energies

Article
Isothermal Deep Ocean Compressed Air Energy Storage:
An Affordable Solution for Seasonal Energy Storage
Julian David Hunt 1, * , Behnam Zakeri 1 , Andreas Nascimento 2 , Diego Augusto de Jesus Pacheco 3 ,
Epari Ritesh Patro 4 , Bojan Ðurin 5 , Márcio Giannini Pereira 6 , Walter Leal Filho 7 and Yoshihide Wada 8

1 International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), A-2361 Laxenburg, Austria
2 Institute of Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Itajuba (UNIFEI), Av. BPS n. 1303,
Itajubá 37500-903, Brazil
3 Department of Business Development and Technology, Aarhus University, Birk Centerpark 15, 8001/1301,
7400 Herning, Denmark
4 Water, Energy, and Environmental Engineering Research Unit, University of Oulu, 90570 Oulu, Finland
5 Department of Civil Engineering, University North, 48000 Koprivnica, Croatia
6 Electrical Power Research Center, Eletrobras, Av. Horácio Macedo, 354, Rio de Janeiro 21941-911, Brazil
7 Faculty of Life Sciences, Hamburg University of Applied Sciences, 20999 Hamburg, Germany
8 Climate and Livability Initiative, Center for Desert Agriculture, Biological and Environmental Science and
Engineering Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
* Correspondence: hunt@iiasa.ac.at; Tel.: +43-650-906-7841

Abstract: There is a significant energy transition in progress globally. This is mainly driven by the
insertion of variable sources of energy, such as wind and solar power. To guarantee that the supply of
energy meets its demand, energy storage technologies will play an important role in integrating these
intermittent energy sources. Daily energy storage can be provided by batteries. However, there is still
no technology that can provide weekly, monthly and seasonal energy storage services where pumped
hydro storage is not a viable solution. Herein, we introduce an innovative energy storage proposal
based on isothermal air compression/decompression and storage of the compressed air in the deep
sea. Isothermal deep ocean compressed air energy storage (IDO-CAES) is estimated to cost from
1500 to 3000 USD/kW for installed capacity and 1 to 10 USD/kWh for energy storage. IDO-CAES
Citation: Hunt, J.D.; Zakeri, B.;
should complement batteries, providing weekly, monthly and seasonal energy storage cycles in future
Nascimento, A.; de Jesus Pacheco,
sustainable energy grids, particularly in coastal areas, islands and offshore and floating wind power
D.A.; Patro, E.R.; Ðurin, B.; Pereira,
plants, as well as deep-sea mining activities.
M.G.; Filho, W.L.; Wada, Y.
Isothermal Deep Ocean Compressed
Air Energy Storage: An Affordable
Keywords: energy storage; seasonal energy storage; compressed air energy storage; offshore wind;
Solution for Seasonal Energy Storage. renewable energies; ocean storage
Energies 2023, 16, 3118. https://
doi.org/10.3390/en16073118

Academic Editor: Alan Brent

1. Introduction
Received: 24 February 2023 The ever-decreasing cost of variable renewable energy (VRE), such as wind and solar
Revised: 20 March 2023 PV, has prepared the path for their widespread adoption [1,2]. However, in order to attain
Accepted: 28 March 2023 climate objectives such as “net zero”, diverse energy storage options, including seasonal
Published: 29 March 2023
energy storage, must be employed [3]. Pumped-hydro storage (PHS) and batteries are
the two most used grid-scale energy storage technologies. The capital cost of batteries
is rapidly decreasing [4] and might soon provide reasonably priced daily energy storage
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors.
services [5–7]. However, batteries are not designed to store energy in seasonal cycles
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. given the high energy storage cost (USD/kWh) [8] and self-discharge (lithium-ion batteries
This article is an open access article have low self-discharge, i.e., 1.5–5%/month, and some batteries have less than 0.5% after
distributed under the terms and 400 days [9]). Furthermore, the high demand for batteries in electric vehicles and grids raises
conditions of the Creative Commons questions about sustainability and resource availability [10,11]. Mountainous regions can
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// provide seasonal energy storage with mountain gravity energy storage [12] and PHS [13,14].
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ In locations without mountains or water, converting electricity to synthetic fuels such as
4.0/). hydrogen is seen as the main solution to seasonal energy storage [4]; however, this method

Energies 2023, 16, 3118. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16073118 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2023, 16, 3118 2 of 20

questions about sustainability and resource availability [10,11]. Mountainous regions can
Energies 2023, 16, 3118 provide seasonal energy storage with mountain gravity energy storage [12] and 2PHS of 18
[13,14]. In locations without mountains or water, converting electricity to synthetic fuels
such as hydrogen is seen as the main solution to seasonal energy storage [4]; however,
this
has lowmethod has low
efficiency andefficiency
a high capital and acost high capital
[15]. cost [15].
This paper Thisthat
argues paper argues deep
isothermal that
isothermal
ocean compressed air energy storage (IDO-CAES) in areas close to the deep ocean canthe
deep ocean compressed air energy storage (IDO-CAES) in areas close to fill
deep ocean can fill this void.
this void.
Compressed
Compressed air air energy
energy storage
storage (CAES)
(CAES) is is a utility-scale
utility-scale electricity
electricity storage
storage solution
solution
with aa few
few operational
operational plants
plants today
today [16].
[16]. While
Whilethetheturbomachinery
turbomachinery part part ofofthe
thetechnology
technology
is
is based on on commercial,
commercial,mature
maturetechnologies,
technologies,CAES CAES hashas
notnot received
received attention
attention duedue to atofew a
few challenges. The main drawback includes the loss of
challenges. The main drawback includes the loss of pressure in the air when pressure in the air when it is being
being
expanded
expanded through
through thethe turbine
turbine to to generate
generate electricity,
electricity, which creates
creates the need
need for for additional
additional
fuel,
fuel, usually natural
natural gas,
gas,totoincrease
increasethe thetemperature
temperature andand pressure
pressure of the
of the air air
[17].[17]. Hence,
Hence, the
the technology
technology has has a relatively
a relatively low low overall
overall efficiency
efficiency and is and
notisemission-free
not emission-free if natural
if natural gas is
used
gas is for
usedsupporting expansion.
for supporting expansion.ThereThere
are a number of CAES
are a number setupssetups
of CAES that canthataddress these
can address
difficulties,
these including
difficulties, adiabatic
including CAES, which
adiabatic CAES, uses thermal
which usesenergy
thermalstorage [18].storage
energy Other issues
[18].
Other issues with CAES include the necessity of geological salt caves for air storage,and
with CAES include the necessity of geological salt caves for air storage, air leakage [19] air
the cost [19]
leakage of pressure
and thetanks
cost ofif pressure
employed for air
tanks storage [20].
if employed for air storage [20].
Salt caverns
Salt caverns can
can bebe constructed
constructed in inlocations
locationswhere
wherethe thegeology
geologyconsists
consistsof ofsalt
saltlayers.
layers.
This is the cheapest alternative to storing compressed air in CAES systems [21]. Even
This Even
though the potential
though potentialforforsalt
saltcaverns
cavernsis issignificant
significant in in
somesomecountries, suchsuch
countries, as Germany
as Germany [22],
locations with salt layers are limited (Figure 1). For this reason, we considered
[22], locations with salt layers are limited (Figure 1). For this reason, we considered the the possibility
of expanding
possibility the potential
of expanding thefor CAES by
potential forproposing
CAES bythe construction
proposing of cheap compressed
the construction of cheap
air storage tanks in the deep sea.
compressed air storage tanks in the deep sea.

Figure
Figure 1.
1. Map
Map of
of existing
existing salt
salt layers
layers around
around the
the world.
world. Adapted
Adapted from
from [23].
[23].

