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CHAPTER 6: Torsional Stress,

Elastic Torsion Formula, Torsional
Deformation and Power Transmission

Intended Learning Outcomes

After studying this module, you should be able to do the following:

1. Determine the the effects of applying a torsional loading to a long straight member such
as a shaft or tube
2. Learn the both the stress distribution within the member and the angle of twist when the
material behaves in a linear elastic and inelastic manner.
3. Analyze the effect of torsional loading in the statically indeterminate shafts and tubes.

TORSION

TORSIONAL DEFORMATION OF A CIRCULAR SHAFT

Torque is a moment that tends to twist a member about its longitudinal axis. Its effect is of
primary concern in the design of axles or drive shafts used in vehicles and machinery. We can
illustrate physically what happens when a torque is applied to a circular shaft by considering the
shaft to be made of a highly deformable material such as rubber, Fig. (a). When the torque is
applied, the circles and longitudinal grid lines originally marked on the shaft tend to distort into
the pattern shown in Fig. (b). Note that twisting causes the circles to remain circles, and each
longitudinal grid line deforms into a helix that intersects the circles at equal angles. Also, the cross
sections from the ends along the shaft will remain flat- that is, they do not warp or bulge in or out-
and radial lines remain straight during the deformation, Fig. (b). From these observations we can
assume that if the angle of twist is small, the length of the shaft and its radius will remain
unchanged.

Module 6 – Torsional Stress, Elastic Torsion Formula, Torsional Deformation and Power Transmission
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THE TORSION FORMULA

When an external torque is applied to a shaft it creates a corresponding internal torque

within the shaft.
If the material is linear-elastic, the Hooke’s law applies, , and consequently a
linear variation in shear strain leads to linear variation in shear stress along any radial line on
the cross section. Hence 𝜏 will vary from zero at the shaft’s longitudinal axis to a maximum value,
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 at its outer surface. This variation is shown in Fig. below on the front faces of a selected
number of elements, located at an indeterminate radial position ρ and at the outer radius c.

Module 6 – Torsional Stress, Elastic Torsion Formula, Torsional Deformation and Power Transmission
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Due to the proportionality of triangles, we can write

This equation expresses the shear-stress distribution over the cross section in terms of the
radial position ρ of the element. Using it, we can now apply the condition that requires the torque
produced by the stress distribution over the entire cross section to be equivalent to the resultant
internal torque T at the section, which holds the shaft in equilibrium.

Specifically, each element of area dA, located at ρ, is subjected to a force of .

The torque produced by this force is . We therefore have for the entire cross section

Since is constant,

The integral depends only on the geometry of the shaft. It represents the polar moment of
inertia of the shaft’s cross sectional area about the shaft’s longitudinal axis. We will symbolize its
value as J, and therefore the above equation can be rearranged and written in a more compact form,
namely,

Here:

𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = the maximum shear stress in the shaft, which occurs at the outer surface

T = the resultant internal torque acting at the cross section. Its value is determined from the method
of sections and the equation of moment equilibrium applied about the shaft’s longitudinal axis
J = polar moment of inertia at x-sectional area
c = outer radius of the shaft

Module 6 – Torsional Stress, Elastic Torsion Formula, Torsional Deformation and Power Transmission
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The shear stress at the indeterminate distance can be determined from

Either of the above two equations is often referred to as the torsion formula. Recall that is used
only if the shaft is circular and the material is homogeneous and behaves in a linear elastic manner,
since the derivation is based on Hooke’s law.

Solid Shaft. If the shaft has a solid circular cross section, the polar moment of inertia J can be

determined using an area element in the form of differential ring or annulus having a thickness

and circumference . For this ring, and so

Note that J is a geometric property of the circular area and is always positive. Common units used
for its measurement are mm4 or in4.

Module 6 – Torsional Stress, Elastic Torsion Formula, Torsional Deformation and Power Transmission
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The shear stress has been shown to vary linearly along each radial line of the cross section
of the shaft. However, if an element of material on the cross section is isolated, then due to the
complementary property of shear, equal shear stresses must also act on four of its adjacent faces as
shown in Fig. a. Hence, not only does the internal torque T develop a linear distribution of shear
stress along each radial line in the plane of the cross sectional area, but also an associated shear-
stress distribution is developed along an axial plane, Fig. b.

