SOCIAL GEOGRAPHY

CODE – 18KP2GO7

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UNIT- I

SOCIAL GEOGRAPHY: NATURE AND SCOPE OF SOCIAL GEOGRAPHY-SOCIAL

STRUCTURE-SOCIAL PROCESSES
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Social geography

• The term ‘social geography’ carries with it an inherent confusion. In the

popular perception the distinction between social and cultural geography is
not very clear. The idea which has gained popularity with the geographers is
that social geography is an analysis of social phenomena expressed in space.
When the term emerged within the Anglo-American tradition during the
1960s, it was basically applied as a synonym for the search for patterns in the
distribution of social groups.
• Social geography is the branch of human geography that is most closely
related to social theory in general and sociology in particular, dealing with
the relation of social phenomena and its spatial components. Though the term
itself has a tradition of more than 100 years,[ there is no consensus
• However, the term ‘social phenomena’ is in its developing stage and might
be interpreted in a variety of ways keeping in view the specific context of the
societies at different stages of social evolution in the occidental and the
oriental worlds. The term ‘social phenomena’ encompasses the whole
framework of human interaction with environment, leading to the articulation
of social space by diverse human groups in different ways.
• The end-product of human activity may be perceived in the spatial patterns
manifest in the personality of regions; each pattern acquiring its form under
 the overwhelming influence of social structure. Besides the patterns, the way
the social phenomena are expressed in space may become a cause of concern
as well. This has attracted scholarly attention, particularly since 1945 when
all-embracing changes in the political and economic order of the world
started influencing the global society.
• As compared to the other branches of geography social geography has a
certain amount of recency. Eyles saw the antecedents of contemporary social
Geography in the development of the philosophy of possibilism in the late
nineteenth century.Eyles also visualized social geography as a continuation
of the philosophy of Vidal de la Blache and Bobek.
Nature and Scope of Social Geography
Social Geography is primarily concerned with the ways in which social relations,
identities and inequalities are created.
• How these social creations vary over space and the role of space in their
construction is the principle distinction between sociology and social geography.

Social Interaction and relations
•According to PANOPIO,1997, Social interaction refers to the mutual inter
stimulation and response between two or more persons and groups through
symbols, language, gestures and expression of ideas.
• Social interaction is the foundation of society. Without interaction there would be
no group life.
Social interaction has different form of interaction:
1. Between individual to individual
2. Between Individual to Groups
3. Between groups to groups 4. Between individual and culture
Formation of Social Groups• Unit of interacting personalities with
interdependence of roles and statuses existing between and among themselves •
Collection of people where members interact on a regular basis, guide by structure
and agreements, defined by roles and responsibilities.
Characteristics of Social groups
• Group members interact on a fairly regular basis through communication.
• Members should develop a structure where each member assumes a specific
status and adopts a particular role.
• Certain orderly procedures and values are agreed upon. • The members of the
group feel a sense of identity.
Types of Social Groups
Below are the types of Social Groups:
1. Primary Group (Families, Play groups)
2. Secondary Group (industrial workers, Faculty Staff)
3. According Self-identification
4. According to purpose
5. According to geographic location
Community and Society
• The Primary difference between a community and Society is that a community is
limited to a specific geographic location, but a society can be made up of people
who live in different places.Another difference is that a society is made up of direct
and indirect social connections between people, but a community is made up of
individuals who are more closely connected. For example, people who live in town
represent a community, whereas everyone who lives in the state the town is located
in makes up a society. Several communities can be located within a society but
each society is separate from another.
• Societies often include more diversity, with people from different backgrounds,
social classes and races. People in communities most often share similar
characteristics.
Concept of Social Space
• A social space is physical or virtual space such as a social center, online social
media, or other gathering place where people gather and interact. • Some social
spaces such as town squares or parks are public places and others such as pubs,
websites or shopping malls are private places. • Henri emphasized that in human
society all “Space is social: It involves assigning more or less appropriated places
to social relations.
Socio-cultural Region
Socio cultural regions help us to understand the soul of the place. The well we
know the socio cultural regions, it is easier to understand the people, agriculture,
traditions seasons, and buying selling periods.
We can also plot them. For Example Cooking Medium .Some Socio Cultural
regions are mustard oil users and some may be ground nut oil users. We can also
map hard and soft water. Social planners have many maps. These maps help us to
know about the particular region.
Social structure
Social structure, in sociology, the distinctive, stable arrangement of institutions
whereby human beings in a society interact and live together. Social structure is
often treated together with the concept of social change, which deals with the
forces that change the social structure and the organization of society.
Although it is generally agreed that the term social structure refers to
regularities in social life, its application is inconsistent. For example, the term is
sometimes wrongly applied when other concepts such as custom, tradition, role,
or norm would be more accurate.
• Studies of social structure attempt to explain such matters as integration and
trends in inequality. In the study of these phenomena, sociologists analyze
organizations, social categories (such as age groups), or rates (such as
 of crime or birth). This approach, sometimes called formal sociology, does
not refer directly to individual behaviour or interpersonal interaction.
Therefore, the study of social structure is not considered a behavioral
science; at this level, the analysis is too abstract. It is a step removed from
the consideration of concrete human behaviour, even though the phenomena
studied in social structure result from humans responding to each other and
to their environments. Those who study social structure do, however, follow
an empirical (observational) approach to research, methodology, and
epistemology.
• Social structure is sometimes defined simply as patterned social relations—
those regular and repetitive aspects of the interactions between the members
of a given social entity. Even on this descriptive level, the concept is highly
abstract: it selects only certain elements from ongoing social activities. The
larger the social entity considered, the more abstract the concept tends to be.
For this reason, the social structure of a small group is generally more
closely related to the daily activities of its individual members than is the
social structure of a larger society. In the study of larger social groups, the
problem of selection is acute: much depends on what is included as
components of the social structure. Various theories offer different solutions
to this problem of determining the primary characteristics of a social group.

