HT FINAL (1)_removed

4
GODAVARI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

(AUTONOMOUS)
RAJAMAHENDRAVARAM-
533296
DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERINGHEAT
TRANSFER LAB MANUAL
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS AS PER THE SYLLABUS

EXPT PAGE
S.NO NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT
NO. NUMBER
1 1 Determination of overall heat transfer co-efficient of a 1
composite slab.
2 2 Determination of thermal conductivity of a metal rod. 15
3 3 Determination of natural convective heat transfer coefficient for 20

a vertical rod.
4 4 Determination of critical heat flux point for pool boiling of 28

water.
5 5 Determination of forced convective heat transfer coefficient for 33

air flowing through a pipe.
6 6 Determination of overall heat transfer coefficient in double pipe 42
heat exchanger.
7 7 Study of the temperature distribution along the length of a pin- (a)49

fin under (a)natural and (b)forced convection conditions (b)58
8 8 Estimation of un-steady state film heat transfer coefficient 61

between the medium in which the body is cooled.
9 9 Determination of Stefan – Boltzmann constant. 66
10 10 Determination of emissivity of a given plate at various 71

temperatures.
Studies on single effect evaporator

11 11 77
[PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER LAB]

9
CYCLE OF EXPERIMENTS
CYCLE-I
1 Composite wall apparatus
2 Thermal conductivity of metal rod apparatus
3 Heat transfer by natural convection apparatus
4 Determination of critical heat flux point for pool boiling of water.
5 Determination of forced convective heat transfer coefficient for air
flowing through a pipe.
6 Determination of overall heat transfer coefficient in double pipe heat
exchanger
CYCLE-II
7 Study of the temperature distribution along the length of a pin-fin
under natural and forced convection conditions
8 Estimation of un-steady state film heat transfer coefficient between
the medium in which the body is cooled.
9 Stefan Boltzmann apparatus
10 Determination of emissivity of a given plate at various temperatures.
11 Studies on single effect evaporator

10
EXPERIMENT NO-1
COMPOSITE WALL APPARATUS

AIM:
To find out total thermal resistance and total thermal conductivity of composite slab
DESCRIPTION:
The apparatus consists of central heater sandwiched between the slabs of MS,
Hylam and Wood, which forms composite structure. The whole structure is well
tightened make perfect contact between the slabs. A dimmer stat is provided to vary
heat input of heaters and it is measured by a digital volt meter and ammeter.
Thermocouples are embedded between interfaces of slabs. A digital temperature
indicator is provided to measure temperature at various points.
SPECIFICATION:
1. Slab assembly arranged symmetrically on both sides of the Heater.

2. Mica heater of 300-Watt capacity.
3. Dimmer stat open type, 230v, 0-2 amp, single phase.
4. Volt meter
5. Ammeter
6. Digital temperature indicator
7. Slab diameter =300 mm.
8. Thickness of mild steel = 25 mm.
9. Thickness of Hylam= 20 mm.
10.Thickness of wood= 18 mm.
PROCEDURE:
1. Start the main switch.
2. By adjusting the dimmer knob give heat input to heater. (say 60V)
3. wait for about 20 -30 min. approximately to reach steady state
4. Take the readings of all (8) thermocouples
5. Tabulate the readings in observation table.
6. Make dimmer knob to “zero” position and then put main switch off.
7. Repeat the procedure for different heat input.

11
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sl. V I T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
No, Volts amps °C °C °C °C °C °C °C °C
FORMULAE:
1. Heat input
Q = V x I ..........Watts
2
2. TA = T1 + T2 ….°C
2
TB = T3 + T4 …. °C
2
TC = T5 + T6…. °C
2
TD = T7 + T8 …. °C
2
3. Area of Slab
A = Л d2
4
Where “d” is diameter of slab. (Effective dia. = 300 mm)
4. Thermal Resistance of Slab ( R )
R = (TA) + ( TD ) ................ °C/W

Q
5. Thermal Conductivity ( K )
K= Q x t .................... W/m k
A (TA - TD)

12
Where “t” is thickness of slab
PRECAUTIONS:
i) Keep the dimmer stat to zero before starting the experiment.

ii) While removing plates do not disturb thermocouples.
iii) Use the selector switch knob and dimmer knob gently
RESULT:

13
SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:
0
TEMPERATURE READING IN
VOLTAGE CURRENT C
(V) (I) T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
60 0.54 73 71 69 66 61 58 38 35
1. Heat input Q = (V x I) Q =
(60 x 0.54)
Q = 32.4 Watts
2. Average temperature of heater’s TA =
(T1+T2) / 2
TA = (73+71)/2 TA = 72
0
C
3. Average temperature of mild steel TB =
(T3+T4)/2
TB = (69+66)/2 TB =
67.5 0 C
4. Average temperature of Hylum TC =
(T5+T6)/2
TC = (61+58)/2 TC =
59.5 0 C
5. Average temperature of wood TD =

(T7+T8)/2
TD = (38+35)/2 TD =
36.5 0 C

14
6. Area of slab
A=πd2/4
d = effective diameter of slab = 300mm = 0.3m A = π x
0.32/4 = 0.07068 m2
7. Thermal resistance of slab (R) R =
0
(TA + TD)/Q C/W
R = (72 + 36.5) / 32.4 R =
3.34 0C/W
8. Thermal conductivity (K)
K = Q x t / A (TA-TD) W/m K
t = Thickness of slabs Mild
Steel = 25mm Hylam =
20mm Wood = 18mm
Total thickness = 63mm = 0.063m
K = 32.4 x 0.063 / {0.07068(72-36.5)}
K = 0.82 W/m K
COMMENTS:
Do’s
1. Before switching ON the unit makes sure that the Varies knob in Zero
position
2. Operate thermocouple selector switch (TSS) gently
3. Operate unit minimum twice in a week
4. Increase the voltage slowly
Don’ts
1. Do not go above 150 voltage

15
EXPERIMENT NO- 2
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF METAL ROD
AIM:
To determine the thermal conductivity of given metal rod.
THEORY:
From Fourier’s law of heat conduction
Q = -k A dT
dx
Where, Q = Rate of heat conducted, W
A = Area of heat transfer, m²
k = Thermal conductivity of the material, W/m-K
dT = Temperature gradient
dx
Thermal conductivity is a property of the material and may be defined as the
amount of heat conducted per unit time through unit area, when a temperature
difference of unit degree is maintained across unit thickness.
DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS:

The apparatus consists of a brass rod, one end of which is heated by an electric
heating coil while the other end projects into the cooling water jacket. The rod is
insulated with glass wool to minimize the radiation and convection loss from the
surface of the rod and thus ensure nearly constant temperature gradient throughout
the length of the rod. The temperature of the rod is measured at five different
locations. The heater is provided with a dimmer stat for controlling the heat input.
Water is circulated through the jacket and its flow rate and temperature rise can be
measured.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Specimen material : Brass rod
Size of the Specimen : 20 mm, 450mm long

16
Cylindrical shell : 300mm long
Voltmeter : Digital type, 0-300volt, AC

Ammeter : Digital type, 0-20 amp, AC
Dimmer for heating Coil : 0-230v, 12amps
Heater : Band type Nichrome heater, 250 W
Thermocouple used : 11 nos.
Temperature indicator : Digital type, 0-400, Cr-Al
PRODEDURE:
1. Power supply is given to the apparatus.
2. Give heat input to the heater by slowly rotating the dimmer and adjust the
voltage to say 25 V, 50 V, etc
3. Start the cooling water supply through the jacket and adjust its flow rate so
that the heat is taken away from the specimen constantly.
4. Allow sufficient time for the apparatus to reach steady state.
5. Take readings of voltmeter and ammeter.
6. Note the temperatures along the length of the specimen rod at 5 different
locations.
7. Note down the inlet & outlet temperatures of cooling water and measure the
flow rate of water.
8. Repeat the experiment for different heat inputs.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Water temp
rate of water,
Metal rod thermocouple reading
Heat input V x I
Volume flow
(0C)
Reading V’
Voltmeter
cc/min
Ammeter
0
( C)
Inlet Outlet
V
(W)
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11

17
FORMULAE:
Plot the variation of temperature along the length of the rod. From the graph, obtain
dT/dx, which is the slope of the straight line passing through/near to the points in
the graph. Assuming no heat loss, heat conducted through the rod = heat carried
away by the cooling water
- k x A x dT/dx = mf Cp (T11 – T10)
where, ‘k’ = thermal conductivity of metal rod, (W/m-K)