Seymour
Seymour proposed
proposed thethe first
first basic
basic rigid
rigid Underwater
Underwater Compressed
Compressed Gas Gas Energy
Energy Storage
Storage
(UWCAES)
(UWCAES) system
system in in 1997
1997 [24–26],
[24–26], which
which consisted
consisted of of aa small
small tank
tank or
or aa long
long pipe
pipe with
with
ballast
ballast boxes in the deep sea. The primary differences between UWCAES
deep sea. The primary differences between UWCAES and IDO-CAES is and IDO-CAES
is thatIDO-CAES
that IDO-CAESuses usesisothermal
isothermalcompression,
compression, which
which increases energyenergy storage
storageefficiency,
efficiency,
and
and instead of
of using
usingballast
ballastbins,
bins,the
thepipelines
pipelinesareare filled
filled withwith sand,
sand, which
which is cheaper.
is cheaper. In
In [27],
[27], an overview
an overview is provided
is provided of marine
of marine renewable
renewable energy
energy storage
storage systems,
systems, andand inin[24,28],
[24,28],a
areview
reviewononUnderwater
UnderwaterCompressed
CompressedAir AirEnergy
Energy Storage
Storage is is outlined. A
A few
few commercial-
commercial-
scale underwater
scale underwatercompressed
compressedair airstorage
storagedevices
deviceshave
havebeenbeenattempted.
attempted.These
These consist
consist ofof
a
a permanent storage location in the water, such as a lake or the ocean, and a compressor
located either on land or above or beneath the water that pumps pressured air to the storage
containers [29]. Several research studies on underwater CAES have been conducted [30–33],
and a current project executed by Hydrostor has been put into operation in Toronto,
Energies 2023, 16, 3118 3 of 18

Canada [34,35]. Ocean Grazer’s Ocean Battery uses isothermal CAES underwater, but
costly pressure tanks are still required to hold the compressed air.
Recently, in the literature and in industry, efficient, isothermal air compression con-
cepts have been presented. Zhang et al. (2018) presented an enhanced cylindric piston
expander by spraying water into the cylinder [36–38]. Chen et al. (2020) suggested an
iso-thermal compressed air energy storage system with a roundtrip efficiency of 76% based
on a hydraulic pump/turbine and spray cooling [39,40]. Bennett et al. (2021) proposed
iso-thermal compressed air energy storage in saline aquifers near wind farms [41]. The
AirBattery is an industrial isothermal CAES technology that stores air by isothermally
replacing air with water, with an 81% round trip efficiency [42–45]. A pump forces water
into the isothermal compressor tank. As the tanks fill with water, the air pressure rises,
and the air is forced into one of the compressed air storage tanks. The electricity is then
generated by pushing water through a hydropower turbine using compressed air. The high
round trip efficiency of the system is the highest so far for an operational CAES system.
However, the technology involves high costs of storing air in pressure tanks (estimated at
250 USD/kWh).
This work adds to the existing body of knowledge by suggesting a new approach
that combines isothermal compression and the utilization of high-pressure compressed
air storage tanks in the deep sea. The technology was named isothermal deep ocean
compressed air energy storage (IDO-CAES). Herein, we show that IDO-CAES is particularly
interesting for storing large amounts of energy in long-term storage cycles, such as seasonal
and pluriannual cycles. The paper also estimates the costs of the technology and compares
it to other energy storage solutions. Additionally, it provides the first the IDO-CAES global
potential estimate. The proposed design was conceptualized by the authors.

2. Materials and Methods

Figure 2 depicts the methodological framework used in the article. It is divided into
three stages. The IDO-CAES system is defined in Step 1. It details the components and
the concept behind isothermal air compression and deep ocean long-term energy storage
tanks, as well as a detailed description of the operation of the IDO-CAES system. Step 2
calculates the energy storage potential of the technology. It checks the solubility of air in
the deep ocean and the air density at different depths to design the deep ocean tank. It
then estimates the energy storage potential, power capacity and energy storage cost of the
technology. Step 3 estimates the global potential of IDO-CAES.

Isothermal Deep Ocean Compressed Air Energy Storage (IDO-CAES)

The isothermal deep ocean compressed air energy storage system presented involves
the components in Figure 3 and is defined as follows: (1) the underwater transmission
line connects the continental or island grids with the isothermal air compression ship
(Figure 3a). (2) The isothermal air compression ship is located directly above the long-term
energy storage tanks in the deep ocean, and it supports the compressed air pipeline and
houses the isothermal air compressor and the pump/turbines. The ship’s hull is designed
to house the isothermal air compressor for 1 to 7 bar variations. (3) The compressed air
pipeline transports compressed air in and out of the deep ocean long-term storage tanks.
The pressure throughout the pipeline is similar to the pressure of the compressed air at
the bottom of the ocean. There is, however, an increase in pressure with depth due to the
high density of compressed air. The pipeline must be thick and made of resistant material
(such as steel) to sustain the high compressed air pressures, mainly close to the surface.
However, the pipeline cannot be made entirely of a rigid steel structure due to movements
of the ship on the surface as a result of tides and waves. This flexible connection is added
in the last few hundred meters of the pipeline, where the pressure inside the pipeline is
similar to the pressure outside. Thus, a flexible pipeline can be installed. (4) The deep ocean
compressed air long-term storage tanks are laid in the deep seabed (Figure 3a,c). They are
Energies 2023, 16, 3118 4 of 18

Energies 2023, 16, 3118 4 of 20

partially filled with desert sand to prevent it from floating given the lower density of the
compressed air compared to the surrounding water.

Figure 2.
Figure 2. Methodological
Methodological framework
framework for
for IDO-CAES.
IDO-CAES.

Isothermal
During Deep Oceanmode,
storage Compressed Air Energyair
the compressed Storage (IDO-CAES)
is input through the top of the tanks, while
seawater leaves through
The isothermal deepthe bottom
ocean of the tank.
compressed airThis maintains
energy storagethe pressure
system inside involves
presented the tank
as
thethe same as the
components in pressure outside
Figure 3 and of theas
is defined tank. This (1)
follows: allows the storage transmission
the underwater tank to be made line
of cheap high-density polyethylene (HDPE) pipelines, resulting in very
connects the continental or island grids with the isothermal air compression ship (Figure low energy costs
and theThe
3a). (2) possibility
isothermal of using the technology
air compression ship for seasonal
is located and pluri-annual
directly energy storage.
above the long-term energy
The compressed air permeation potential of HDPE under
storage tanks in the deep ocean, and it supports the compressed air pipeline high-pressure settings is low,
and houses
especially
the isothermalfor HDPE (PE100) [46].
air compressor andInstead of using the The
the pump/turbines. deepship’s
oceanhull
tanks, depletedtonatural
is designed house
gas
the reservoirs
isothermalcan airstore the compressed
compressor for 1 to air.
7 bar(5)variations.
The isothermal air compressed
(3) The compressors airarepipeline
the link
that allows compressed
transports the seawaterair pump/turbine
in and out of to the
transform hydraulic
deep ocean pumping
long-term into isothermal
storage tanks. The
air
pressure throughout the pipeline is similar to the pressure of the compressed(Figure
compression, and the isothermal decompression of the air into hydropower air at 3b).
the
The isothermal compression system is divided into three or more stages
bottom of the ocean. There is, however, an increase in pressure with depth due to the high depending on
the depth of the long-term storage tanks. For example, the isothermal
density of compressed air. The pipeline must be thick and made of resistant material (such compression tanks
levels
as steel)proposed
to sustainin this
thepaper’s case study vary
high compressed air from 358 to mainly
pressures, 50.4 bar,close
50.4 to
to7.1
thebarsurface.
(these
tanks require special material and concrete reinforcement to sustain
However, the pipeline cannot be made entirely of a rigid steel structure due to movements the high pressures)
and
of the7.1ship
to 1onbarthe(which
surfaceconsists of the
as a result ofhull
tidesofandthewaves.
ship itself). When the
This flexible hull is filled
connection with
is added
seawater, the ship sinks. When the hull is filled with compressed air, the ship rises. (6) The
in the last few hundred meters of the pipeline, where the pressure inside the pipeline is
multistage pump/turbine ternary unit is used both to pump water into the isothermal
similar to the pressure outside. Thus, a flexible pipeline can be installed. (4) The deep
air compressor and to generate electricity by means of the isothermal decompression of
ocean compressed air long-term storage tanks are laid in the deep seabed (Figure 3a,c).
the air. The multiple pump/turbine stages are connected to the same shaft and generator
They are partially filled with desert sand to prevent it from floating given the lower
to reduce investment costs. Due to the large pressure variations during the storage and
density of the compressed air compared to the surrounding water.
generation modes, the multiples stages can operate in series to increase the operation head
During storage mode, the compressed air is input through the top of the tanks, while
or in parallel to reduce the operation head and increase the pump or generation flow. The
seawater leaves through the bottom of the tank. This maintains the pressure inside the
tank as the same as the pressure outside of the tank. This allows the storage tank to be
made of cheap high-density polyethylene (HDPE) pipelines, resulting in very low energy
costs and the possibility of using the technology for seasonal and pluri-annual energy
Energies 2023, 16, 3118 5 of 18

