminum Association (AA)  British Standards Institute (BSI)

 American Gear Manufacturers  Industrial Fasteners Institute (IFI)

Association (AGMA)

 Institution of Mechanical Engineers

 American Institute of Steel (I. Mech. E.)
Construction (AISC)

 International Bureau of Weights and

 American Iron and Steel Institute Measures (BIPM)
(AISI)

 International Standards Organization

 American National Standards (ISO)
Institute (ANSI)

 National Institute for Standards and

 American Society for Metals (ASM) Technology (NIST)

 American Society of Mechanical  Society of Automotive Engineers

Engineers (ASME) (SAE)

 American Society of Testing  American Society of Agricultural

Materials (ASTM) and Biological Engineers (ASABE)

 American Welding Society (AWS)  Australian Standard (AS)

 American Bearing Manufacturers

Association (ABMA)

ISO is an international body which puts forward recommendations considered suitable for
international agreement on metrication. ISO/R indicates an ISO recommendation followed by
the relative number R of the recommendation. These recommendations are the basis for British
46
standards or are intended to be used pending the issue of a standard at some later date when a
definite agreement is reached.

BSI is the authority for the instrumentation of the metric system of engineering to British
standards. These are written BSI/R/Y or BSI: R: Y and indicates British standards followed by
relative number and by the year of the implementation of the agreement.

A good design should be such that it can be easily produced by the designated engineering
production method. Normally the shape of a machine part and the quantity determines the
manufacturing. Consequently, designed parts for manufacturing are normally in the following
class of shapes;

1. Cylindrical and spherical surfaces that can be suitably machined in lathe machine, drill
presses, horizontal boring machine. Cylindrical internal and external cylinders.

2. Plain surfaces that can be easily machined in planes, sharpness, milling machines,
surface grinding etc.

3. Helical surfaces which machined in thread cutting thread milling and thread grinding
machines.

4. Involute surfaces which are machined in gear cutting and gear finishing machines.

5. Blanks manufactured from blank manufacturing operations for components and units
with surfaces that are not to be machined. The conditions under which the foundry
pattern or forging dies are machined also govern the production of that part.

The main criteria for international standardization are:

(a) Improvement in universal technical communication and mutual understanding.

(b) Facilitation of international exchange of goods and services.

(c) Removal of technical barriers to trade.

(d) Transfer of technology.

47
SOME BENEFITS OF STANDARDIZATION

General

 Uniform technology is created.

 Sizes and dimensions are coordinated and adapted.

 Function requirements and characteristics are specified.

 Unambiguous testing methods are established.

For Government

 Regulatory activities

 Public procurement

 Public works projects

 Communications

 Technical support to social projects

To Industries

– Market research

– Development

Engineering Component production Transportation

Tooling Assembly Installation

Estimating Inspection Maintenance, repairs
Ordering Storing, warehousing Dismantling, recycling,
Works order planning Marketing
Purchasing Distribution

– Support to management systems

48
To Consumers

– A source of information

– The application of the performance approach

– Comparative Analysis

– Source of complaints

– More balanced technical regulations

49
 CHAPTER FIVE
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF MACHINE PARTS

Various machine parts are classified as follows:

1. Joints and Fasteners

There are two types namely;

Permanent Joint: They are those joints that can only be disassembled by deforming or destroying
them. E.g. welding, soldering and riveting.

Temporal Joint: They are those joints that can be removed for inspection, cleaning or replacement
without change. E.g. bolt and nut, key and slotters.

2. Transmission Mechanisms

These are made up of drives, shafts and clutches etc. They transmit energy with rotary motion and
are divided into;

a) Toothed gearing e.g. worm and wheel gears

b) Friction drives such as belt drives, roller on roller drives with rigid rolling bodies.

3. Rotating Transmission Parts

These are usually mounted on shaft to form transmission mechanism. They consist of toothed
gears, pulleys, chain, sprocket etc. Shafts transmit a torque along their axes whereas axle carries
rotary components without transmitting a useful torque. Shafts are linked by couplings or clutches.
Couplings do not allow disconnections of the shaft during operation whereas clutches enable shafts
to be engaged and or disengaged from each other in the course of operation. Shafts and axle run on
bearings. Bearings are either sleeve or anti-friction bearing such as bore and roller bearings. Parts
with translating motion are supported in linear bearings e.g. slide ways of various shapes or linear
bore and roller bearings. The bearings are then supported by the basic part of the machine such as
the beds, the base and the housings.