‘A’ = Cross sectional area of metal rod = πd²/4 (m²)
‘d’ = diameter of the specimen = 20 mm
‘Cp’ = Specific heat of water = 4.187 kJ/kg-K
Thus, the thermal conductivity ‘k’ of metal rod can be evaluated.
-k = mf Cp (T11 – T10)
A x dT/dx
PRECAUTIONS:

RESULT:

18
O
SL V I TEMPERATURE READING C V,time
NO Volt amps T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 For10cc
s Wi Wo Of water
1 50 0.38 95 76 62 61 41 34 31 34 31 31 33 86
2 80 0.54 150 122 97 76 57 40 34 42 35 31 33 66
CALCULATIONS:
-K x A x dT/dx = mw x cpw(T11-T10)
Where, ‘k’ = thermal conductivity of metal rod, (W/m-K)

‘A’ = Cross sectional area of metal rod = πd²/4 (m²)
‘d’ = diameter of the specimen = 20 mm, 0.02m
‘Cp’ = Specific heat of water = 4.187 kJ/kg-K
‘mw’= mass flow rate of water Kg/sec
-k = mwCp (T11 – T10)

A x dT/dx
mw = 66 cc/ min = 66 = 1.1 cc/sec
60
A= πd²/4
= 3.142x (0.02)2/4
From the Graph
-4 2
= 3.141x10 m dT/dx = 0.383*103
K= mw Cp (T11 – T10)
A x dT/dx
K= 1.1 x 4.187(34-31)
3.141x10-4 x 0.383*10 3
K = 114.89 w/m-K

19
COMMENTS:
Do’s
1. Before switching ON the unit makes sure that the Variac knob in Zero position
Don’ts

20
EXPERIMENT NO-3
HEAT TRANSFER BY NATURAL CONVECTION
To find out heat transfer coefficient and heat transfer rate from vertical cylinder in natural
convection.
THEORY:
Natural convection heat transfer takes place by movement of fluid particles within to
solid surface caused by density difference between the fluid particles on account of
difference in temperature. Hence there is no external agency facing fluid over the surface.
It has been observed that the fluid adjacent to the surface gets heated, resulting in thermal
expansion of the fluid and reduction in its density. Subsequently a buoyancy force acts on
the fluid causing it to flow up the surface. Here the flow velocity is developed due to
difference in temperature between fluid particles.
The following empirical correlations may be used to find out the heat transfer
coefficient for vertical cylinder in natural convection.
Nu = 0.53 (Gr. Pr)1/4 for GrPr<105
Nu = 0.56 (Gr x Pr) 1/4 for 105< GrPr <108
Nu = 0.13 (Gr x Pr) 1/3 for 108 < GrPr<1012
Where, Nu = Nusselt number = hL/K

Gr = Grashof number = L3 β g (Ts –Ta) / ν²
Pr = Prandtl number = (µcp) / K

β = Volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion

21
For ideal gases β = 1/ Tm
SPECIFICATIONS:
Specimen : Stainless Steel tube,
Size of the Specimen : I.D 38mm / O.D 44mm, 500mm length
Heater : Nichrome wire type heater along its length
Thermocouples used : 8nos.
Ammeter : Digital type, 0-2amps, AC
Voltmeter : Digital type, 0-300volts, AC
Dimmerstat for heating coil : 0-230 V, 2 amps, AC power
Enclosure with acrylic door : For visual display of test section (fixed)
APPARATUS:
The apparatus consists of a stainless steel tube fitted in a rectangular duct in
a vertical position. The duct is open at the top and bottom and forms an enclosure
and serves the purpose of undisturbed surroundings. One side of the duct is made
of acrylic sheet for visualization. A heating element is kept in the vertical tube,
which heats the tube surface. The heat is lost from the tube to the surrounding air
by natural convection. Digital temperature indicator measures the temperature at
different points with the help of seven temperature sensors, including one for
measuring surrounding temperature. The heat input to the heater is measured by
Digital Ammeter and Digital Voltmeter and can be varied by a dimmer stat.
PROCEDURE:
1. Ensure that all ON/OFF switches given on the panel are at OFF position.
2. Ensure that variac knob is at zero position, provided on the panel.
3. Now switch on the main power supply (220 V AC, 50 Hz).