Tubular Shaft. If a shaft has a tubular cross section, with inner radius c i and outer radius co, then

from equation we can determine its polar moment of inertia by subtracting J for a shaft of
radius ci from that determined for a shaft of radius co. The result is

Absolute Maximum Torsional Stress.

Once the internal torque throughout the shaft is determined, the maximum ratio of Tc/J can be
identified.

Module 6 – Torsional Stress, Elastic Torsion Formula, Torsional Deformation and Power Transmission
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IMPORTANT POINTS

• When a shaft having a circular cross section is subjected to a torque, the cross section
remains plane while radial lines rotate. This cause a shear strain within the material that
varies linearly along any radial line, from zero at the axis of the shaft to a maximum at its
outer boundary.
• For linear elastic homogeneous material the shear stress along any radial line of the shaft
also varies linearly, from zero at its axis to a maximum at its outer boundary. This
maximum shear stress must not exceed the proportional limit.
• Due to the complementary property of shear, the linear shear stress distribution within the
plane of the cross section is also distributed along an adjacent axial plane of the shaft.
• The torsion formula is based on the requirement that the resultant torque on the cross
section is equal to the torque produced by the shear stress distribution about the longitudinal
axis of the shaft. It is required that the shaft or tube have a circular cross section and that it
is made of homogeneous material which has linear-elastic behaviour.

PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS

Internal loading

 Section the shaft perpendicular to its axis at point where shear stress is to be
determined and use free-body diagram and equations of equilibrium to obtain internal
torque at section.

Section property

 Calculate the polar moment of inertia and cross-sectional area. For solid section, J =
𝜋c4/2. For tube, J = 𝜋 (co4 -ci4)/2

Shear Stress

 Specify the radial distance ρ, measured from the center of the cross section to the
point where the shear stress is to be found. Then apply the torsion formula,
or if the maximum shear stress is to be determined use
When substituting the data, make sure to use a consistent set of units.

 The shear stress acts on the cross section in a direction that is always perpendicular
to .The force it creates must contribute a torque about the axis of the shaft that is in
the same direction as the internal resultant torque T acting on the section. Once this
direction is established, a volume element located at the point where τ is determined
can be isolated, and the direction of τ acting on the remaining three adjacent faces of
the element can be shown.

Module 6 – Torsional Stress, Elastic Torsion Formula, Torsional Deformation and Power Transmission
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Sample Problem 1

The solid shaft of radius c is subjected to a torque T, Fig. a.

Determine the fraction of T that is resisted by the material contained
within the outer region of the shaft, which has an inner radius of c/2
and outer radius c.

Solution:

Module 6 – Torsional Stress, Elastic Torsion Formula, Torsional Deformation and Power Transmission
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Sample Problem 2

Module 6 – Torsional Stress, Elastic Torsion Formula, Torsional Deformation and Power Transmission
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Sample Problem 3

The pipe shown in Fig. a has an inner diameter of 80

mm and an outer diameter of 100 mm. If its end is
tightened against the support at A using a torque
wrench at B, determine the shear stress developed in
the material at the inner and outer walls along the
central portion of the pipe when the 80-N forces are
applied to the wrench.

SOLUTION

Internal Torque. A section is taken at an intermediate location

C along the pipe’s axis, Fig. b. The only unknown at the section
is the internal torque T. We require

Section Property. The polar moment of inertia for the pipe’s

cross-sectional area is

Shear Stress. For any point lying on the outside surface of the
pipe ρ = c0 =0.05m, we have

And for any point located on the inside surface, ρ = c i =0.04m,

so that

Module 6 – Torsional Stress, Elastic Torsion Formula, Torsional Deformation and Power Transmission
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POWER TRANSMISSION

Shafts and tubes having circular cross sections are often used to transmit power developed by a
machine. When used for this purpose, they are subjected to a torque that depends on the power
generated by the machine and the angular speed of the shaft. Power is defined as the work
performed per unit of time. Also, the work transmitted by a rotating shaft equals the torque applied
times the angle of rotation. Therefore, if during an instant of time dt an applied torque T causes
the shaft to rotate then the instantaneous power is