4 Motion Conversion Mechanism

These are:

a) Those that convert motion from rotation to reciprocating and vice – versa or rotation into
oscillation and vice – versa with a typical application of a slider crank mechanism.

50
 b) Motion is obtained with velocities varying along a given path according to a given law or
motion along a complex part obtained by means of the lever and cam mechanism using
cam eccentric and rolls.

5 Elastic Elements

These comprise elements such as coil and leaf springs which are used to protect against vibration
and shocks such as in automobiles. They are also used to store energy which is released to do
useful work over prolonged period of time. E.g. clocks, watches and spring actuated mechanisms.
They are also used to provide for return strokes in mechanisms by providing tensions such as in
cams.

6 Energy Conversion Mechanism

These use part of their mass to do work. E.g. Pendulum clocks, flywheel etc. they ensure more
uniform motion. To restoring stored energy for increasing the force of a blow or they absorb shocks
as in impact type machines.

7 Lubrication and Dirt Control Protectors

These consists of seals, oil drips etc. they protect the running parts from dirts and effect lubrication
thereby prolonging the service life of the machine.

8 Control Mechanism

These comprise units and mechanisms which effect control of motion directions etc. of machines.
Examples of which are limit stoppers, switches, solenoids, contactors, photocells, ICs etc. used to
control motion, speed, direction etc.

9 Special Purpose Parts

These are parts of various specific machines or more precisely those most widely used in various
groups of machines. Examples: Typical components of power machinery are cylinders and pistons,
valves, turbine wheels, blades and discs of turbines, rotor and stator of electrical machines etc.
Typical of transporting machinery are wheels, chain tracks of heavy equipments, train rails,
aircrafts, screw propellers, hoisting hooks and buckets etc.

51
 CHAPTER SIX
LOADS, STRESSES AND STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS

STATIC LOADS IN DESIGN

The objective is to design components to withstand static loads. Static loads are those loads that are
applied to structures very gradually increasing from zero to their final value and then either do not
change their magnitude, direction or point of application with time at all or change them very
slowly. The factors involved can be classified into:

1. Stress

2. Elastic deformation

3. Elastic stability

As to which of these is critical will depend on a number of conditions. Namely; the number of
loads, the shape of the structure or part and the mechanical properties of the material selected. In a
real design problem, the original determination of magnitude and direction of the load may be very
difficult. In fact more difficult than fixing the dimensions and materials for the parts once the
nature of the loads has been obtained. Sometimes the load can only be estimated or assumptions
need to be made to calculate it. When this happens the engineer must keep in mind the degree of
exactness to which his analyses applies. The type of induced stress depends on the type and
application of loading and it is often necessary to make simplifying assumptions in order to obtain
a solution to the design problem. In general, three (3) types of stresses may have to be considered
namely;

1. Mechanical

2. Thermal

3. Chemical stresses.

A beam subjected to an external load or shaft subjected to a twisting moment will undergo
mechanical stresses. A bi – metallic strip heated so that a differential expansion causes induced
stresses to be set up is a simple example of thermal stresses. Case hardening of a component creates
chemical stresses.

Normally, the usual procedure for determining the elemental equations for stresses, ie. Axial, direct
shear, bending or torsion is to assume that the section under consideration is remote from any
change in section or discontinuity.

The nominal or average stress is evaluated with the elementary equations from applied mechanics
but the maximum and the localized stress are not easy to obtain. Mechanical stresses can be divided
into axial loading stresses, bending stresses, direct shear stresses, torsional shear stresses,
longitudinal shear stresses, contact or Hertzian stresses (stress due to point of contact), etc.

52
Axial Loading Stresses

P
a 
A

For pure axial loading condition P must have no eccentricity. This equation also assumes that if the
P
stress required is at a discontinuity and the material is brittle, then.  a  k t , where kt is the
A
stress concentration factor.

Bending Stresses

For bending stresses, when a beam is loaded by transverse loads, stresses are induced in the beam.
The magnitude of these stresses depends on the magnitude of the shear force and the bending
moment at the section considered. In the state of pure bending the bending stress is given as;

My
b 
I

Where M is the bending moment

I is the second moment of area of the cross section of the beam,

y is the distance from the neutral axis to the fibre in consideration.