22
4. Switch on the panel with the help of mains ON/OFF switch given on the panel.
5. Fix the power input to the heater with the help of variac, voltmeter and
ammeter provided.
6. Take thermocouple, voltmeter & ammeter readings when steady state is
reached.
7. When experiment is over, switch off heater first.
8. Adjust variac to zero position.
9. Switch off the panel with the help of Mains On/Off switch given on the panel.
10. Switch off power supply to panel.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sl. V I VI Thermocouple readings °C
No. Volts Amps watts T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
chamber
FORMULAE:
1) Average Surface Temp
TS = (T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 + T5 + T6 +T7) / 7
2) Surrounding Ambient Temp
Ta = (T8)
3) Mean Temp
Tm = (TS + Ta) / 2
From Data Hand Book Take The Properties of Air at (Tm) in °C.
Pr = -

23
Cp = ------ KJ/sec.
K = ------ W/mk.
ν = ------ m2/sec.
4) volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion

ß = 1/ (Tm +273)
5) Grashof Number,
Gr = L3 ß g (Ts-Ta) / ν2
6) Rayleigh number ra = gr x pr
7) Nusselt number
Nu = hL
k
The following correlations are used to find Nusselt Number
Nu = 0.53 (Ra) 1/4 for Ra < 105
Nu = 0.56 (Ra) 1/4 for 105 < Ra < 108
Nu = 0.13 (Ra) 1/3 for 108 < Ra < 1012
8) free convective heat transfer coefficient
h = Nu k W/m²K
L
9) heat transfer rate by convection
Qc = h A (Ts – Ta)
Qc = h π d L (Ts –Ta) watt
10) Heat input to the coil

Q=VxI watt

24
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Never switch on main power supply before ensuring that all on/off
switches given on the panel are at off position
2. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 or above 200
volts.
RESULT:

25
Sl. V I VI Thermocouple readings °C

No. Volts Amps watts
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
chamber
1 60 0.43 75 89 117 135 138 134 120 32
Average surface temp

TS = ( T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 + T5 + T6 + T7 ) / 7
TS = (75+89+117+135+138+134+120)/ 7 =115.28 °C.
TS = 115.28+273 = 388.42°k.
Surrounding ambient temp

Ta = 32 °C.
Ta = 32+273 = 305°K.
Mean temp
Tm = (TS + Ta) / 2 = (115.28 + 32) / 2 = 73.640C

Tm = (388.42 + 305) / 2 = 346.74 0K
From Data Hand Book Take The Properties Of Air At 75°C.
Pr = 0.693
Cp = 1.009 KJ/sec.
K = 30.06×10-3 W/mk.
ν =20.55×10-6 m2/sec.
Volumetric co-efficient of thermal expansion

[PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER LAB] Page 25
26
ß = 1/ (Tm +273)
ß = 1/ (73.64+273)
ß = 2.885x10-3
Grashoof number
Gr = L3 ß g (Ts-Ta) / ν2
Gr = (0.5)3 x 2.885x10-3 x 9.81x (388.42 - 305) / (20.55x10-6)2
Gr = 698829727.2 = 698.82×106
Rayleigh number
Ra = Gr X Pr
Ra = 698.82×106 x 0.693
Ra= 4.8429×108
Nusselt number
Nu= hL / K
Use the following correlation to find Nusselt number.
Nu= 0.13(Ra) 1/3 for 108 < Ra< 1012

Nu= 0.13x (4.8429×108)1/3
Nu= 102.08
Free connective heat transfer co-efficient

Nu= hL / k
h = nu k/ L
h = (102.08 x 30.06×10-3) / 0.5
h = 6.13 w/ m 2k
Heat transfer rate by convection

Qc = h a (ts-ta)
= h π d L(ts-ta) (where d=44mm, 0.04m ; l=500mm, 0.5m)
= 6.13 x π x 0.044x0.5 (388.42-305)
Qc = 35.34 watts
Heat input to the coil