Energies 2023, 16, 3118 turbine that pumps and generates electricity with the seawater in the ship’s hull can 6beofthe
20
ship’s propeller, if adjusted to operate as a pump/turbine.

Figure 3.
Figure 3. Isothermal
Isothermal deep
deep ocean
ocean compressed
compressed air
air energy
energy storage.
storage. (a)
(a) Technology
Technology overview, (b) main
overview, (b) main
components and (c) deep ocean compressed air long-term storage tanks.
components and (c) deep ocean compressed air long-term storage tanks.

The main concept behind the IDO-CAES that makes it appropriate appropriate for long-term
long-term
energy storage is presented in Figure 3c, and consists of using the very high pressure
energy storage is presented in Figure 3c, and consists of using the very high pressure in the
in
deep sea to allow a light and inexpensive HDPE tank to store large amounts
the deep sea to allow a light and inexpensive HDPE tank to store large amounts of of compressed
air seasonallyair
compressed or inter-annually.
seasonally or The system storesThe
inter-annually. energy by pumping
system superficial
stores energy seawater
by pumping
into the isothermal
superficial seawaterairinto
compressor. The compressed
the isothermal air flows
air compressor. Theto the deep sea
compressed airstorage tanks,
flows to the
deep sea storage tanks, where it replaces the seawater inside the tanks. During generation
mode, the compressed air in the deep ocean tanks is replaced by seawater, and the
compressed air flows to the isothermal air compression ship. In the isothermal air
Energies 2023, 16, 3118 6 of 18

Energies 2023, 16, 3118 7 of 20

where it replaces the seawater inside the tanks. During generation mode, the compressed
air in the deep ocean tanks is replaced by seawater, and the compressed air flows to the
compressor,
isothermal air thecompression
compressed air replaces
ship. In thethe seawater,air
isothermal andcompressor,
the seawaterthe flows through the
compressed air
pump/turbine, generating electricity. Because the system’s
replaces the seawater, and the seawater flows through the pump/turbine, generating power costs are significant, it
should be used
electricity. Because to its
thefull capability.
system’s power The system’s
costs operatingit specialization
are significant, should be usedistotoitsstore full
energy in seasonal
capability. The system’sor pluri-annual
operating cycles in sync with
specialization is to battery systems
store energy that storeor
in seasonal energy
pluri-
in dailycycles
annual cycles,inand sync IDO-CAES
with battery provides
systemslonger storage
that store cycles.
energy in daily cycles, and IDO-CAES
Figure 4 presents
provides longer storage cycles. an IDO-CAES plant’s isothermal air compressor system at around
5000 m depth
Figure for compressing
4 presents an IDO-CAES air at 1plant’s
atm to isothermal
495 bar. Theair system consists
compressor of 12 tanks
system and
at around
65000
turbines.
m depth Three for different
compressing levels,airfor
at 1example,
atm to 495 raisebar.theTheairsystem
pressure from 1ofatm
consists to 7.1 and
12 tanks bar
(level 1), 7.1Three
6 turbines. to 50.4 bar (level
different 2) and
levels, 50.4 to 358
for example, barthe
raise (level 3). The pressure
air pressure from 1 atm drop in the
to 7.1 bar
vertical pipeline
(level 1), 7.1 to 50.4 barconnecting
(level 2) and 50.4 the to deep ocean3). The
358 bar (level tankpressure
and drop the in isothermal
the vertical
compression/decompression
pipeline connecting the deep system ocean tank in the
andshipthemust be c, and
isothermal equals considered 137 bar.
compression/decompression
This pressure loss is mainly due to the high hydraulic
system in the ship must be c, and equals considered 137 bar. This pressure head of compressed airloss
andisthe high
mainly
density
due to theof the
high airhydraulic
in the pipeline.
head ofTwo series ofair
compressed tanksandand the two
highpumps
densityare of required
the air in per the
level to guarantee
pipeline. Two series a constant
of tanks flow
and twoof pressurized
pumps are air from one
required per level to another.
guarantee If anot, there
constant
flow ofnot
would pressurized
be an input airorfrom
outputoneoflevel to another.air
high-pressure If between
not, theredifferent
would not be at
levels anall input or
times.
output ofadvantage
Another high-pressure air between
of this arrangement different levelsatateach
is that, all times.
level,Another advantage ofhead
the pump/turbine this
arrangement
variation is that, atinto
is divided eachtwo.level,Fortheexample,
pump/turbine in level head 3, variation
the headis variation
divided into of two.
one
For example, in level 3, the head variation of one pump/turbine
pump/turbine operates from 3138 m to 941 m, while the other pump/turbine at the same operates from 3138 m
to 941 m, while the other pump/turbine at the same level operates
level operates from 941 m to 282 m. This results in a 70% generation head variation, which from 941 m to 282 m.
This
is resultswith
possible in a pump/turbines
70% generation of head variation,
variable speed. which
In eachis possible
level and with pump/turbines
series, there are two of
variable
tanks. Thespeed.
numbers In each
of thelevel
tanksandare series, there
divided arelevels,
into two tanks.
seriesTheandnumbers
pairs: forof the tanks
example, a
are divided
tank of levelinto levels,
3, series series
2 and and
pair pairs:
1 is namedfor Tank
example, 3.2.1.a tank of level 3,
The number of series 2 and pairis1
pump/turbines
is named
divided Tank
into level3.2.1.
andThe number
series. of pump/turbines
For example, a pump/turbine is divided
of levelinto level
3 and and2series.
series is named For
example, a pump/turbine
pump/turbine 3.2. of level 3 and series 2 is named pump/turbine 3.2.