Before these different theoretical views can be discussed, however, some

remarks must be made on the general aspects of the social structure of any
society. Social life is structured along the dimensions of time and space. Specific
social activities take place at specific times, and time is divided into periods that
are connected with the rhythms of social life—the routines of the day, the month,
and the year. Specific social activities are also organized at specific places;
particular places, for instance, are designated for such activities as working,
worshiping, eating, and sleeping. Territorial boundaries delineate these places and
are defined by rules of property that determine the use and possession of scarce
goods. Additionally, in any society there is a more or less regular division of
labour. Yet another universal structural characteristic of human societies is the
regulation of violence. All violence is a potentially disruptive force; at the same
time, it is a means of coercion and coordination of activities. Human beings have
formed political units, such as nations, within which the use of violence is strictly
regulated and which, at the same time, are organized for the use of violence against
outside groups.
Furthermore, in any society there are arrangements within the structure
for sexual reproduction and the care and education of the young. These
arrangements take the form partly of kinship and marriage relations. Finally,
systems of symbolic communication, particularly language, structure the
interactions between the members of any society.
SOCIAL PROCESSES
Social processes are the ways in which individuals and groups interact, adjust
and readjust and establish relationships and pattern of behaviour which are again
modified through social interactions. The concept of social process refers to some
of the general and recurrent forms that social interaction may take. The interaction
or mutual activity is the essence of social life. Interaction between individuals and
groups occurs in the form of social process. A social process refers to forms of
social interaction that occur again and again.
Meaning of Social Interaction:
• Man is a social animal. It is difficult for him to live in isolation. They
always live in groups. As members of these groups they act in a certain
manner. Their behaviour is mutually affected. This interaction or mutual
 activity is the essence of social life. Social life is not possible without
interactions.
• Social interactions are reciprocal relationships which not only influence
the interacting individuals but also the quality of relationships. According
to Gillin and Gillin, “By social interaction we refer to social relations of
all sorts in functions – dynamic social relations of all kinds – whether such
relations exist between individual and individual, between group and
group and group and individual, as the case may be”.
• Eldredge and Merrill say, “Social interaction is thus the general process
whereby two or more persons are in meaningful contact-as a result of
which their behaviour is modified, however, slightly”. The mere placing
of individuals in physical proximity, although it usually results in at least a
medium of interaction, does not weld them into a social unit or group.
• When the interacting individuals or groups influence the behaviour of each
other it is called social interaction. People in action with one another
means interaction of some kind. But not every kind of action is social.
• When people and their attitudes are involved the process become social.
Social interaction may then be defined as that dynamic interplay of forces
in which contact between persons and groups result in a modification of
the attitudes and behaviour of the participants.
• The two basic condition of social interaction are (i) social contact and (ii)
communication. In the words of Gillin and Gillin, “social contact is the
first phase of interaction”. Social contacts are always established through
the medium of someone causes sense organ.
• An object can be perceived by the sense organ only when that object
causes communication with that sense organ. Hence the means of
 communication are essential adjuncts of social contact. Communication
may be the form of direct person to person or it may take place through
some medium of long-range contact such as the telephone, telegraph,
television etc.
• Social interaction usually takes place in the forms of cooperation’s,
competition, conflict, accommodation and assimilation. These forms of
social interaction are called “social processes”.
Meaning of Social Process:
Social processes refer to forms of social interaction that occur repeatedly. By social
processes we mean those ways in which individuals and groups interact and
establish social relationships. There are various of forms of social interaction such
as cooperation, conflict, competition and accommodation etc. According to
Maclver, “Social process is the manner in which the relations of the members of a
group, once brought together, acquire a distinctive character”
As Ginsberg says, “Social processes mean the various modes of interaction
between individuals or groups including cooperation and conflict, social
differentiation and integration, development, arrest and decay”.
According to Horton and Hunt, “The term social process refers to the repetitive
form of behaviour which is commonly found in social life”.
Types of Social Processes:
• There are hundreds of social processes. But we find some fundamental
social processes that are found to appear repeatedly in society. These
fundamental processes are socialisation, cooperation, conflict, competition,
accommodation, acculturation and assimilation etc. Loomis classified social
processes into two categories; the elemental and the comprehensive or
master processes.
• He describes elemental processes are those by which the separate elements
of the social system are articulated and comprehensive processes are those
by which several or all of the elements are articulated or involved. These
elements are beliefs (knowledge), sentiment, end or goal, norm, status-role
(position), rank, power, sanction, and facility.
• The elemental process are (1) Cognitive mapping and validation, (2)
Tension management and communication of sentiment, (3) Goal attaining
and concomitant ‘latent’ activity, (4) Evaluation, (5) Status-role
performance, (6) evaluation of actors and Allocation of status-roles, (7)
Decision-making and initiation of action (8) Application of sanctions, (9)
Utilisation of facilities. The comprehensive or master processes are (1)
Communication, (2) Boundary maintenance, (3) System linkage, (4) Social
control, (5) Socialisation and (6) Institutionalisation.
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UNIT – II

Elements of Social Geography – Ethnicity, tribe, dialect, language, Caste and

Religion – Concept of Social Well – being.
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RACES

Race, Tribe, Dialect, Language, Caste, Religion etc. all are regionally identifiable
measures. It enables certain cultural identities. Let us examine the role of each
factor in the formation of regions.