It is known that some materials such as cast iron have different strength in tension and
compression. Since in the bending of a beam the fibres on one side of the neutral axis will be in
tension and the other side in compression the ideal situation is to design the beam with its neutral
axis in such a position that equal maximum strength is obtained in the outermost fibre in the ratio
My
of the strength. As before if the material is brittle,  b max  k t .
I

Direct Shear Stresses

For components subjected to direct shear stresses, it is usually assumed that the shear force is
uniformly distributed across the section such that the effect is to slide or shear the component into
two parts.

Q
 
A

Where Q is the shear force,

A is the area in shear.

In practice, the shear force is not uniformly distributed but there are many situations where it is
approximately so. For example in bolts, rivets, pins and keys.
53
Longitudinal Shear Stresses

When a beam is subjected to transverse loading at any point along the beam, there exists both
bending moment and shearing forces. The stresses due to bending can be evaluated by using the
equations discussed. But if the shear force is assumed to act uniformly over the cross sectional area
some error will result. In actual fact, the shear stresses are not uniformly distributed but vary
according to the shape of the section. It is known that at any point in the cross section, there exist
shear stresses in both vertical and horizontal planes and also that theses stresses are
complementary. The shear stresses in the horizontal plane are termed as the longitudinal stresses
and their variations can be calculated using;

 A.y
V

bI

Where τ is the longitudinal stress,

Q is the total shear force in the cross section considered,

y is the distance from the neutral axis to the centroid of the mean area,

I is second moment of area of cross section about the neutral axis

b is width of cross section at the point where the shear stress is to be determined,

A is area of portion of the cross section between the point where the shearing is required
and the outer fibres.

The maximum shear stress occurs where the bending stress is low and conversely the maximum
bending stress occurs where the shear stress is low. It is usual therefore to consider the bending and
shear stresses separately and if these values are less than the permissible working stresses then the
beam is likely to be satisfactory from the point of view of stress.

Torsional Shear Stresses

For a beam subjected to twisting moment, the torsional shear stress (τ) can be shown to be;

Tr
 
J

Where T is the twisting moment,

J is the second moment of area of the section,

r is the radius of the bar to the fibre considered,

d is the diameter of the bar.

d 4
J
32

54
These equations apply only to solid bars of circular cross section and it is assumed that the
torsional shear stress is directly proportional to the radius of the axis of the bar and that plain
section remains plane and perpendicular to the axis of the bar under the action of the applied
torque. This is not true for non circular cross sections.

Bending Stresses in Thick Curved Beams

The major assumption has been that the beam is initially straight. For curved beams, the neutral
axis and the centroidal axes are not coincident, the neutral axis experiences a shift towards the
centre of curvature; and it has been shown that;

My
b 
Ae r  y 

Where M is the applied bending moment,

A is the cross sectional area of the beam,

e is the distance between the centroidal axis and the neutral axis (R – r)

r is the radius of curvature of the neutral axis,

R is the radius of curvature of the centroidal axis,

y is the distance from the neutral axis to the fibre considered.

It is important to give correct signs to M and y. M is considered negative if it acts in the direction
which tends to straighten the beam, y is positive if measured away from the centre of curvature.
This means compressive stresses have negative signs and tensile stresses have positive signs. The
main problem here is to determine the radius of curvature of the neutral axis. Usually the maximum
stress is of importance and for symmetrical sections such as circular, rectangular, I section etc. the
maximum stress always occurs at the inner surface. If an external load also acts on the section, the
stress due to this must also be added algebraically to the bending stress.

Bearing Stresses

A localized compressive stress at the surface of contact between two members of a machine part
that are relatively at rest is known as bearing stress. It is used in the design of riveted joints,
knuckle joints etc. The bearing stress between the two members is given as;

F
b 
Pr ojected Area ( A)

55
Stresses in Thin-walled Pressure Vessels

In thin-walled pressure vessels, the stresses encountered are namely; circumferential stress and
longitudinal stress (obtained if the ends of the vessel are closed). It has been shown that the two
stresses are;

pr
h 
t

pr
L 
2t

Where σh is the circumferential stress,

σL is the longitudinal stress,

p is the internal pressure in the vessel,

r is the internal radius of the vessel,

t is the thickness of the vessel.