Figure 4. Isothermal air compressor system of an IDO-CAES plant with around 5000 m depth for
Figure 4. Isothermal air compressor system of an IDO-CAES plant with around 5000 m depth for
compressing air from 1 atm to 358 bar.
compressing air from 1 atm to 358 bar.
The
The mechanism
mechanism depicted
depicted in Figure 55 is
in Figure is the
the isothermal
isothermal compressor/decompressor
compressor/decompressor
suggested
suggested in this article, representing level 3, series 1 and 2 and pairs
in this article, representing level 3, series 1 and 2 and pairs11 and
and 2.
2. In
Inlevel
level3,
3,
there
there are 4 tanks and 2 pump/turbines. The water flowing through this level equals half
are 4 tanks and 2 pump/turbines. The water flowing through this level equals half
the
the volume
volume in in the
the 44 system’s
system’s tanks,
tanks, pipelines
pipelines and
and pump/turbines.
pump/turbines. InIn generation
generation mode,
mode,
compressed air enters Tank 3.1.2 from the vertical pipeline at 358 bar and pushes the water
out of Tank 3.1.2, which rotates a turbine generating electricity and loads Tank 3.1.1 with
Energies 2023, 16, 3118 7 of 18

Energies 2023, 16, 3118 8 of 20

compressed air enters Tank 3.1.2 from the vertical pipeline at 358 bar and pushes the water
out of Tank 3.1.2, which rotates a turbine generating electricity and loads Tank 3.1.1 with a
alower
lowerpressure
pressure(50.4(50.4bar),
bar),displacing
displacingcompressed
compressedair airinin Tank
Tank3.1.1.
3.1.1. When
When the the compressed
compressed
air
air input
input toto Tank
Tank3.1.2
3.1.2isisturned
turnedoff,off,gas
gascontinues
continues to to
flowflow
fromfrom
Tank Tank 3.1.2
3.1.2 to Tank
to Tank 3.1.13.1.1
and
and the pressure
the pressure in Tankin 3.1.2
Tankreduces
3.1.2 reduces
from 358 from 358bar.
to 50.4 to 50.4 bar. The
The drop in thedrop in the
pressure pressure
differential
differential causes the
causes the turbine’s turbine’sgenerating
hydraulic hydraulic head generating head toThe
to decrease. decrease.
hydraulicThegeneration
hydraulic
generation head becomes so small after a specific pressure difference
head becomes so small after a specific pressure difference that electricity generation stops, that electricity
generation stops, compressed
and the residual and the residual compressed
air flows to Tankair flows
3.1.1. to procedure
The Tank 3.1.1. isThe procedure
restarted when is
restarted
the pressurewhen the pressure
in Tank 3.1.2 hitsin50.4
Tank 3.1.2
bar, buthits 50.4 bar,
the tanks swapbutroles.
the tanks swap roles.
The power The
generated
power
by eachgenerated
turbine cycle by varies
each turbine
from 100 cycle
to 0%, varies from turbines
but other 100 to 0%, but othertheturbines
complement lack of
complement
power generated. the lack of power
A battery generated. Acan
or ultracapacitor battery
be used or ultracapacitor
to guarantee a can be used
constant powerto
guarantee
supply from a constant
the system. powerDuringsupply
storagefrom the the
mode, system.pumpDuringdisplacesstorage mode,
the water in the
Tankpump
3.1.1,
allowing compressed
displaces the water inair Tankto enter
3.1.1,the tank atcompressed
allowing a low pressure air to(50.4 bar).
enter theThetankpumps are
at a low
powered(50.4
pressure by electricity, which are
bar). The pumps raises the water
powered pressure and
by electricity, whichfills Tankthe
raises 3.1.2.
waterAspressure
there is
no compressed
and air leaving
fills Tank 3.1.2. As there theistank, the pressureairinleaving
no compressed tank 3.1.2 theclimbs from
tank, the 50.4 to in
pressure 358tank
bar.
Whenclimbs
3.1.2 the pressure
from in Tank
50.4 to 3.1.2 reaches
358 bar. When 358 the
bar, pressure
compressed in air
Tankis evacuated
3.1.2 reachesfrom358the tank
bar,
until it is filled
compressed airwith water. When
is evacuated fromTank 3.1.2until
the tank is fullit of
is water, the method
filled with is repeated,
water. When but the
Tank 3.1.2 is
tanks’
full roles are
of water, thereversed.
method is repeated, but the tanks’ roles are reversed.

Figure
Figure 5.
5. Operation
Operation of
of the
theisothermal
isothermal air
air compressor
compressor at
at level
level 3,
3, displaying
displaying the
the 44 phases
phases of
of the
the storage
storage
and
and generation
generation modes.
modes.

It is
is necessary
necessarytoto determine
determine thethe weight
weight and buoyancy
and buoyancy equilibrium
equilibrium of thewithout
of the tanks tanks
without
saltwatersaltwater at depths
at various varioustodepths to establish
establish the minimalthe minimal
required required
amount ofamount
sand inofthe
sand in
deep
the
oceandeep oceantanks
storage storage
andtanks
avoidand avoid This
floating. floating. This
article article proposes
proposes that
that desert desert
sand sand
is the mostis
the most
suited suited for
material material for counterbalancing
counterbalancing the buoyancy
the buoyancy potential potential of compressed
of compressed air.
air. It is inert
It
andis inert
cheap, and cheap,
and and has appropriate
has appropriate porosity to porosity
store airtoand
store air and Equation
seawater. seawater. (1)
Equation (1)
is applied
toapplied
is design the deep ocean
to design compressed
the deep air long-term
ocean compressed storage tanks.
air long-term storage tanks.
𝑆𝑊<<V𝑉𝑆××θ𝜃××ρ𝑆++V𝑉𝐴 ×
V 𝑉× ×ρSW ×ρ𝐴A +
+𝑀M (1)
(1)
S S A
where V is the volume of the tank; 𝑉𝑆 is the sand volume; 𝑆 is the sand density, assumed
where V is the volume
3; 
of the tank; VS is the sand volume; ρS is the sand density, assumed to
to be 1900 kg/m is the seawater density, assumed to be 1028 kg/m3; and 𝜃 is the
be 1900 kg/m3 ; ρSW 𝑆𝑊 is the seawater density, assumed to be 1028 kg/m3 ; and θ is the porosity
porosity of sand, assumed to be 60%. 𝑉𝐴 is the compressed air volume; 𝐴 is the
of sand, assumed to be 60%. VA is the compressed air volume; ρ A is the compressed air
compressed
density, whichair varies
density, which
with varies
depth; andwith
M is depth; and 𝑀mass,
the pipeline is thewhich
pipeline mass, which
is neglected is
in this
neglected
paper. Theindensity
this paper.
of theThe density
air was of from
taken the air wasThe
[47]. taken frompressure
oceanic [47]. Theatoceanic pressure
different depths
at different depths
was taken from [48]. was taken from [48].
As the energy is stored by displacing seawater in deep ocean tanks with compressed
air, the energy storage of IDO-CAES is equivalent to the energy required to displace deep
seawater, and can be estimated with Equation (2).
𝐸 = (𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐷 ) × 𝑆𝑊 × 𝑔 × (𝑑 − ℎ𝐿 ) × 𝑒 (2)
where 𝐸 is the energy storage potential in the deep ocean tanks; 𝑉𝐴 is the volume of
compressed air in the deep ocean tanks; 𝑉𝐷 is the volume of air dissolved in seawater in
 Energies 2023, 16, 3118 8 of 18

As the energy is stored by displacing seawater in deep ocean tanks with compressed
air, the energy storage of IDO-CAES is equivalent to the energy required to displace deep
seawater, and can be estimated with Equation (2).

Energies 2023, 16, 3118 E = (VA − VD ) × ρSW × g × (d − h L ) × e 9 of 20 (2)

where E is the energy storage potential in the deep ocean tanks; VA is the volume of
compressed air in the deep ocean tanks; V is the volume of air dissolved in seawater in
the deep ocean and the ship; 𝑆𝑊 is the density ofDseawater above the deep ocean tanks,
the deep ocean and the ship; ρSW is the density of seawater above the deep ocean tanks,
assumed to be 1028 kg/m3; 𝑑 is the depth of the deep ocean tanks; 𝑔 is the acceleration
assumed to 2be 1028 kg/m3 ; d is the depth of the deep ocean tanks; g is the acceleration of
of gravity (9.81 m/s ); ℎ𝐿 2is the head loss resulting from the column of compressed air in
gravity (9.81 m/s ); h L is the head loss resulting from the column of compressed air in the
the vertical pipeline, which connects the deep ocean tanks and the ship; and 𝑒 is the
vertical pipeline, which connects the deep ocean tanks and the ship; and e is the round trip
round trip efficiency of the system, assumed to be 70%, as the air compression and
efficiency of the system, assumed to be 70%, as the air compression and decompression are
decompression
performedareby
performed
isothermalbyprocesses.
isothermal processes.