The race is a group of people with more or less permanent distinguishing

characteristics. There are skin colour and hair colour to which persons concerned
attach certain interpretations. Objectives and scientific classification are the
division of mankind in to racial groups should be done on the basis of measurable
physical features and qualities inherited from a common ancestor. The important
features on the basis of which the races are identified and classified include skin
colour, stature, shape of head, face, nose, eye, type of hair, and blood group.
Human races are classified in to six broad groups:
Distribution of Racial groups
According to B.S.Guha racial classification of the India population is as follows.
1.The Negritots
2.The Proto Australoids
3. The Mongoloids
i) Palaeo Mangoloids
a).Long Headed
b) Broad headed
 ii) Tibeto-Mangoloids
4. The Meiterraneans
i) Palaeo-Mediterraneans
ii) Mediterraneans
iii)Orientals
5. The Brachycephals or broad-headed people
i) Alpinoids
ii) Dinarics
iii) Armenoids
6. The Nordics

1. The Negroid
These are the earliest arrivals into India. They are usually called as "black race".
They have the darkest skin tone than other races, and other common characteristics
are the slopped forehead, thick lips, wide nose, and dark hairs. They are living in
Sub-Sahara Africa and at present these are mainly present in the Andaman areas
only.
2. The Proto Australoids
These are the second oldest racial group in India and came after the Negritos.
The Proto Australoids and Mediterraneans are believed to be the builders of the
Indus Valley Civilization. This racial group is represented by Oraons, Mundas,
Santhals, Chenchus, Kurumbas, Bhils and Kols. These people differ from the
Negritos mainly in the absence of wooly hair.
3. The Mongoloid
They have the folding eye lids, almond shaped eyes, yellowish skin tone, and V
shaped cheeks. Native Americans and Eskimo are also classified as Mongoloid.
Compared to the other races, they have the least body hair, least body odour, and
smallest limb ratio. Their facial structure is likely to adapt cold mild wind. They
are living in East Asia and Himalays Assam , Manipur border area. The original
homeland was China.This group is divided into two types.
1.Palaeo Mongoloids
2.Tibeto Mongoloids

Palaeo Mongoloids are further sub-classified into broad-headed and long headed
type.They mostly live along the fringes of Himalays , Assam and Manipur area.
Tibeto Mongoloids are supposed to have come from Tibet and living in Bhutan,
Sikkim, North-Western Himalaya and Trans Himalayan Regions.
4. The Mediterraneans
This racial group has come from South West Asia.They have three distinct
types.
i) Palaeo-Mediterranean
ii) Mediterranean
iii) Orientals
They all are long headed people.They are believe to be the bearers of the earliest
form of Hinduism into India. Palaeo-Mediterraneans were the first to enter India.
Palaeo-Mediterraneans were the first to enter India. They were medium statured,
dark, skinned, slightly built and long headed people.They introduced agriculture in
the north-western India. But they were subsequently dislodged from their original
homelands by the latter arrivals. So palaeo Mediterranean along with other sub
types today forms the bulk of south Indian population Tamil, Telgu, Brahmins and
Nairs come under this category.
Mediterraneans were the builders of Indus Valley Civilization also with the Proto
Australoids and introduced the bronze culture in India roughly between 2500-1500
B.C. They were however pushed out from their original homeland by frest arrivals.
Today they constitute the bulk of the population of the lower castes throught
northersn India. Namboodiri Brahmins and Brahmins of Bengal and Allahabad
area.
Orientals came much latter.They are represented by Punjabi Khatris and Rajasthani
Banias. They have long and convex nose.
5. The Brachycephals or the broad-headed People
This group is also sub-divided into 3 groups.
i) Alpinoids ii) dinaric iii) Armenoids
i) Alpinoids –This isrepresented by Gujarati Banias, Kathis of Kathiawar
and Kayasthas of Bengal.
ii) Dinaric is represented by people of Bengal, Orissa and Coorg.
iii) Armenoids is represented by Parsis, Bengali Vaidyas and Kayasthas.
6) The Nordics
They were the last to migrate into India. The Aryan speaking Nordics were long
headed and fair complexioned, with well developed noses and strongly built
bodies. The main concentration of these people are in the North-Western part of
the country of the country say in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and
North – west frontier province of Pakisthan.
The Caucasoid is known as "white people" characterised by the pointy nose,
vertical forehead, pinkish/orange skin tone, visible brow ridge, and colourful
eyes/hair. Some believe that their light skin tone is meant to receive more sunlight
due to Europe's climate. Some believe that their nose structure is meant to keep the
nose moisture from getting dried by the wind. They are living in Europe and
Middle East.
 Ethnicity

Ethnicity is a concept referring to a shared culture and a way of life. This can
be reflected in language, religion, material culture such as clothing and cuisine, and
cultural products such as music and art. Ethnicity is often a major source of social
cohesion and social conflict. The world is home to thousands of different ethnic
groups, from the Han Chinese (the largest ethnic group in the world) to the
smallest indigenous groups, some of which include only a few dozen people.
Almost all of these groups possess a shared history, language, religion, and culture,
which provide group members with a common identity.

India is a unique country with great diversity in ethnicities, race, religion,

language, culture, cuisine and in every other aspect of the human society. Indian
civilization is one of the oldest in the world and primarily consists of the Indo-
Aryans of North India and the Dravidians of South India, the people of the Indus
Valley Civilization while the former migrated to the country at about 1800 BC. As
India has such a diverse cultural demographic, it makes sense that the country is
also.
Tribal Religions
Tribal religions are the special forms of ethnic religion. The tribal people are
generally in the Neolithic stage of social development. Tribal people are strikingly
different and diverse in their culture, social and economic life. They cherish their
own distinct and have maintained a close relationship to the land and natural
environment.

Most of them live according to their traditions and are engaged in food gathering,
hunting, fishing, primitive agriculture etc, there are about 300 million indigenous
people worldwide, constituting about four percent of the total population of the
world living in more than sixty countries.

Sometimes the tribal people are being termed as the fourth world. The first –
second and third world believed that “the land belongs to the people” whereas the
fourth world believes that “the people belongs to the land”.