Thermal Stresses

External loads are not the only sources of stresses and strains in a structure. When the temperature
of a body is raised or lowered the material expands or contracts. If the expansion and contraction is
wholly or partially restricted stresses are set up in the structure. It has been shown that the thermal
stress in a material is given as;

Where α is the coefficient of thermal expansion or coefficient of linear expansivity,

E is the Young’s modulus,

is the change in temperature of the structure.

Residual Stresses

It has been assumed that the components are not initially stressed; that is, the stresses are assumed
to be only due to external forces, bending moment and torque. In reality, it is possible that an initial
or residual stresses may already exist in the component having been introduced earlier either
deliberately in order to improve the stress distribution or as a consequence of a particular
manufacturing process. Sometimes the effect may be beneficial whiles on the other hand it may be
detrimental. It is usually not possible to calculate the residual stresses. Although in some cases, this
can be done using experimental methods.

56
Other Types of Stresses

Other common stresses such as projected pressure, stresses in thick-walled pressure vessels,
stresses in rotating discs and combined stresses have been dealt with in strength of materials I and
II. So students should refer.

Elastic Deformations

When a component is subjected to applied forces some deformation takes place with the actual
amount being dependent on the nature of the externally applied force, the shape of the element and
the elasticity of the material from which the component is manufactured. It is possible to associate
various mechanical stresses with certain elastic deformations. In some instances it is the
deformation and not the stresses which cause failure. It is therefore necessary to predict these
failures.

Deflection due to Axial Loading

The axial deflection of a constant cross-sectional bar under the action of a load is given by;

PL
 
EA

Deflection due to Bending

These are generally concerned with transverse beam deflections, and it is governed by the general
equation for flexure given as;

M is the bending moment,

E is the modulus of elasticity,
I is the second moment of area of the cross section.

For beam problems, the flexure can be represented with sufficient accuracy by the equation above;
dy
 
dx

 EI
M


57
Where θ is the slope

y is the deflection


Mdx
y 
EI
Where negative is a convention such that downward deflections are considered positive.
Other equations are;

Where Q is the shearing force,

F is the force acting on the beam.

It is assumed in the above results that the deflection is due to only bending and that the beam is not
slender to allow very large deflections.

ie ( )2 1

Example 1

A shaft as shown in the figure is subjected to a bending load of 3 kN, pure torque of 500 N-m and
an axial pulling force of 15 kN. Calculate the stresses at the critical points A and B.

58
Example 2

Two 5 – kN forces are applied to an L- shaped machine element AB as shown in the figure.
Determine the normal and shearing stresses at;
(i) Point a
(ii) Point b, and
(iii) Point c

Example 3

The frame of a punch press is shown in the figure below. Find the stresses at the inner and outer
surface at section X-X of the frame, if W = 5000 N.

59
STRESS CONCENTRATION

Very often, however, the designer is more concerned with sections that have changes of
significance which must be carefully considered. The effect of a discontinuity which is also called a
stress raiser such as a sudden change in section due to a sharp corner or a hole or a notch or a
keyway or a fillet or a groove, or a shoulder, or a thread or a root of gear tooth is to cause a general
local concentration of stress. Imagining that stresses can be denoted by stress lines associated with
fluid flow through a channel. This analysis is termed flow analogy. At the change in section, the
force paths change their directions and a local stress concentration occurs. The closeness of the line
and the degree of change in shape are indicative of the severity of the stress concentration.

As in Figure 6.1, the nominal stress in right and left side is uniform but in the region the cross
section is changing, a redistribution of the force within the member must take place. The material
near the edges is stressed considerably higher than the average value.

Stress Concentration Factor

For static consideration it is convenient to define a stress concentration factor Kt (sometimes

referred to as theoretical or geometric stress concentration factor). It is a factor used to relate the
actual maximum stress at the discontinuity with the nominal stress. Considering Figure 6.2;

60
The theoretical stress concentration factor is defined as the ratio of maximum stress in a member
(at a notch or fillet) to the nominal stress at the same section based upon net area. Mathematically,
it is given as;

Max. localised elastic stress

Kt 
Nominal or average stress

Stress concentration factors Kt, for normal stresses and Kts, for shear stresses, are defined as;

 max  max
Kt  K ts 
 nom  nom

The results obtained from mathematical or experimental investigation to determine the theoretical
or geometric stress concentration factors for a large variety of different geometries and loading
conditions are readily available. These are presented in the form of tables; and also in the form of
curves by Peterson. The stress concentration factors Kt are assigned to static considerations and it is
a local effect.