3. Results
3. Results
Equation (1) is applied
Equation to estimate
(1) is applied the amount
to estimate of sand of
the amount required to keep to
sand required thekeep
pipeline
the pipeline
on the bottom of the ocean.
on the bottom of theFigure
ocean. 6a shows
Figure 6athe air density
shows variation,
the air density along with
variation, alongdepth.
with depth.
The density of air rises
The density of airsignificantly with depth,
rises significantly reaching
with depth, densities
reaching of 128
densities ofkg/m 3 at 1000
128 kg/m 3 at 1000 m,
m, 484 kg/m 3
484 kg/m 3
at 5000 m and
at 5000 655655
m and kg/m 3
kg/m 3
at 10,000 mm
at 10,000 [47].
[47].Figure
Figure6b
6bshows
shows the
the required
required volume
volumeofof sand
sand at
at different
different depths.
depths. Figure
Figure 6c
6c shows
shows the cross-section
cross-section ofof the tanks at depths of 1000,
of 1000,5000
5000and
and10,000
10,000m. m.

Figure 6. Weight balance at different depths. (a) Air density [47]; (b) the required volume of sand at
Figure 6. Weight balance at different depths. (a) Air density [47]; (b) the required volume of sand at
different depths; (c) a cross-section of the tanks at 1000, 5000 and 10,000 m depth.
different depths; (c) a cross-section of the tanks at 1000, 5000 and 10,000 m depth.
It is important to know the solubility of air in pressurized seawater in order to
It is important to know the solubility of air in pressurized seawater in order to estimate
estimate the amount of air dissolved in the superficial and deep seawater in the storage
the amount of air dissolved in the superficial and deep seawater in the storage process,
process,and,
and,thus,
thus,thetheenergy
energy lost
lost due
due to to
thethe reduction
reduction of compressed
of compressed airthe
air in in system.
the system.
The mixing
The mixing
of saltwater with compressed air makes sense only if the solubility of airof
of saltwater with compressed air makes sense only if the solubility inair in is low,
water
water isbecause
low, because the air dissolved in water would be squandered in the ocean.
the air dissolved in water would be squandered in the ocean. Air has low solubility Air
has lowin solubility
water. For in water.
example, Fortheexample,
partial the partialofpressure
pressure oxygen at of 500
oxygen at 500
bar and 0 ◦bar
C isand
12.80g/kg in
°C is 12.8 g/kg in seawater [49], while the partial pressure of nitrogen in
seawater [49], while the partial pressure of nitrogen in the same conditions is 7.6 g/kg [50], the same
conditions
andisfor7.6CO g/kg [50], and for CO2, it is 100 g/kg (note that the concentration of CO2
2 , it is 100 g/kg (note that the concentration of CO2 in the air is very low). At
in the airdepths
is veryoflow).
4000 m,depths
At of 4000 for
this accounts m, this accounts for
a compressed airaloss
compressed
of 2.5%. air loss of 2.5%.
However, the deep sea
However, the deep sea already has a high concentration of N2 and O2, and the losses due
to solubility would be significantly smaller. In addition,, the concentration of N2 and O2
in the deep ocean varies significantly from location to location due to the predominant
ocean currents, which increases the challenge of estimating the losses due to solubility.
Thus, this paper neglects air losses through the solubility of seawater.
Energies 2023, 16, 3118 9 of 18

already has a high concentration of N2 and O2 , and the losses due to solubility would
be significantly smaller. In addition, the concentration of N2 and O2 in the deep ocean
varies significantly from location to location due to the predominant ocean currents, which
increases the challenge of estimating the losses due to solubility. Thus, this paper neglects
air losses through the solubility of seawater.
Figure 7 presents the IDO-CAES energy storage estimation, with Figure 7a showing
Energies 2023, 16, 3118 the change in pressure in the vertical pipeline. Each line corresponds to a different 10 of 20 deep
ocean tank depth, the maximum depth being 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, 5000 and 6000 m.
The change in pressure in the vertical pipeline is estimated by: (i) assuming that the
compressed
change in air pressure
pressure in in
thethe deep ocean
vertical pipeline tankis equals
estimated to the
by:ocean pressurethat
(i) assuming surrounding
the
it, and (ii) removing
compressed 10 m in
air pressure ofthe
compressed
deep oceanair tankfrom
equalstheto bottom
the ocean of the pipeline,
pressure thus reducing
surrounding
theit,pressure
and (ii) removing
of the air10column
m of compressed
until theair from thereaches
pipeline bottom theof the pipeline,
ship at thethus reducing
surface. Figure 7b
the pressure
shows of the difference
the pressure air column between
until the pipeline reaches theair
the compressed ship at the
in the surface.pipeline
vertical Figure 7b and the
shows the pressure difference between the compressed air in the
pressure of the ocean surrounding the pipeline at the same depth. The compressed air vertical pipeline and the
pressure
density of the
at high ocean surrounding
pressures is not goodthe forpipeline
IDO-CAES at thebecause
same depth. The compressed
the seawater density air becomes
density at high pressures
3 is not good for IDO-CAES because the seawater density becomes
similar at 1028 kg/m 3 , and the head loss in the vertical pipeline increases. Figure 7c shows
similar at 1028 kg/m , and the head loss in the vertical pipeline increases. Figure 7c shows
the compressed air pressure in the ship and head loss, and Figure 7d represents the energy
the compressed air pressure in the ship and head loss, and Figure 7d represents the energy
storage capacity of the system at different depths. Equation (2) is applied to the energy
storage capacity of the system at different depths. Equation (2) is applied to the energy
storage
storage capacityofofthe
capacity thesystem
system at atdifferent
differentdepths.
depths. The Thedeepdeep storage
storage tankstanks
used used to estimate
to estimate
thetheenergy storage potential consist of 200 pipes side by side,
energy storage potential consist of 200 pipes side by side, 5 km long and 40 m in 5 km long and 40 m in
diameter, which results in a volume of 1.256 km 3 . This results in an energy storage potential
diameter, which results in a volume of 1.256 km . This results in an energy storage
3

of 1.4 TWh of
potential and1.428
TWhdaysandof28electricity generation
days of electricity at a 2 GW
generation at a 2power
GW power capacity, withwith
capacity, a system
depth of 1000
a system depthm;ofand
10006.6m;TWh and
and 6.6 TWh137anddays137 of
dayselectricity generation
of electricity generationat at
a 2a 2GWGWpower
power capacity,
capacity, with a depth
with a system systemof depth
5000ofm.5000
Thism. is
This is equivalent
equivalent to 15%to 15%
andand
68% 68% ofofthe
theannual
annual electricity consumption of Hawaii, respectively,
electricity consumption of Hawaii, respectively, which is 9.6 TWh [51]. which is 9.6 TWh [51].

Figure
Figure 7. 7. IDO-CAESenergy
IDO-CAES energy storage
storage estimation,
estimation,showing
showing(a) the pressure
(a) the of theofcompressed
pressure air in air in
the compressed
the vertical pipeline, (b) the pressure difference between the compressed air pipeline and the ocean,
the vertical pipeline, (b) the pressure difference between the compressed air pipeline and the ocean,
(c) the compressed air pressure in the ship and head loss, and (d) the energy storage capacity of the
(c) system
the compressed
in the deepair pressure in the ship and head loss, and (d) the energy storage capacity of the
ocean.
system in the deep ocean.
Table 1 presents the isothermal air compressor design proposed in this study, with a
description of the pressure variation, pressure increase, relative volume, and the tank
volume where the compressed air pressure is constant. Figure 8 presents the isothermal
air compressor power description, including the hydraulic head variation in the
arrangement proposal of the three tanks. As can be seen, Tank 1 has a very high volume
 3 has a small volume but a high generation head (Figure 8a). The resulting energy storage
and generation of the three isothermal air compressor tanks are similar, as shown in
Figure 8b.