Tribal Distribution in world

Some major tribal group of the world particularly who are living and struggling
1. Equatorial Forest region: Pigmy, Semang, Sakai, Boro, Papuan, etc.
2. Grasslands: Masai, Kyrghizs, etc.
3. Tropical deserts: Bedowin, Bushman, Aborigines etc.
4. Mountainous region: Bhotia, gujjar, Naga etc.
5. Monsoon regions: Gonds, Santhals, Todas, Bhils, etc.
6. Arctic cold regions: Eskimo, Lapp, Alute, Chukchi etc.

Pigmies
The pigmies are Negroid people and are also called Negrillos. They are the nearest
approximation of human being to animal. They are short stature, flat nosed, wooly
haired, long headed and black people. The average height of men and women are
found 150cm. So they are also called dwarf. The pigmies are those who live in
scattered parts of tropical Central Africa. They are found in many sub-groups in
the equatorial forest region of Africa mainly in Congo basin 3ºN and 3ºS latitudes
along both sides of the equator. In addition some groups of Pigmies are also found
in the forests of Philippines and New Guinea.
Masai
The Masai of east Africa belong to the pastoral society and are known as the best
and most typical cattle herders not only of Africa but also of the world. Masai
people are tall and slender with ling feet, hands and fingers. Their skin colour
ranges from light chocolate to dark brown. They have high and long head, thin face
and nose. Their lips are less thick than that of Negroid people. Masai occupy the
interior plateau of the equatorial Africa. The territory of the Masai lies between
1ºN and 6ºS latitues and covers all the rift valleys in this region.

Bedouin

In Arabic, Bedouin means desert dwellers. The Bedouins are most important
among the tribal of South West-Asia and North Africa. They are pastoral nomads
and keep camel, sheep, goats, horse etc. The Bedouins occupy the desert areas of
the Arabian Peninsula including Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, Syria and Jordan.
The Bedouins belongs to the mixture of Mediterranean and Armenian races. They
are medium stature people with long narrow face, prominent nose, dark eyes and
hair. Their complexion is wheatish to pale.

Bushman

Bushman is the tribal people of Kalahari Desert in southern Africa who are still
engaged in hunting and gathering economics. They are on constant run for both
food and water. Their homeland Kalahari Desert lies in Botswana, Namibia and
southern Angola. The bushman territory is a wide plateau about 2000 meters
above the sea level with sub tropical climate. The bushman are including in the
Negroid stock. They are very short in stature and have long head, short and flat
ears, and yellowish brown complexion. On the whole the Negroid characteristics
prevail among the Bushman.

Eskimos

Eskimos also called Inuits are tribes of tundra cold region in Canadian northland,
Alaska, Greenland and north-eastern Siberian coastal region. The Eskimos are
Mongoloid race. The main physical characteristics of the Eskimos are short stature,
Flat narrow face, small snub nose, yellow –brown complexion and coarse straight
black hair. Hunting and fishing are the main occupations of the Eskimos. They live
in igloo and practice hunting way known as Maupak. The Eskimos wear clothes of
caribous or reindeers skin and other furs.

Eskimos are migratory by nature and construct ice houses called Igloos. For
travelling on ice shield the Eskimos use sledge which is usually built either of
whale bone or of wood whichever is available. It is drawn by two or more dogs,
caribous or rain deer.

Tribal in India

India is the home to large number of indigenous people, who are still untouched
by the lifestyle of the modern world. With more than 84.4 million, India has the
largest population of the tribal people in the world. These tribal people also known
as the adivasis are the poorest in the country, which are still dependent on
haunting, agriculture and fishing. Some of the major tribal groups in India include
Gonds, Santhals, Khasis, Angamis, Bhils, Bhutias and Great Andamanese. All
these tribal people have their own culture, tradition, language and lifestyle. There
are more than 50 tribal groups in India. Most of the tribal belong basically to the
Negrito, Australoid and Mongoloid racial stocks.

Bhils
Bhils are popularly known as the bow men of Rajasthan. They are the most
widely distributed tribal groups in India. They form the largest tribe of the whole
South Asia. Bhils are mainly divided into two main groups the central or pure bills
and eastern or Rajput Bhils.
Gonds :The Gonds are the tribal community mostly found in the Gond forests of
the central India. They are one of the largest tribal groups in the world. Gonds have
been largely influenced by the Hindus and for the long time have been practicing
the Hindus culture and traditions.

Santhals
Santhals are the third largest tribe in India. They are mostly found in the states
of West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, Jharkhand and Assam. They belong to the pre-
Aryan period and have been the great fighters from the time of the British.

Munda
Munda tribe mainly inhabit in the region of Jharkhand, although they are well
spread in the states of West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Bihar. Munda
generally means headman of the village. Hunting is the main occupation of the
Mundas tribe.

Khasi
Khasi tribe is mainly found in the Khasi Jaintia hills in Meghalaya and in the
states of Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Manipur, West Bengal and Jammu and Kashmir.
They form the large part of the population in the state of Meghalaya.

Angami
Angami tribe belongs to the extreme north eastern part of the country, in the state
of Nagaland. The total population of the Angamis is around 12 million. They are
quite popular for their woodcraft and artwork. Sekrenyi is the main festival
celebrated among the Angamis in Nagaland .

Bhutia
Bhutia tribes are of the Tibetan origin. They migrated to Sikkim around 16th
century. In the northern part of the Sikkim they are known as the Lachenpas and
Lachungpas. Bhutias forms 14% of the total population of Sikkim. Losar and
Losoong are the main festivals celebrated among the Bhutia tribes.
Chenchu
Chenchu inhabit in the Nallamalai hills, which have been the part of the
Nagarjuna Sagar Tiger Sanctuary for centuries in Andhra Pradesh, India. They are
mainly found in the districts of Mahabubnagar, Nalgonda, Praksham, Guntur, and
Kurnool.