Qt = vxI
= 60 x 0.43
Qt = 25.8Watts

27
COMMENTS:
Do’s
Don’ts

28
EXPERIMENT NO-4
CRITICAL HEAT FLUX APPARATUS
AIM:
To study the phenomenon of the boiling heat transfer and to plot the graph of
heat flux versus temperature difference.
APPARATUS:
It consists of a cylindrical glass container, the test heater and a heater coil for
initial heating of water in the container. This heater coil is directly connected to
the mains and the test heater is also connected to the mains via a Dimmerstat
and an ammeter is connected in series to the current while a voltmeter across it
to read the voltage.
The glass container is kept on the table. The test heater wire can be viewed
through a magnifying lens. Figure enclosed shows the set up.
SPECIFICATION:
1. Length of Nichrome wire, L = 52 mm
2. Diameter of Nichrome wire, D = 0.25 mm (33 gauge)
3. Distilled water quantity = 4 liters
4. Thermometer range : 0 – 100 0C
5. Heating coil capacity (bulk water heater ) : 2 kW
6. Dimmerstat
7. Ammeter
8. Voltmeter
THEORY:
When heat is added to a liquid surface from a submerged solid surface which is
at a temperature higher than the saturation temperature of the liquid, it is usual
that a part of the liquid to change phase. This change of phase is called
‘boiling’. If the liquid is not flowing and present in container, the type of
boiling is called as ‘pool boiling’. Pool boiling is also being of various types
depending upon the temperature difference between the surfaces of liquid. The
different types of zones are as shown in the figure A. The heat flux supplied to
the surface is plotted against (Tw ~ Ts) where Ts is the temperature of the
submerged solid and Tw is the saturation temperature of the liquid at exposed
pressure. The boiling curve can be divided into three regions:
29
I. Natural convection region

II. Nucleate boiling region
III. Film boiling region
I II III
Natural Nucleate Film
convection boiling boiling
II a II b III a III b
A C
Heat flux (Q/A)
.1 1 10 100 1000
Figure. TYPICAL POOL BOILING CURVE
As temperature difference (Tw ~ Ts) is very small (10C or so), the liquid
near to the surface gets slightly superheated and rises up to the surface. The
heat transfer from the heating surface to the liquid is similar to that by natural
convection and hence this region is called ‘natural convection region’.
When (Tw ~ Ts) becomes a few degrees, vapor bubble start forming at
some discrete locations of the heating surface and we enter into ‘Nucleate
boiling region’. Region II consists of two parts. In the first part, the bubbles
formed are very few in number and before reaching the top liquid surface, they
get condensed. In second part, the rate of bubble formation as well as the
locations where they are formed increases with increase in temperature
difference. A stage is finally reached when the rate of formation of bubbles is
so high that they start coalesce and blanket the surface with a vapor film. This
is the beginning of region III since the vapor has got very low thermal
conductivity, the formation of vapor film on the heating surface suddenly
increases the temperature beyond the melting point of the submerged surface
and as such the end of ‘Nucleate boiling’ is important and its limiting condition
is known as critical heat flux point or burn out point.
30
The pool boiling phenomenon up to critical heat flux point can be

visualized and studied with the help of apparatus described above.
PROCEDURE:
1. Distilled water of about 4 liters is taken into the glass container.
2. The test heater (Nichrome wire) is connected across the studs and
electrical connections are made.
3. The heaters are kept in submerged position.
4. The bulk water is switched on and kept on, until the required bulk
temperature of water is obtained. (Say 400 C )
5. The bulk water heater coil is switched off and test heater coil is switched
on.
6. The boiling phenomenon on wire is observed as power input to the test
heater coil is varied gradually.
7. The voltage is increased further and a point is reached when wire breaks
(melts) and at this point voltage and current are noted.
8. The experiment is repeated for different values of bulk temperature of
water. (Say 300 C, 400 C, 500 C, 600 C, and 700 C).
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sl. Bulk water Specimen Voltage, ‘V’ Current, ‘I’ Heat Critical heat
No. Temperature temperature in in Input, ‘Q’ Flux q = Q/A
in 0C in 0C Volt Amps in watt In W/m2
‘T2’ ‘T3’
1
FORMULAE:
a. Area of Nichrome wire A = π x D x L
b. Heater input Q = V x I
c. Critical heat flux q = Q/A
31
PRECAUTIONS:
1. All the switches and Dimmerstat knob should be operated gently.
2. When the experiment is over, bring the Dimmerstat to zero position.
3. Run the equipment once in a week for better performance.
4. Do not switch on heaters unless distilled water is present in the container.
RESULT:
32
Sl. Bulk water Specimen Voltage, ‘V’ Current, ‘I’ Heat Critical heat
No. Temperature temperature in in Input, ‘Q’ Flux q = Q/A
in 0C in 0C Volt Amps in watt In W/m2
‘T2’ ‘T3’
1 39.2 50.8 31 13.78 427.18 10459664
1.Area of Nichrome wire A = π x D x L