Table 1. Isothermal air compressor design description.

Energies 2023, 16, 3118 10 of 18
Pressure Constant Air
Pressure Relative Tank
anks Tank Description Increase Pressure
(bar) Volume
(bar) Volume (%)
Table 1 presents the isothermal air compressor design proposed in this study, with
Tank 1 consists of a ship’s hull adapted as an isothermal
a description of the pressure variation, pressure increase, relative volume, and the tank
air compressor. The pump/turbine can where
volume be divided into 2
the compressed air pressure6.1
is constant. 50.41
Figure 8 presents the isothermal air
1 1–7.1 14.1
stages, with a head of 5 m, that operate in series when
compressor power description,the including the hydraulic head variation in the arrangement
pressure is high and in parallel proposal
when the of pressure
the threeis low.
tanks. As can be seen, Tank 1 has a very high volume but a small
Tank 2 consists of an isothermal air compressor.
generation head, TankThe 2 has a medium volume and generation head and Tank 3 has a
pump/turbine can be divided into 5 stages,
small volume with
buta head
a highofgeneration head (Figure 8a). The resulting energy storage and
2 7.1–50.4 43.2 7.1 14.1
40 m, that operate in series when generation
the pressureof the threeand
is high isothermal air compressor tanks are similar, as shown in Figure 8b.
in parallel when the pressure is low.
Table
Tank 3 consists of an isothermal Isothermal airThe
air1.compressor. compressor design description.
pump/turbine can be divided into 2 stages, with a head of
3 −50.4–358 307.6
Pressure 1
Pressure 14.1 Constant Air
Relative
500 m, that operate in series when
Tanks theDescription
Tank pressure is high Increase Tank Pressure
(bar)
and in parallel when the pressure is low. (bar) Volume Volume (%)
Tank 1 consists of a ship’s hull adapted as an isothermal air compressor. The
1 pump/turbine can be divided into 2 stages, with a head of 5 m, that operate 1–7.1
Figure 8 presents the power description of the
in series when the pressure is high and in parallel when the pressure is low.
IDO-CAES in 6.1 50.41
series, including the 14.1

hydraulic head variation in the arrangement proposal of the three tanks. As can be seen,
Tank 2 consists of an isothermal air compressor. The pump/turbine can be
2 divided intoSystem
5 stages,1with
hasa the
headhighest volume
of 40 m, that operate(86.2%)
in series but,
whenathe
small 7.1–50.4
generation head
43.2 (62.2 m7.1
to 5.6 m); 14.1
system
pressure 2 has
is high and ain medium volume
parallel when (12.1%)
the pressure and generation head (440.6 m to 39.7 m); and
is low.
system
Tank 3 consists 3 has a small
of an isothermal volume The
air compressor. (1.7%), but a high
pump/turbine cangeneration
be head (3137.5 m to 282.4 m), as
3 divided intoshown
2 stages,inwith a head8a.
Figure of The
500 m, that operate
resulting in series when
electricity the −50.4–358
generation 307.6 between1 the three
potential shared 14.1
pressure is high and in parallel when the pressure is low.
systems is calculated with Equation (2) and shown in Figure 8b.

Figure 8. Isothermal
Figure 8. Isothermal air compressor
air compressor power description.
power description. (a) Hydraulic
(a) Hydraulic head head variation
variation for for
thethe arrange-
arrangement proposal
ment of the
proposal three
of the tanks,
three (b)(b)
tanks, power supply
power supplyand
andstorage
storageshare
sharebetween
betweenthe
the three
three isothermal
isothermal air
air compressor
compressor tanks.
tanks.

3.1. IDO-CAES Figure 8 presents

Investment the power description of the IDO-CAES in series, including the
Cost Estimation
hydraulic head variation
Table 2 shows the investment in the arrangement
cost proposal
estimate for of the threesystem
an IDO-CAES tanks. As
withcan be seen,
compressed air storage tanks at a depth of 5000 m to store energy from floating wind to 5.6 m);
System 1 has the highest volume (86.2%) but, a small generation head (62.2 m
system
power plants. 2 has
Figure a medium
9 shows volume (12.1%)
the IDO-CAES and generation
energy storage head according
cost variation (440.6 m to 39.7 m); and
tp\o
system 3 has a small volume (1.7%), but a high generation head (3137.5
depth in USD/kWh. A significant investment in IDO-CAES can substantially reduce these m to 282.4 m), as
shown in Figure 8a. The resulting electricity generation potential shared between the three
systems is calculated with Equation (2) and shown in Figure 8b.

3.1. IDO-CAES Investment Cost Estimation

Table 2 shows the investment cost estimate for an IDO-CAES system with compressed
air storage tanks at a depth of 5000 m to store energy from floating wind power plants.
Figure 9 shows the IDO-CAES energy storage cost variation according tp\o depth in
USD/kWh. A significant investment in IDO-CAES can substantially reduce these costs. As
the proposed IDO-CAES project stores energy from an existing floating wind power plant,
Energies 2023, 16, 3118 12 of 20
Energies 2023, 16, 3118 11 of 18

costs. As the proposed IDO-CAES project stores energy from an existing floating wind
the costs
power of electrical
plant, the costs components
of electricalsuch as a transmission
components such as cable, electrical cable,
a transmission protection and
electrical
substation
protection are
andnot considered.
substation Maintenance
are not considered. costs are also not
Maintenance considered.
costs Environmental
are also not considered.
variables can significantly
Environmental variables influence the cost components,
can significantly influence theand arecomponents,
cost not included in thisare
and paper.
not
Maintenance costs are not included in investment costs, but can be assumed to
included in this paper. Maintenance costs are not included in investment costs, but can be 5% of the
be
investment
assumed tocosts
be 5% per
of year. Figure 10 presents
the investment costs perthe energy
year. storage
Figure costs and
10 presents thedischarge times
energy storage
with
costsdifferent storagetimes
and discharge and with
power capacities.
different storage and power capacities.

Table2.2.Investment
Table Investment cost
cost estimation
estimation for
for IDO-CAES
IDO-CAES components
components with
with 6.6
6.6 TWh
TWh storage
storage capacity
capacity and
and
11 GW
GW installed
installed capacity.
capacity.

Component
Component Description
Description Cost
Cost
The The
shipship
andandanchor
anchor support
support the
theequipment
equipment required required toto perform
perform
Isothermal compressionship
Isothermal compression ship USD 0.1BB
USD 0.1
the isothermal
the isothermal compression.
compression.
Isothermal
Isothermal compression
compressionequipment
equipment required
required for for1 1GWGW of of energy
energy
Isothermal air compression
Isothermal air compression USD
USD 11 BB
storage andand
storage power
power production
productioncapacity
capacity [52].[52].
A steel conduit,
A steel conduit, 5 km
5 kmlong,
long,isis required
required totolink linkthethe ship
ship withwith the
the deep
Compressed air vertically
Compressed air vertically pipeline deepocean
ocean tanks
tanks [53].[53]. To prevent
To prevent saltwater
saltwater corrosion,
corrosion, the cost
the pipeline’s USD 0.5BB
USD 0.5
pipeline is raisedcost
by two.
pipeline’s is raised by two.
3 of3
Deep ocean
ocean pipe 200 200
HDPEHDPE pipes,
pipes, 5 km
5 km long,with
long, with 40
40 m diameter
diameterand and1.256
1.256kmkm
USD 1.92
Deep pipe volume. We extrapolated the costs in [54]. USD 1.92BB
of volume. We extrapolated the costs in [54].
USDUSD1 per1 per
tontonof of desertsand
desert sand[55].
[55]. It
It is
is estimated
estimated that that1.51.5
billion
billion
Deep ocean pipe sand tons are required. The density is 1900 kg/m 3 . Alternatively, sand USD 1.54
Deep ocean pipe sand tons are required. The density is 1900 kg/m . Alternatively, sand
3 USD 1.54BB
might be taken from the deep sea near the storage site.
might be taken from the deep sea near the storage site.
Construction 50% of the equipment costs. USD 1.73 B
Construction 50% of the equipment costs. USD 1.73 B
Total project
Total project cost
cost - - USD 6.78
USD 6.78BB
Energy storage
Energy storage costs
costs IDO-CAES
IDO-CAES withwith6.66.6 TWhenergy
TWh energystorage
storage capacity.
capacity. 1.03 USD/kWh
1.03 USD/kWh
Installed power
Installed power generation
generationcapacity:
capacity: thisthiscomprises
comprises thethe expenses
expenses of
Power capacity costs
Power capacity costs the ship’s isothermal compression, and the vertically
of the ship’s isothermal compression, and the vertically pipeline pipeline for 1600 USD/kW
1600 USD/kW
compressed air.
for compressed air.