Great Andamanese
Great Andamanese is the Negrito tribe inhabitant in the Andaman group of Islands.
They form the largest population among the other tribes found in these islands.
According to the census the population of Great Andamanese is now limited to few
individuals.

Tribals in Tamilnadu
Tribes of Tamil Nadu are concentrated mainly in the district of Nilgiris. Of all
the distinct tribes, the Kodas, the Thodas, the Irulas, the Kurumbas and the
Badagas form the larger groups, who mainly had a pastoral existence. Other tribes
include, Kattunayakan and Paliyan amongst others.

According to census 2011, tribal population in Tamil Nadu is 7, 94,697. There

are around 38 tribes and sub-tribes in Tamil Nadu. The tribal people are
predominantly farmers and cultivators and they are much dependant on the forest
lands.

Toda: Men from the family of the tribes are occupied in milking and grazing
their large herds of buffaloes. Their settlements are known as ‘Munds’. They do
not worship any god and their consciousness is cosmic. They live in Nilgiris.
Today, there are about a thousand Todas left.
Badaga: The Badagas belong to the backward class and are not classified as tribal.
They are an agricultural community, dwelling in the higher plateau of the Nilgiris
district in the state of Tamil Nadu. They are engaged in tea cultivation and potato
growing. They form the largest group of tribes and boast a rich oral tradition of
Folk tales, songs and poetry. These tribes are Hindu and belong to the shiva sect.

Kota: The Kotas are mainly concentrated in the Tiruchigadi area in the Nilagiri
hills. They are distinguished by their colourful Folk dances and are basically
musicians, who play at Badaa funerals. They are mainly engaged in producing
handicrafts. These tribes of Tamil Nadu are expert iron smiths, potters and
carpenters. In order to maintain distance and status in society, the Kotas implement
elaborate tattoos.

Kurumbas: The Kurumbas tribes of this state inhabit the intermediate valleys and
forests in Villages and were known for their black magic and witchcraft in the past.
Their way of living today has changed from their original gathering and hunting
existence to working in Coffee and Tea plantations as labourers. Kurumbas are
perhaps the only main caste in southern India that has a specialized and distinctive
Kurumbas Language.

Irula: The Irula tribes of Tamil Nadu occupy the lower slopes and forests at the
base of the Nilgiri Hills. They constitute the second largest group of tribes after the
Badagas and are similar to the Kurumbas in many ways. This tribe produces
honey, fruits, herbs, roots, gum, dyes etc., and trades them with the people in the
plains. In the recent times the Irulas help in catching snakes and collect the snake
venom.
Paliyan: They are of the food gathering communities of Tamil Nadu. It is believed
that the Paliyan originally belonged to the Palani hills. They are distributed in the
districts of Madurai, Tanjavour, Pudukkottai, Tirunelveli and Coimbatore.
Dialect
A distinct linguistic form peculiar to a region or social group but which
nevertheless, can be understood by speakers of other forms of the same language.
The two main types of dialects are the geographic dialect, spoken by the people of
the same area or locality, and the social dialect used by people of the same social
class, educational level or occupational group.

Major dialects in India

More than 40 languages or dialects in India are considered to be endangered
and are believed to be heading towards extinction as only a few thousand people
speak them officials said.

According to a report of the census Directorate, there are 22 scheduled

languages and 100 non –scheduled languages in India. The scheduled languages
are 11 from Andaman and Nicobar, Seven from Manipur and Four from Himachal
Pradesh. There are 42 languages spoken by less than 10,000 people. Some other
languages also are in endangered position in India.

Major dialects in Tamil Nadu

Tamil is an interesting language with a range of native dialects. The language has
several charming improvisations in different regions of the state. Many people are
familiar with the old and familiar dialects of Tamil such as Chennai, Coimbatore,
Madurai and Tirunelveli.

Language

Language is an identification mark for different cultures. Because language is

essential to communication, it strongly influences the sort of political, social and
economic we create. As a result, economic and religious system frequently follows
patterns of language distribution and political borders quite often parallel linguistic
boundaries. In modern times linguistic diffusion has been facilitated by trade,
tourism, media and international organizations. It has helped in the development of
the linguistic pluralism. The greatest linguistic diversity is attributed to
heterogeneous societies.

Major linguistic Families of the World

The classification of languages by origin and historical development is known

as a genetic classification. The languages which are the descendants of common
ancestral language are called proto – language.

G.L. Trage has classified the languages of the world into 7 linguistic phylum
and 30 linguistic families. Linguistic families are further classified in to sub
families of languages, which denote major languages.

1. Indo-European - a. Indo-Iranian, b. Latin or Romantic, c. Germanic, d. Balto –

Slavic, e. Celtic, f. Hellenic
2. Sino-Tibetan - a. Chinese, b. Tibetan, c. Burman
3. Afro-Asiatic – a. Semitic, b. Egyptian, c. Cushitic, d. Chadic
4. African – a. Niger – Congo (Atlantic, Voltaic, Benu-Nagar)
b. Sudanic (Chari-Nile, Saharan,)
c. Click Languages (Khoisan)
5. Ural-Altaic - a. Finno-Igric, b. Turkic, c. Mangolic, d. Tunguzic
6. Dravidian- malayo – Polynesian- - a. Dravidian, b. Malayan, c. Melanesian, d.
Micronesian, e.Polynesian, f. Austro- Asiatic.
7. Palaeo Asiatic- a.Yukaghir
Major Languages of India