Where ductile materials are concerned, if the load is applied slowly and only small number of
times, a redistribution of load will occur due to yielding and as a consequence the effect of stress
concentration is not important. On the other hand for brittle materials, this is generally not; because
local yielding does not occur to any great extent and so the effect of stress concentration must be
considered. Under fluctuating or cyclic loads, stress concentration is important for both brittle and
ductile materials and shall be considered accordingly under fatigue loading.

Kt depends only on the type and size of the discontinuity or on its geometry and therefore it is
commonly called ‘form stress factor’. The actual stress concentration factor is different from form
stress factor, Kt since it depends on the material and the type of loading also. The effect of the
actual stress concentration factor is less than the form stress factor. The form stress factor K t and
the actual stress concentration factor K, are connected by the following relation;

K  1  qK t  1

Where q is known as “index of sensitivity” of the material to abrupt change of section. From the
above equation q is obtained as;

K 1
q 
Kt  1

61
Methods of Reducing Stress Concentration

The presence of stress concentration cannot be fully or totally eliminated but it may be reduced to
some extent. A device or a concept that is useful in assisting a design engineer to visualize the
presence of stress concentration and how it may be mitigated is that of stress flow lines. The
mitigation of stress concentration means that the stress flow lines shall maintain their spacing as far
as possible. This is achieved by properly forming the part, by employing fillets of sufficient radius,
and by avoiding perforations.

Example 4

Find the maximum stress induced in the following cases taking stress concentration into account:

1. A rectangular plate 60 mm by 10 mm with a hole 12 mm diameter as shown in Figure E4 1.

2. A stepped shaft as shown in Figure E42.

62
Example 5

Considering the stress concentration at point A in the figure below, determine the maximum normal
and shear stresses at A if F = 890 N.

63
 CHAPTER SEVEN
MODES OF FAILURE, FACTOR OF SAFETY AND THE DESIGN EQUATION

MODES OF FAILURE

The main function of a machine element is to resist the applied loading. That is the part must
function satisfactorily throughout its expected service life. When a machine part is no longer able
to perform its function satisfactorily, it is considered as failed. For a chosen material, failure may
be due to;

1. Yielding:

The material property used here is the yield stress. If the yield point is not well
defined, as in the case of many ductile materials including aluminum and some
alloyed steels, we use the proof stress which is either 0.1 % or 0.2 % and it is the
stress that will enable one to stretch a member from the original value by 0.001 or
0.002.

2. Ultimate Breakage:

The material property used here is the ultimate stress and is important for brittle
materials.

3. Fatigue Failure:

The material property is the fatigue strength amplitude. (Important for parts under
variable stress conditions).

4. Unacceptable Deflections:

This may be due to axial loading or bending.

5. Crushing or Buckling:
This is important for columns and struts and other members in compression.

6. Unacceptable Surface Pressure:

7. Other failures are Creep, Wear, Corrosion, etc

Note: Failure may not mean actual breaking of the material. Some machine parts are said to fail
when they have plastic deformation set in them, and they no more perform their function
satisfactorily.

64
FACTOR OF SAFETY AND THE DESIGN STRESS

The Design Stress ( )

The design stress also known as working stress also known as allowable stress is the stress induced
to enable us have some safety margin.

The design stress or the working stress is the stress assumed to occur in the highly stressed part of a
machine member.

The design stress depends on:

1. The properties of the material (ductile or brittle)

2. The service conditions under which the member is subjected.

3. Uncertainty of the loading conditions.

65
 = maximum stress the material can withstand without failure (failure stress).

In order to avoid plastic strain occurring in our member we choose to work with the yield stress in
ductile materials as the failure stress rather than the ultimate stress.

Factor of Safety

Factor of safety is used to keep the stress lower than the maximum or ultimate stress at which
failure of the material takes place. It is a factor used to provide a design margin over the theoretical
design capacity to allow for uncertainty in the design process. The uncertainty could be any one of
a number of the components of the design process including calculations, material strengths,
manufactured quality, loads etc.

It may be defined as.