Figure 9. IDO-CAES
Figure 9. IDO-CAES cost
cost of
of energy
energy storage
storage (USD/kWh) at different
(USD/kWh) at different depths.
depths.
 Energies2023,
Energies 2023, 16,
16, 3118
3118 13 of 20 12 of 18

Figure10.10.
Figure IDO-CAES
IDO-CAES systems
systems at 5000
at 5000 depth.
depth. (a) Energy
(a) Energy storage
storage cost
cost and (b)and (b) discharge
discharge time with
time with
different installed capacities.
different installed capacities.

3.2.IDO-CAES
3.2. IDO-CAES Global
Global Potential
Potential
Theglobal
The global potential
potential ofof IDO-CAES
IDO-CAESwas wasassessed
assessedwith a computational
with a computational model. Bathymetry
model.
data from GEBCO
Bathymetry data from[56]GEBCO
with 30” resolution
[56] with 30” (equivalent to 900 m atto
resolution (equivalent zero
900latitude)
m at zerowas used.
latitude) was used.
The potential The potentialtois the
is proportional proportional to theThe
ocean depth. ocean depth. Thedepth
represented represented
started from
depth
2000 started from 2000
m to improve them to improve the
visualization visualization
of the of the11
results. Figure results. Figure
presents the 11 presents
global potential of
the global potential
IDO-CAES. Figureof9IDO-CAES.
presents the Figure 9 presents
relation betweenthethe
relation
oceanbetween
depth andthe the
ocean depthcost. To
storage
and the storage
enhance cost. To enhance
the presentation the presentation
of the data in Figure 11, of the30”
each data in Figure
resolution 11, with
pixel each the
30” highest
resolution
depth was pixel with the highest
downscaled to onedepth
degreewas ofdownscaled
resolution. to onebest
The degree of resolution.
regions The were
of IDO-CAES
best
found regions
to be of IDO-CAES
islands and the were found
coasts to be islands
of Australia, and the Japan,
Philippines, coasts Indonesia,
of Australia,the USA,
Energies 2023, 16, 3118 Philippines, Japan, Indonesia, the USA, Chile, Mexico, Ecuador, Colombia,
Chile, Mexico, Ecuador, Colombia, Peru, Jamaica, Cuba, Honduras, Brazil, Guatemala, Peru, Jamaica,
14 of 20
Cuba, Honduras, Brazil, Guatemala, Oman, Madagascar, Somalia, South Africa, Ghana,
Oman, Madagascar, Somalia, South Africa, Ghana, the Ivory Coast and Portugal.
the Ivory Coast and Portugal.

Figure 11. Global

Figure11. potentialfor
Global potential forIDO-CAES.
IDO-CAES.

3.3. Operational Proposal for IDO-CAES

We projected an IDO-CAES with 1 GW and 3 TWh capacity, as well as a floating
offshore wind plant with 3.1 GW installed capacity and a battery to meet short-duration
energy storage needs (the operation of the batteries is not represented in the case study)
Energies 2023, 16, 3118 13 of 18
Figure 11. Global potential for IDO-CAES.

3.3.
3.3.Operational
OperationalProposal
ProposalforforIDO-CAES
IDO-CAES
We
We projected an IDO-CAESwith
projected an IDO-CAES with11GWGWand and33TWh TWhcapacity,
capacity,as aswell
wellas asaafloating
floating
offshore wind plant with 3.1 GW installed capacity and a battery to meet
offshore wind plant with 3.1 GW installed capacity and a battery to meet short-duration short-duration
energy
energystorage
storageneeds
needs(the(theoperation
operationofofthe
thebatteries
batteriesisisnot
notrepresented
representedininthe thecase
casestudy)
study)
close
closetotoHonolulu,
Honolulu,Hawaii,
Hawaii,USA.USA.The
Theoffshore
offshorewind
windpower
poweroutline
outlineutilized
utilizeddata
datafrom
from[57]
[57]
atat21.1954
21.1954latitude
latitudeand and−158.9862
−158.9862longitude
longitudein in
2020. TheThe
2020. annual electricity
annual consumption
electricity consumption of
Hawaii
of Hawaiiis 9.6isTWh [51,58].
9.6 TWh The operational
[51,58]. proposal
The operational for IDO-CAES
proposal is presented
for IDO-CAES in Figure
is presented in
12. The 12.
Figure IDO-CAES
The IDO-CAESplant stores energyenergy
plant stores mostly in monthly
mostly and and
in monthly seasonal
seasonalcycles. ThisThis
cycles. is
acceptable
is acceptablesince thethe
since installed capacity
installed capacity(GW)
(GW) cost is is
cost high,
high,while
whilethe
thecost
costofofenergy
energystorage
storage
isischeap.
cheap.(GWh).
(GWh).

Figure 12.
Figure Operationalcase
12. Operational casestudy
studyfor
forIDO-CAES
IDO-CAEStotostore
storesolar
solarenergy
energyfor
for Hawaii,
Hawaii, containing
containing
electricity
electricitydemand,
demand,wind
windpower
powerand
andenergy
energystorage.
storage.

4.4.Discussion
Discussion
The IDO-CAES
The IDO-CAES was wasplaced farfar
placed away fromfrom
away areas areas
with demand for electricity.
with demand Therefore,
for electricity.
it is restricted to particular scenarios. Table 3 shows the scenarios in which IDO-CAES
Therefore, it is restricted to particular scenarios. Table 3 shows the scenarios in which
could be applied.
IDO-CAES could be applied.
IDO-CAES plants are a viable alternative for generating or storing a constant amount
of energy in weekly, monthly or seasonal cycles due to their cheap energy storage cost
(MWh) and high power cost (MW), whereas batteries can offer hourly and daily energy
storage. Table 4 compares the major features of IDO-CAES to those of other mechanical
and electrochemical energy storage technologies. The expected lifetime of IDO-CAES
systems is 30 years, with some equipment, such as deep-water tanks, having a longer
lifespan. The costs of long-term storage with this technology could be further reduced by
using depleted natural gas reservoirs instead of the deep ocean tanks, as they can store
compressed air. In these cases, CAES plants could be installed on land. Seesaw, another
technology proposed by the authors of this paper [59], has been proposed to store energy
for weeks or months. However, IDO-CAES has been proposed for storing energy seasonally.
In [60], a comparison of different energy storage systems is provided.
Energies 2023, 16, 3118 14 of 18

Table 3. Possibly viable scenarios for IDO-CAES systems.