Since the shaft’s angular velocity is , ,we can express the power as

In the SI system, power is expressed in watts when torque is measured in newton-meters (N-m)
and is in radians per second (rad/s) (1 W = 1 N-m/s) in the FPS system, the basic units of power

are foot-pounds per second (ft-lb/s); however, horsepower (hp) is often used in engineering
practice, where

1 hp – 550 ft-lb/s

For machinery, the frequency of a shaft’s rotation, f, is often reported. This is a measure of
the number of revolutions or cycles the shaft makes per second and is expressed in hertz (1 hz = 1
cycle/s). Since 1 cycle = rad, then , and so the above equation for the power

becomes

Shaft Design. When the power transmitted by a shaft and its frequency of rotation are unknown,
the torque developed in the shaft can be determined from . Knowing T and the

allowable shear stress for the material, , we can determine the size of the shaft’s cross section

Module 6 – Torsional Stress, Elastic Torsion Formula, Torsional Deformation and Power Transmission
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using the torsion formula, provided the material behaviour is linear elastic. Specifically, the design
or geometric parameter J/c becomes

For the solid shaft, and thus, upon substitution, a unique value for the shaft’s radius

c can be determined. If the shaft is tubular, so that , design permits a wide

range of possibilities for the solution. This is because an arbitrary choice can be made for either

or and the other radius can then be determined from equation,

Module 6 – Torsional Stress, Elastic Torsion Formula, Torsional Deformation and Power Transmission
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Sample Problem

A solid steel shaft AB shown in Figure is to be

used to transmit 5 hp from the motor M to
which it is attached. If the shaft rotates at 𝜔 =
175 𝑟𝑝𝑚 and the steel has an allowable shear
stress of 𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 14.5 𝑘𝑠𝑖, determine the
required diameter of the shaft to the nearest 1/8
in.

Solution:

Module 6 – Torsional Stress, Elastic Torsion Formula, Torsional Deformation and Power Transmission
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ANGLE OF TWIST

We will develop a formula for determining the angle of twist ∅ (𝑝ℎ𝑖) of one end of a shaft
with respect to its other end. The shaft is assumed to have a circular cross section that can gradually
vary along its length, Fig. (a). Also, the material is assumed to be homogeneous and to behave in
a linear-elastic manner when the torque is applied. As with the case of an axially loaded bar, we
will neglect the localized deformations that occur at points of application of the torques and where
the cross section changes abruptly.

Using the method of sections, a differential disk of thickness dx, located at position x, is
isolated from the shaft, Fig. (b). The internal resultant torque is T(x), since the external loading
may cause it to vary along the axis of the shaft. Due to T(x), the disk will twist, such that the
relative rotation of one of its faces with respect to the other face is , Fig. (b). As a result an
element of material located at an arbitrary radius ρ within the disk will undergo a shear strain γ.

Since Hooke’s law, 𝛾 = 𝜏/𝐺 applies and the shear stress can be expressed in terms of the applied torque
using the torsion formula , then .

Substituting this into , the angle of twist for the disk is

Module 6 – Torsional Stress, Elastic Torsion Formula, Torsional Deformation and Power Transmission
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Integrating over the entire length L of the shaft, we obtain the angle of twist for the entire shaft,
namely,

Here

∅ = the angle of twist of one end of the shaft with respect to the other end, measured in radians

T(x) = the internal torque at arbitrary position x, found from method of sections and equation of
moment equilibrium applied about shaft’s axis

J(x) = the shaft’s polar moment of inertia expressed as a function of x

G = the shear modulus of elasticity for the material expressed as a function of x.

Constant Torque and Cross-Sectional Area. Usually in engineering practice the material is
homogeneous so that G is constant. Also, the shaft’s cross sectional area and the external torque
are constant along the length of the shaft. If this is the case, the internal torque T(x)=T, the polar
moment of inertia J(x)=J, and equation can be
integrated, which gives

The similarities between the above two equations and those

for an axially loaded bar ( and
)should be noted.