Strength of component
nd 
Load of component

Strength could be minimum, mean, yield, tensile, fatigue and shear. The stress must correspond in
type and units to the strength. Both the stress and strength must apply to the same point or set of
points on the member being designed.
Related to stress, the factor of safety can be defined in general as the ratio of maximum stress to the
working stress, mathematically:
Maximum stress
Factor of Safety 
Working stress

In case of ductile materials, a yield point is clearly defined. In such case factor of safety is based on
the yield point stress. In such cases;

Yield point stress

Factor of Safety 
Working stress / Design stress

In brittle materials, the yield point is not defined, and consequently the factor of safety can be
defined as;

Ultimate stress
Factor of Safety 
Working stress / Design stress

66
The selection of a proper factor of safety to be used in designing any machine component depends
upon a number of considerations such as the material, mode of manufacture, type of stress, general
service conditions and shape of the parts. Therefore the values of the safety factor are related to the
lack of confidence in the design process.

The lack of confidence or uncertainty arises due to various factors, for example:

 Composition of material and the effect of variation on properties;

 Variation in material properties from place to place within a bar of stock;

 Effect of processing locally, or nearby, on properties;

 The extent of simplifying assumptions;

 The reliability of the applied loads;

 The extent of localized stresses;

 The effect of corrosion, wear and abuse;

 Intensity of stress concentration;

 The extent of initial stresses set up during manufacturing;

 Validity of mathematical models used to represent reality eg. wind;

 The effect of thermo-mechanical treatment on properties;

 Effect of nearby assemblies such as weldments and shrink fits on stress conditions

 The effect of loss of properties if failure occurs;

 The extent of loss of life if failure occurs;

 The overall concern for human safety;

 The effect of heat treatment upon the physical properties of the material;

 The effect of time and environment in which the device is expected to operate.

Each of the above factors must be carefully considered and evaluated. High factor of safety may
result in unnecessary risk of failure. Although the magnitude of the factor of safety is at the
discretion of the designer, there are guide lines for each choice.

Table 7.1 shows some safety factors and the conditions under which they can be applied.

67
Table 7.1 Safety Factors

Factor of Safety Application

For exceptionally reliable materials used under controlled conditions
and subjected to loads and stresses that can be determined with
certainty. Used invariably where low weight or light weight design is a
particular important consideration.
1.25 – 1.5
Known in Detail: Material properties; operating conditions; loads and
resultant stresses and strains.
Technical Requirements: Material test certificates, proof loading,
regular inspection and maintenance.
For normal conditions. Well known materials under reasonably
constant service conditions subjected to loads and stress that can be
determined readily.
1.5 – 2.0 Know: Material properties under constant environmental conditions;
loads and stresses determined using qualified design procedures.
Technical Requirement: Proof tests, regular inspection, and
maintenance.
Materials are obtained from reputable suppliers. Designs are for
2.0 – 2.5 operations in normal environments. Loads and stresses that can be
determined using checked calculations.
For less tried materials or for brittle materials under average
2.5 – 3.0
conditions of environment, load and stress.
For untried materials used under average conditions of environment,
3.0 – 4.0
load and stress. Also against ultimate failure of brittle materials.
Should also be used with better-known materials that are to be used in
3.0 – 4.0
uncertain environments or subject to uncertain stresses.
For specific service conditions eg. Rough service conditions or
4.0 – 6.0
unusual conditions.

THE DESIGN EQUATION

The design stress ( ), determined at the discretion of the designer using specific guidelines, is the
limiting stress which should not be exceeded in the processing of a machine member. This is
expressed in the form of an equation:

  d
The calculated stress should be equal to or less than the design stress. In this form the design
equation provides an important basis for determining the sizes of machine members.

68
Example 1

A cylindrical rod in a machine assembly is subjected to a tensile load of 4.9 x 103 N under rough
service conditions. Design the rod.

Example 2

Shown in the diagram is the principal sketch of a pulley rotating on a fixed axle. Determine the
diameter of the axle. Given:

 Force exerted on axle by pulley, F = 4.9 x 103 N

 Force acts in the middle of the axle

 L = 100 mm

 Rough Service Conditions

Example 3

A mild steel bracket as shown in the figure is subjected to a pull of 6000 N acting at 45 o to its
horizontal axis. The bracket has a rectangular section whose depth is twice the thickness. Find the
cross-sectional dimensions of the bracket, if the permissible stress in the material of the bracket is
limited to 60 MPa.