India has a rich Linguistic heritage and has heterogeneous ethnic and social groups,
which have their own languages and dialects. According to census of India 1961,
there were 187 languages spoken by various sections of Indian society. 23 major
languages were spoken by about 97 percent population of the country. 22
languages excluding English are mentioned in the eighth schedule of the
constitution of India as follows; Kashmiri, Punjabi, Hindi, Urdu, Bengali,
Assamese, Guajarati, Marathi, Kannada, Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Sindhi,
Sanskrit, Oriya, Nepali, Kongani, Manipuri, Bodo, Dogri, Maithili and Santali of
these languages, 14 were initially included in the Constitution. Subsequently,
Sindhi was added in 1967 by 21st constitutional amendment act; Konkani, Manipuri
and Nepali were added in 1992 by 71st Constitutional Amendment Act; and Bodo,
Dogri, Maithili and Santali were added in 2003 by 92nd Constitutional Amendment
Act. Indian Languages belong mainly to four linguistic families

1. Austric – Munda, Mon-Khmer

2. Dravidan – Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, Gondi, kurukh, orean, etc.

3. Sino- Tibetan- Bodo, Karen, Manipuri, etc.
4. Indo - Aryan – Hindi, Urdu, Sans.

Caste
The caste system in India is the paradigmatic ethnographic example of caste. It
has origins in ancient India, and was transformed by various ruling elites in
medieval, early-modern, and modern India, especially the Mughal Empire and
the British Raj. It is today the basis of affirmative action programmes in India. The
caste system consists of two different concepts, varna and jati, which may be
regarded as different levels of analysis of this system.
 The caste system as it exists today is thought to be the result of developments
during the collapse of the Mughal era and the rise of the British colonial
government in India. The collapse of the Mughal era saw the rise of powerful men
who associated themselves with kings, priests and ascetics, affirming the regal and
martial form of the caste ideal, and it also reshaped many apparently casteless
social groups into differentiated caste communities. The British Raj furthered this
development, making rigid caste organisation a central mechanism of
administration. Between 1860 and 1920, the British formulated the caste system
into their system of governance, granting administrative jobs and senior
appointments only to Christians and people belonging to certain castes. Social
unrest during the 1920s led to a change in this policy.

From then on, the colonial administration began a policy of positive

discrimination by reserving a certain percentage of government jobs for the lower
castes. In 1948, negative discrimination on the basis of caste was banned by law
and further enshrined in the Indian constitution; however, the system continues to
be practiced in parts of India.

Caste-based differences have also been practiced in other regions and

religions in the Indian subcontinent like Nepalese
Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, Judaism and Sikhism. It has been challenged by
many reformist Hindu movements, Islam, Sikhism, Christianity, and also by
present-day Indian Buddhism. About 90% of scheduled castes people live in rural
areas and work as agricultural labourer. The chief occupation of these people are.

i) Landless agricultural labourers.

ii) Cultivators with small holdings.
iii) Services particularly polluting or dirty services.
iv) Leather tanning shoe-making etc.
 v) Artisans work.
Religion

Religion is not a vague fear or unknown powers not the child of terror, but
rather a relation of all the members of a community to a power that has the good of
the community at heart and protects its law and moral order. Religion produces a
distinct attitude towards life which affects the further development of the society.
Indeed most cultural situations show the mutual interaction between religion and
socio-economic and politico-cultural factors.

Classification of religion
Religion may be classified based on the belief in god. Monotheistic: the
followers of monotheism believe in a single god (Islam, Christianity). Polytheistic:
the followers of polytheism believe in many gods (Hinduism). Another
classification is on the basis of areas of origin such as Eastern religion, Western
religion, far Eastern religion, African religion, Indian religion, etc. Geographers
generally classify religions into following;

• Universalizing religions – Christianity, islam, Buddhism.

• Ethnic religions – Hinduism, shintoism (Japan), Chinese faiths, Judaism.

• Tribal or traditional religions – animism, shamanism, secular (non religious and

atheists).

Major religions of the world

Major religions of the world are classified based on the followers. They are
Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Judaism. Other important religions
include Chinese folk religions, Sikhism, Confucianism, Shintoism etc,.

Christianity is a universal religion which has the largest number of followers in

the world. They are spread in Europe, Anglo America, Latin America, Africa, Asia
and Oceania. Its sacred book is “Bible”. Islam is the second largest religion of the
world. The largest concentration of the Islam is in the South West Asia, Central
Asia, South Asia and South East Asia Followed by the North Africa. Shia and
Sunni are its two main sects. Its sacred book is Kuran.

Hinduism is the oldest ethnic religion of the world which was founded about
3000 B.C (B.C.E) in India. Today it has over 8 million followers in the world but
main concentration is in India and Nepal. Nearly 99 percent of the total Hindu
population is concentrated in south Asia. Its sacred books include the Vedas, the
Upanishads, the Epics, the Ramayana and Mahabharata, and the Bhagavad Gita.
Buddhism is also one of the oldest religions of India which was founded by Lord
Buddha around 525 B.C (B.C.E). Its spread in several Asian countries (China,
Myanmar, India, Srilanka, japan, Mangolia, korea and South East Asian countries)
due to its liberal philosophy. Its two main sects are Hinayana and Mahayana.

Judaism is the oldest Monotheistic faith which is regarded as the parent of

Christianity. It originates 4000 years ago in the Middle East. At present it has
about 14 million followers living in U.S.A, Europe and Asia. Chinese religions
include two main beliefs called Confucianism and tao-ism. Confucianism was
established by Confucious (551-479 B.C (BCE)). Taoism was established by Lao
Tse (604-517 B.C (BCE)).
Jainism is also born in India as a reaction to orthodox Hinduism. It was founded
by Lord Mahavir who was a Contemporary of Lord Buddha. Its followers are
mostly concentrated in India. It is an offshoot of Hinduism which was established
in the 15th century by Guru Nanak. It remained confined to Punjab state and has
accepted Gurumukhi as its language.
 Religion in India is characterised by a diversity of religious beliefs and
practices. The preamble of the Indian constitution states that India is
a secular state. The Indian subcontinent is the birthplace of four of the world's
major religions: namely Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism—collectively
known as Dharmic religions that believe Moksha is the most supreme state of
the Ātman] (soul). According to the 2011 census, 79.8% of the population of
India practices Hinduism, 14.2% adheres to Islam, 1.72% adheres to Sikhism,
2.3% adheres to Christianity, 0.7% adheres to Buddhism and 0.37% adheres
to Jainism. Zoroastrianism, Yungdrung Bon, the Baháʼí Faith, Sanamahism,
and Judaism also have a history in India, and each has at least several thousand
adherents in India.