Module 6 – Torsional Stress, Elastic Torsion Formula, Torsional Deformation and Power Transmission
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Multiple Torques. If the shaft is subjected to several different torques, or the cross-sectional area

or shear modulus changes abruptly from one region of the shaft to the next, equation can
be applied to each segment of the shaft where these quantities are also constant. The angle of twist
of one end of the shaft with respect to the other is then found from the vector addition of the angle
of twist of each segment. For this case,

Sign Convention. We will use the right-hand rule, whereby both the torque and angle will be
positive, provided the thumb is directed outward from the shaft when the fingers curl to give the
tendency for rotation, Fig. below

Module 6 – Torsional Stress, Elastic Torsion Formula, Torsional Deformation and Power Transmission
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To illustrate the use of this sign convention, consider the shaft shown in Fig. (a). The angle
of twist of end A with respect to end D is to be determined. Three segments of the shaft must be
considered, since the internal torque will change at B and at C. Using the method of sections, the
internal torques are found for each segment, Fig. (b). By the right-hand rule, with positive torques
directed away from the sectional end of the shaft, we have TAB = - 10 N-m, and

TCD = -10 N-m. These results are also shown on the torque diagram for the shaft, Fig. (c).

Applying equation , we have

If the other data is substituted and the answer is

found as a positive quantity, it means that end A will
rotate as indicated by the curl of the right-hand fingers
when the thumb is directed away from the shaft, Fig (a).
The double subscript notation is used to indicate the

relative angle of twist ( ); however, the angle of

twist is to be determined relative to a fixed support, then
only a single subscript will used. For example, if D is a fixed support, then the angle of twist will
be denoted as .

Module 6 – Torsional Stress, Elastic Torsion Formula, Torsional Deformation and Power Transmission
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PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS

The angle of twist of one end of a shaft or tube with respect to the other end can be determines
using the following procedure.

Internal Torque
• The internal torque at a point on the axis of the shaft by using the method of
sections and the equation of moment equilibrium, applied along the shaft’s axis.
• If the torque varies along the shaft’s length, a section should be made at the
arbitrary position x along the shaft and the internal torque represented as a
function of x.

• If several constant external torques act on the shaft between its end, the internal
torque in each segment of the shaft, between any two external torques, must be
determined. The results can be represented graphically as a torque diagram.

Angle of twist
 When the circular cross-sectional area of the shaft varies along the shaft’s axis, the
polar moment of inertia must be expresses as a function of its position x along the
axis, J(x).

 If the polar moment of inertia or the internal torque suddenly changes between the
ends of the shaft, then or must be applied to
each segment for which J, G, and T are continuous or constant.

 When the internal torque in each segment is determined, be sure to use a consistent
sign convention for the shaft, such as the one discussed in Fig. Also make sure that
a consistent set of units is used when substituting numerical data into the equations.

Module 6 – Torsional Stress, Elastic Torsion Formula, Torsional Deformation and Power Transmission
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Sample Problem 1

Module 6 – Torsional Stress, Elastic Torsion Formula, Torsional Deformation and Power Transmission
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Sample Problem 2

Module 6 – Torsional Stress, Elastic Torsion Formula, Torsional Deformation and Power Transmission
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Sample Problem 3

The 2-in.-diameter solid cast-iron post shown in

Fig. a is buried 24 in. in soil. If a torque is applied to its
top using a rigid wrench, determine the maximum shear
stress in the post and the angle of twist at its top. Assume
that the torque is about to turn the post, and the soil exerts
a uniform torsional resistance of along its 24-in. buried
length. G=5.5(103)ksi

Solution:

Module 6 – Torsional Stress, Elastic Torsion Formula, Torsional Deformation and Power Transmission
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STATICALLY INDETERMINATE
TORQUE-LOADED MEMBERS

A torsionally loaded shaft may be

classified as statically indeterminate if the
moment equation of equilibrium, applied about the axis of the shaft, is not adequate to determine
the unknown torques acting on the shaft. An example of this situation is shown in Fig. (a). As
shown on the free-body diagram, Fig. (b), the reactive torques at the supports A and B are
unknown. We require that