69
 CHAPTER EIGHT
THEORIES OF FAILURE

Strength of machine member is based upon the mechanical properties of the materials used. Since
these properties are usually determined from simple tension or compression test, therefore
predicting failure in members subjected to uniaxial stress is both simple and straightforward. But
predicting failure stresses for members subjected to bi-axial or tri-axial stresses is much more
complicated.

For bi-axial and tri-axial states of stress a large number of theories have been formulated. We shall
discuss only four which are used most commonly. The purpose of the theories of failure is to
predict what combination of principal stresses will result in failure.

What Failure Theories Postulate?

These theories seek to establish why a material subjected to given stress conditions fail by stating
specific limiting effects which are responsible for failure. The limiting effects are called criteria.
Thus, failure theories seek to establish criteria to explain why materials subjected to given stress
conditions fail. Some of these criteria are:

(i) Maximum Normal Stress Theory (Rankine’s Theory)

(ii) Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Guest and Tresca’s Theory)

(iii) Maximum Distortion Energy Theory (Hencky and Von Mises’ Theory)

(iv) Coulomb-Mohr Theory (For Brittle Materials)

1. Maximum Normal Stress Theory

It states that failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member if the maximum normals stress
exceeds a limiting value in simple tension test.

70
  max  1 2  x   y   1 2  x   y 2  4 xy 2

When material is failing;  max   equiv


  equiv  1  x   y  1
2 2
 
 x   y 2  4 xy 2

Special Case (A shaft in Bending and Torsion)

x  b ; y  0

  equiv  1  b  1  b 2  4 xy 2
2 2

In general, this theory is applicable to brittle materials in final rupture.

 equiv   max   u

The criterion for failure is;

 equiv   u

Introducing a factor of safety; S;

 equiv  the allowable stress

u
 equiv 
S

2. Maximum Shear Stress Theory

It states that failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the maximum shear stress
reaches a value equal to the shear stress at yield point in a simple tension test.

 max  1 2  x   y 2  4 xy 2

When material is failing,  max  1  equiv

2

 1  equiv   max   y
2

y
But y 
2

71
Shear stress at yielding is half the yield stress in tension

y
  max 
2

When failing  equiv   x   y 2  4 xy 2

Special Case (Shaft in Bending and Torsion)

 equiv  2 max   b 2  4 xy 2 
The theory is applicable to ductile materials in yielding.

Introducing a factor of safety S, the design criterion becomes:

y y
 max  or  equiv 
2S S

The following is also a design criterion:

1   2 
  y
Largest   1  
  S

 2 

3. Maximum Distortion Energy Theory

It states that failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the distortion strain energy
(shear strain energy) per unit volume reaches the distortion energy per unit volume at yield point as
determined from a simple tension test.

(Distortion energy is the difference between strain energy and the strain energy due to uniform
stress.)

U max 
1
3E

 x 2   y 2   x  y  3 xy 2 
U max 
1 
3E

 equiv 2 
When the material is failing both expressions are equal. That is:

72
 U max 
1
3E

 x 2   y 2   x y  3 xy 2 
1   
  2 equiv  
 3E 

  equiv   x
2
  y   x y  3 xy
2 2

This theory is applicable to ductile materials in yielding especially when it comes to fatigue
fracture.

 equiv   y

For a factor of safety, S;

y
 equiv 
S

The design criterion is:

2
y  y 
 equiv  or  equiv  
2 

S  S 

Example 1

The stresses at a point in a body are:  x  91 MN / m 2 ,  y  21 MN / m 2 ,  xy  84 MN / m 2 .

Yield point stress = 280 MN / m 2 . Find the facor of safety:

(a) By the Maximum Normal Stress Theory,

(b) By the Maximum Shear Stress Theory,

(c) By the maximum Distortion Energy Theory.

Example 2

A load on a bolt consists of an axial pull of 10 kN together with a transverse shear force of
5 kN. Find the diameter of the bolt required according to:

(i) Maximum Normal Stress Theory,

(ii) Maximum Shear stress Theory,

(iii) Maximum Distortion Energy Theory.

Take permissible tensile stress at elastic limit = 100 MPa and Poisson’s ratio = 0.3.

73
 CHAPTER NINE
VARIABLE OR FATIGUE STRESSES

74