Scenarios Description
The only alternatives for seasonal electrical storage are PHS and synthetic
Seasonal storage
fuels, such as green H2 and ammonia. IDO-CAES is another option.
Coastal areas with weekly or seasonal storage demand without viable
pumped-storage potential could benefit from ISO-CAES. Note that the
Areas by the coast
project cost increases with distance to the deep ocean due to underwater
transmission costs.
The continental plates are short for islands. This allows for the
Islands
construction of an IDO-CAES plant only a few kilometers from an island.
Wind energy can be stored with IDO-CAES because it is suitable for
weekly storage cycles. Additionally, offshore wind power plants would
Offshore wind power
reduce the distance from the IDO-CAES project to the existing grid, as
both are located offshore.
The potential of IDO-CAES for storing energy from floating offshore wind
Floating offshore wind power
power plants is great. This is because a floating offshore plant can be
for hydrogen generation
installed beside an IDO-CAES plant.
Ocean thermal energy The potential of IDO-CAES for storing energy from OTEC is large. This is
conversion (OTEC) because an OTEC plant can be installed beside an IDO-CAES plant.
A significant amount of energy will be demanded by deep sea mining
Deep sea mining projects in the future. IDO-CAES can provide energy storage for deep sea
mining projects.

Table 4. Comparison of IDO-CAES costs with other technologies (cost data from [4,61–65]).

Installed Round Trip

Capacity Energy Storage
Technology Capacity Cost Efficiency
(MW) Cost (USD/kWh)
(USD/kW) (%)
Pumped hydropower storage (PHS) 100–10,000 2–50 400–1000 70–85
Batteries (lithium-ion) 1–500 125 250 95–90
Hydrogen (salt cavern) 1–2000 0.2–10 500–700 30–60
Seesaw [59] 1–100 10–50 800–1500 80
IDO-CAES 100–2000 1–10 1500–3000 70

IDO-CAES has a considerably lower environmental footprint when compared to

batteries and pumped hydro storage. The environmental impact of IDO-CAES is restricted
to the extraction and return of deep seawater from the deep ocean tanks, respectively. These
processes should be carried out with care to minimize their impact on the aquatic fauna
and flora. Possible impacts of the increase in solubility of oxygen, nitrogen and CO2 in the
deep sea need to be evaluated with care. Mitigation measures, such as nets, could be used
to prevent animals from moving into the isothermal compressors.
Currently, the world is undergoing a shortage of high-quality river bed sand [66]. The
sand required for IDO-CAES is desert sand, which has high porosity and permeability. As
there is a high availability of desert sand, and its impacts are significantly smaller than
riverbed sand, resource availability is not a concern for the proposed technology.
In sites near the tropics, the temperature difference between superficial and deep
seawater tends to be more than 20 ◦ C. IDO-CAES can be combined with oceanic thermal
energy conversion (OTEC), where the ambient air entering at 32 ◦ C is compressed and
cooled by cold deep-sea water at 3 ◦ C, reducing the energy consumed while compressing
the air. Then, the cold compressed air (at 3 ◦ C) coming from the long-term energy storage
tank is warmed up to 30 ◦ C using warm, superficial waters. The combination of IDO-CAES
and OTEC does not result in a positive overall energy balance from the system, but it may
boost the overall system efficiency of the system.
One aspect of the isothermal CAES technology that has not yet been considered is
that the CO2 dissolved in the water can be easily separated after the decompression stage.
 the air. Then, the cold compressed air (at 3 °C) coming from the long-term energy storage
tank is warmed up to 30 °C using warm, superficial waters. The combination of IDO-
CAES and OTEC does not result in a positive overall energy balance from the system, but
it may boost the overall system efficiency of the system.
Energies 2023, 16, 3118 One aspect of the isothermal CAES technology that has not yet been considered is
15 of 18
that the CO2 dissolved in the water can be easily separated after the decompression stage.
In other words, the proposed technology can also be used as a technology for “Direct Air
Capture” of COthe
In other words, 2, with little added cost. The captured CO2 can then be turned into
proposed technology can also be used as a technology for “Direct Air
synthetic
Capture” of CO2 , withHlittle
fuels using 2 and electricity. In this way, IDO-CAES can provide energy storage
added cost. The captured CO2 can then be turned into synthetic
services and produce e-synthetic
fuels using H2 and electricity. In this fuels.
way, IDO-CAES can provide energy storage services
With weekly, monthly
and produce e-synthetic fuels. and seasonal energy storage cycles, this article contends that
IDO-CAES might cover the present
With weekly, monthly and seasonal energygap in decentralized energythis
storage cycles, storage solutions.
article contendsIDO-that
CAES,
IDO-CAES batteries,
mightPHS,
coverammonia
the present andgap
hydrogen are all depicted
in decentralized energyinstorage
Figuresolutions.
13. This graph
IDO-
focuses on long-term
CAES, batteries, PHS,energy
ammonia storage options [66]
and hydrogen areas
allwell as theinlimitations
depicted Figure 13. ofThis
batteries.
graph
Given
focuses on long-term energy storage options [67] as well as the limitations of batteries.suggest
the need for a ship on the surface and a connection with the deep ocean, we Given
that a minimum
the need for a shipviable
on theIDO-CAES
surface and prototype should
a connection withhave
the at least
deep 100 MW.
ocean, The studies
we suggest that a
referenced
minimum viablein [67–73]
IDO-CAEScan be considered
prototype shouldfor have
further information
at least 100 MW. Theon technologies with
studies referenced
short-term
in [68–74] canstorage cycles. This
be considered for diagram can help decision-makers
further information on technologies andwithenergy planners
short-term storageto
comprehend the potential
cycles. This diagram costsdecision-makers
can help and benefits of thisandstorage
energysystem in comparison
planners to comprehendto other
the
options. costs and benefits of this storage system in comparison to other options.
potential

Figure 13. Long-term energy storage technologies (IDO-CAES, hydrogen, ammoniaammonia and PHS) are
compared against short-term energy storage (batteries), with their relative energy storage cycles and
installed capacities shown.

Future work regarding IDO-CAES will involve an electrical study of voltage levels
and generated power, and the isothermal compression will be tested in a computational
fluid dynamics model or in a real-life prototype to provide a more precise estimate of the
system’s efficiency in different operational scenarios.

5. Conclusions
This paper presents an innovative energy storage technology to fill the gap for long-
term storage options (weekly, monthly, seasonal and pluri-annual). The cost of IDO-CAES
varies between 1500 to 3000 USD/kW of the installed capacity and 1 to 10 USD/kWh of the
energy storage cost, with a capacity from 100 to 10,000 MW. The greater the ocean’s depth,
the lower the cost of the project. The best regions of IDO-CAES are islands and the coasts
of Australia, the Philippines, Japan, Indonesia, the USA, Chile, Mexico, Ecuador, Colombia,
Peru, Jamaica, Cuba, Honduras, Brazil, Guatemala, Oman, Madagascar, Somalia, South
Africa, Ghana, the Ivory Coast and Portugal.
Battery costs have been decreasing considerably in the last decade. IDO-CAES is
intended to supplement batteries, providing long-term and cheap energy storage. The
combination of these technologies results in low energy storage costs (USD/kWh) and
power capacity costs (USD/kW). IDO-CAES stores and generates energy in long-term
cycles, and batteries store energy in storage cycles. This hybrid system ensures that the
IDO-CAES will operate at its maximum capacity factor.
CAES has received much attention in the research field, but there are only a few
industrial applications. The possibility of compressing air with isothermal air compressors
Energies 2023, 16, 3118 16 of 18

and electricity storage efficiencies higher than 80% makes CAES an interesting alternative
for energy storage in the future, particularly for long-term energy storage.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.D.H.; methodology, B.Z.; software, D.A.d.J.P.; vali-

dation, B.Ð.; formal analysis, E.R.P.; investigation, A.N.; resources, W.L.F.; data curation, M.G.P.;
writing—original draft preparation, J.D.H.; writing—review and editing, W.L.F.; visualization, B.Ð.;
supervision, Y.W.; project administration, Y.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Data will be made available upon request.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations
VRE—variable renewable sources; IDO-CAES—isothermal deep ocean compressed
air energy storage; PHS—pumped-hydro storage; CAES—compressed air energy storage;
UWCAES—underwater compressed gas energy storage; HDPE—high-density polyethy-
lene; GEBCO—the general bathymetric chart of the oceans; OTEC—oceanic thermal en-
ergy conversion.

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