India had given refuge to followers of persecuted religions across its history. In
the post-classical period, sanctuary was granted to Hebrew Jews who fled captivity
in Babylonia, Aramaic Christians who fled the Islamic invasion of Syria in the 7th
century, and Persian Zoroastrians who fled persecution in Persia in the 9th century
following the Muslim conquest of Persia. In the 20th to 21st centuries sanctuary
was granted to Russian, Persian and Afghani Jews,[5] Christians, Jains, Sikhs,
Hindus, and Ahmadiyyas who fled persecution in Pakistan. As a result, India has
the largest population of people adhering to Zoroastrianism (i.e. Parsis or Iranis) in
the world.

Throughout India's history, religion has been an important part of the country's
culture. Religious diversity and religious tolerance are both established in the
country by the law and custom; the Constitution of India has declared the right
to freedom of religion to be a fundamental right.

Hinduism is an ancient religion with the largest religious grouping in India, with
around 966 million adherents as of 2011, composing 79.8% of the
population.[87] Hinduism is diverse, with monotheism, henotheism,
polytheism, panentheism, pantheism, monism, atheism, agnosticism, and
gnosticism being represented. The term Hindu, originally a geographical
description, derives from the Sanskrit, Sindhu, (the historical appellation for
the Indus River), and refers to a person from the land of the river Sindhu. The
Hindus call their religion as Sanatana Dhrama (or "Eternal Way"). The adherents
of Sanatana Dharma call themselves as "Sanatani", the original word for the
adherents of Sanatana Dharma.

Islam

Islam is a monotheistic religion centered on the belief in one God and following
the example of Muhammad; it is the largest minority religion in India. About
14.2% of the country's population or approx. 200 million people identify as
adherents of Islam (2018 estimate). The Islamic Invasion during Medieval Era has
obtained the religion a significant population of adherents. The religion is regarded
as "Minority religion" and the adherents are given "Special privileges" It makes
India the country with the largest Muslim population outside Muslim-
majority countries. Muslims are a majority in states Jammu and
Kashmir and Lakshadweep, and live in high concentrations in Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, and Kerala. There has been no particular
census conducted in India with regards to sects, but sources suggest the largest
denomination is Sunni Islam with a substantial minority of Shiite
Muslims and Ahmadi Muslims. Indian sources like Times of
India and DNA reported the Indian Shiite population in mid-2005–2006 to be
between 25% and 31% of entire Muslim population of India, which accounts them
in numbers between 40 and 50 million.
Christianity

Christianity is a monotheistic religion centred on the life and teachings

of Jesus as presented in the New Testament. It is the third largest religion of India,
making up 2.3% of the population. St. Thomas is credited with introduction of
Christianity in India. He arrived on the Malabar Coast in 52 AD. Christianity
expanded under the colonial rule of British and Christian Missionaries played a
major role by denouncing the native Indian religions and tribal customs and
promoting Jesus Christ as the Sole Saviour, for example, in Goa, and North
Eastern Provinces such as Nagaland and Mizoram. Christians comprise a majority
in Nagaland, Mizoram, and Meghalaya and have significant populations
in Kerala and Goa.

Buddhism

Buddhism is an Indian, transtheistic religion and philosophy. Around 8.5 million

Buddhists live in India, about 0.7% of the total population.[100] Buddhism as a
religion is practised mainly in the foothills of the Himalayas and is a significant
religion in Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Ladakh, Darjeeling in West Bengal and the
Lahaul and Spiti districts of Himachal Pradesh. Besides, a significant number of
Buddhists reside in Maharashtra. They are the Neo-Buddhists
or Navayana Buddhists who, under the influence of B. R. Ambedkar embraced
Buddhism in order to escape the casteist practices within Hinduism.
Ambedkar is a crucial figure, along with Anagarika Dharmapala of Sri Lanka and
Kripasaran Mahasthavira of Chittagong behind the revival of Buddhism in
India in the 19th and 20th centuries. The escape of the 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzing
Gyatso to India fleeing Chinese occupation of Tibet in 1959 and the setting up of
the Tibetan Government in Exile at Dharamshala in Mcleodganj in Himachal
Pradesh has also accelerated the resurgence of Buddhism in India. The effective
religion in Sikkim, which joined the Indian Union in 1975 (making it India's 22nd
state) remains Vajrayana Buddhism, and Padmasambhava or Guru Ugyen is a
revered presence there.

Jainism

Jainism is a non-theistic Indian religion and philosophical system originating

in Iron Age India. Jains compose 0.4% (around 4.45 million) of India's population,
and are concentrated in the states of Gujarat, Karnataka, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan.

Sikhism

Sikhism began in fifteenth-century North India with the teachings of Guru

Nanak and nine successive Sikh gurus. As of 2011, there were 20.8 million Sikhs
in India. Punjab is the spiritual home of Sikhs, and is the only state in India where
Sikhs form a majority. There are also significant populations of Sikhs in
neighboring Chandigarh, Himachal Pradesh, Delhi and Haryana, which were
historically a part of Greater Punjab. However, there is no data for specific number
of Nanak followers (Nanakpanthis) in India, but they are believed to be in crores
somewhere between 10-12 crores. Karnail Singh Panjoli, member, Shiromani
Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee, says that there are several communities within
the term ‘Nanakpanthis’ too. “There are groups like Sikhligarh, Vanjaarey,
Nirmaley, Lubaney, Johri, Satnamiye, Udaasiyas etc who call
themselves Nanakpanthis. They follow Nanak and Sri Guru Granth Sahib.