In order to obtain a solution, we will use the method of analysis discussed in statically
indeterminate axially loaded member. The necessary condition of compatibility, or the kinematic
condition, requires the angle of twist of one end of the shaft with respect to the other end to be
equal to zero, since the end supports are fixed. Therefore,

Provided the material is linear elastic, we can apply the load-displacement relation
to express the compatibility condition in terms of the unknown torques. Realizing that the
internal torque in segment AC is +TA and in segment CB it is –TB, Fig. (c), we have

Solving the above two equations for the reactions, realizing that L = LAC + LBC, we get

and

Module 6 – Torsional Stress, Elastic Torsion Formula, Torsional Deformation and Power Transmission
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PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS

The unknown torques in statically indeterminate shafts are determined by satisfying equilibrium,
compatibility, and torque-displacement requirements for the shaft.

Equilibrium
• Draw a free-body diagram of the shaft in order to identify all the external torques
that act on it. Then write the equation of moment equilibrium about the axis of the
shaft.

Compatibility
 Write the compatibility equation between two points along the shaft. Give
consideration as to how the supports constrain the shaft when it is twisted.

Load-Displacement
 Express the angles of twist in the compatibility condition in terms of the torques,

using a torque-displacement relation, such as .

 Solve the equations for the unknown reactive torques. If any of the magnitudes have
a negative numerical value, it indicates that this torque acts in the opposite sense of
direction to that shown on the free-body diagram.

Module 6 – Torsional Stress, Elastic Torsion Formula, Torsional Deformation and Power Transmission
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Sample Problem 1

The solid steel shaft shown in Fig. a has a diameter of 20 mm. If it is subjected to the two
torques, determine the reactions at the fixed supports A and B.

Solution:

Module 6 – Torsional Stress, Elastic Torsion Formula, Torsional Deformation and Power Transmission
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Sample Problem 2

Module 6 – Torsional Stress, Elastic Torsion Formula, Torsional Deformation and Power Transmission
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Exercise Problems. Answer the following problems

1. A steel propeller shaft is to transmit 4.5 MW at 3 Hz without exceeding a shearing
stress of 50 MPa or twisting through more than 1° in a length of 26 diameters. Compute
the proper diameter if G = 83 GPa.
Ans: d = 352 mm.

2. Show that the hollow circular shaft whose inner diameter is half the outer diameter
has a torsional strength equal to 15/16 of that of a solid shaft of the same outside
diameter.

Ans:

3. A compound shaft consisting of a steel segment and an aluminum segment is acted

upon by two torques. Determine the maximum permissible value of T subject to the
following conditions: τst = 83 MPa, τal= 55 MPa, and the angle of rotation of the free end
is limited to 6°. For steel, G = 83 GPa and for aluminum, G = 28 GPa.

Ans: T = 679.04 N·m

4. A solid steel shaft 5 m long is stressed at 80 MPa when twisted through 4°. Using
G = 83 GPa, compute the shaft diameter. What power can be transmitted by the shaft at
20 Hz?

Ans: d=138 mm, P=5.19 MW

Module 6 – Torsional Stress, Elastic Torsion Formula, Torsional Deformation and Power Transmission
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5. A hollow bronze shaft of 3 in. outer diameter and 2 in. inner diameter is slipped over
a solid steel shaft 2 in. in diameter and of the same length as the hollow shaft. The two
shafts are then fastened rigidly together at their ends. For bronze, G = 6 × 106 psi, and
for steel, G = 12 × 106 psi. What torque can be applied to the composite shaft without
exceeding a shearing stress of 8000 psi in the bronze or 12 ksi in the steel?

Ans: Use T = 4232.44 lb·ft

References:
1. HIBBELER, R. C., Mechanics of Materials, 8th Ed. (USA: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2011)
2. PYTEL, A. and SINGER, F.L, Strength of Materials 4 th Ed., (New York: Harper Collins
Publisher Inc.)

Module 6 – Torsional Stress, Elastic Torsion Formula, Torsional Deformation and Power Transmission