Population trends for major religious groups in India (1951–2011)

Religious Populat Populat Populat Populat Populat Populat Populat
group ion ion ion ion ion ion ion
% 1951 % 1961 % 1971 % 1981 % 1991 % 2001 % 2011[
 87]

Hinduism 84.1% 83.45% 82.73% 82.30% 81.53% 80.46% 79.80%

Islam 9.8% 10.69% 11.21% 11.75% 12.61% 13.43% 14.23%
Christianity 2.30% 2.44% 2.60% 2.44% 2.32% 2.34% 2.30%
Sikhism 1.79% 1.79% 1.89% 1.92% 1.94% 1.87% 1.72%
Buddhism 0.74% 0.74% 0.70% 0.70% 0.77% 0.77% 0.70%
Jainism 0.46% 0.46% 0.48% 0.47% 0.40% 0.41% 0.37%
Zoroastrian 0.13% 0.09% 0.09% 0.09% 0.08% 0.06% not
ism counted
Others/Reli 0.43% 0.43% 0.41% 0.42% 0.44% 0.72% 0.9%
gion not
specified

Judaism.

Judaism is also present in India, a monotheistic religion from the Levant. There
is today a very small community of Indian Jews. There were more Jews in India
historically, including the Cochin Jews of Kerala, the Bene Israel of Maharashtra,
and the Baghdadi Jews near Mumbai. In addition, since independence two
primarily proselyte Indian Jewish communities in India: the Bnei
Menashe of Mizoram and Manipur, and the Bene Ephraim, also called Telugu
Jews. Of the approximately 95,000 Jews of Indian extraction, fewer than 20,000
remain in India. Some parts of India are especially popular with Israelis, swelling
local Jewish populations seasonally. Around 0.07% of the people did not state their
religion in the 2001 census
Other religions

As of the census of 2001, Parsis (followers of Zoroastrianism in India) represent

approximately 0.006% of the total population of India,[113] with relatively high
concentrations in and around the city of Mumbai. Parsis number around 61,000 in
India.[114] There are several tribal religions in India, such as Donyi-Polo. Santhal is
also one of the many tribal religions followed by the Santhal people who number
around 4 million but only around 23,645 follow the religion.

It is difficult to establish the exact numbers of Baháʼís in India. The official

membership claims "more than two million"[115] in India, but the 2011 census listed
only 4,572. There is little commentary on the discrepancy. Official rolls, then only
1,000, swelled after 1960, and the large numbers enrolled as Baháʼís, in rural areas
of Gwalior, may have accepted the new ideas without rejecting their cultural
heritage as Hindu, leading to halfway conversions.[117] Baháʼí membership rolls
record who has professed belief, but no action is required to maintain membership,
so as a result they tend to overestimate the number of self-identifying
Baha'is.[118] The Association of Religion Data Archives (relying on World
Christian Database) estimated in 2015 that the Baháʼí community represents 0.2%
of the total population of India.

Concept of Social Well-Being The concept of social well being is given by

David M,Smith Social well being and the quality of life seems to be synonymous,
but this is not so. Quality of Life implies a rather personalized concept.whereas
reference to aggregates of people defined by area of residence more appropriatedly
addresses the welfare of some social group.

The research conducted by Bradburn and Caplovitz in 1965 and by Bradburn in

1969 on happiness has indicated possibilities for the analysis of levels of
psychological well-being or self-esteem through survey methods. Stagner in 1970
proposed a set of psychological urban indicators that would focus on the
frequency and intensity of satisfaction/Dissatisfaction with aspects of urban life
perceived as important by the inhabitants of the city. Indeed the use of Massive
surveys designed to find out what the people themselves think of the quality of life
and the themselves think of the quality of life and the criteria or conditions
impinging on it may be the only way to avoid introducing the biased values of the
academicians and government officials concerned professionally with social
indicators.

The concept of social well being ought eventually to relate to human happiness
of the capacity of individuals to realze their perception of the good life,because this
is the ultimate criterion for determining whether a society is well or sick. The
concept of social well being considers a society in which people will have incomes
adequate for their basic needs of food, clothing, shelter and a reasonable statndard
of living, people will not live in poverty. The status and dignity of the people or
individual will be respected and he will be socially and economically mobile.
Good quality education and health services will be available to all and their use
will be reflected in a high level of physical and mental health and the people
should be able to perform their societal roles in a satisfactory manner.

People should and should enjoy a good quality of physical environment. They
should have access to recreational facilities including culture and the arts and
adequate leisure time to enjoy it. Society should show low degree of
disorganization. With few personal social pathologies, little deviant behavior, low
crime incidence and high public safety and order. The family should be a stable
institution with few broken homes. Individuals should be able to participate in
social, economic and political life and should not be alienated as the basis of race,
religion , ethnic origin, or any other cause.
 Althogh all the conditions mentioned above for social well being requires
clarification or reservation. For examble ;a case of establishing scientifically what
constitutes an income adequate for basic human needs or what constitutes decent
housing. The standard can not be fixed for all the places. It varies from place to
place but it is true that concept of social well-being is generally concerned with the
inequalities existing in the society.

------------------

Reference
1. Blau, P.M. A macrosociological theory of social structure. American Journal of
Sociology 83 (1978)
2.www.britannica.com.

3.www.tandfonline.com

4. www.oxfordreference.com

5. Onlinelibrary.wiley.com