= 3.14 x 0.25x10-3 x 0.052
0.0000408407 m2
Heater input Q = V x I = 31 x 13.78 = 427.18 watts
Critical heat flux q = Q/A =10459664.011 w/m2
Where,
Length of Nichrome wire, L = 52 mm
Diameter of Nichrome wire, D = 0.25
COMMENTS:
Do’s
1. Before switching ON the unit makes sure that the Variac knob in Zero
position
Don’ts
33
EXPERIMENT NO-5
HEAT TRANSFER BY FORCED CONVECTION

To determine the convective heat transfer coefficient and the rate of heat transfer
by forced convection for flow of air inside a horizontal pipe.
THEORY:
Convective heat transfer between a fluid and a solid surface takes place by the
movement of fluid particles relative to the surface. If the movement of fluid
particles is caused by means of external agency such as pump or blower that forces
fluid over the surface, then the process of heat transfer is called forced convection.
In convectional heat transfer, there are two flow regions namely laminar &
turbulent. The non-dimensional number called Reynolds number is used as the
criterion to determine change from laminar to turbulent flow. For smaller value of
Reynolds number viscous forces are dominant and the flow is laminar and for
larger value of Reynolds numbers the inertia forces become dominant and the flow
is turbulent. Dittus–Boelter correlation for fully developed turbulent flow in
circular pipes is,
Nu = 0.023 (Re) 0.8 (Pr) n
Where, n = 0.4 for heating of fluid

n = 0.3 for cooling of fluid
Nu = Nusselt number = hD
K
34
Re = Reynolds Number = Vd
υ
Pr = Prandtl Number = μ cp
DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS:
The apparatus consists of a blower to supply air. The air from the blower
passes through a flow passage, heater and then to the test section. Air flow is
measured by an orifice meter placed near the test section. A heater placed around
the tube heats the air, heat input is controlled by a dimmer stat. Temperature of the
air at inlet and at outlet are measured using thermocouples. The surface
temperature of the tube wall is measured at different sections using thermocouples
embedded in the walls. Test section is enclosed in an asbestos rope where the
circulation of rope is avoiding the heat loss to outside.
PROCEDURE:
1. Start the blower after keeping the valve open, at desired rate.
2. Put on the heater and adjust the voltage to a desired value and maintain it as
constant
3. Allow the system to stabilize and reach a steady state.
4. Note down all the temperatures T1 to T7, voltmeter and ammeter readings, and
manometer readings.
5. Repeat the experiment for different heat input and flow rates.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Specimen : Copper Tube

Size of the Specimen : I.D. 25mm x 400mm long
Heater : Externally heated, Nichrome wire Band Heater
Ammeter : Digital type, 0-20amps, AC
Voltmeter : Digital type, 0-300volts, AC
Dimmer stat for heating Coil : 0-230v, 2amps
Thermocouple Used : 7 nos.
Centrifugal Blower : Single Phase 230v, 50 Hz, 13000rpm
Manometer : U-tube with mercury as working fluid
Orifice diameter, ‘do’ : 20 mm
G. I pipe diameter, ‘dp’ : 40 mm
35
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Room Temperature TR = ………. + 273.15 K

S. Air temp °C Tube surface
No Heater input Diff. in Temperature °C
Voltmeter Ammeter VI Manometer Inlet Outlet
reading V reading I watts reading hm T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
T7
(volts) (amps) mm
FORMULAE:
1. Mass density of air ρa = P kg/m³

RTR
Where, P = Atmospheric Pressure = 101325 N/m²

R = Gas constant for air = 287 J/kg K
TR = Room temperature in K
2. Pressure drop across orifice meter in ‘m of air

ρm hm
ha = ρa
Where, ρm = Mass density of mercury = 13600 kg /m3

hm = Differential manometer reading of mercury
3. Velocity of air at the orifice
VO = C d 2gha m/s
1- (d0/dp)4
4. Velocity of air in the tube
VO (d²0/4) V0 d²0 m/s

Va = =
(d²s/4) d²s
36
(Note: Change in density of air with temperature is neglected i.e., ρ a = constant)
5. Average surface temperature of the tube
Ts = T2 + T3 +T4 +T5 +T6 + 273.15 0K

5
6. Mean temperature of air
T∞ = T1 + T7 + 273.15 0K
2
Properties of air are taken at Tm = Ts + T∞ ……… 0K

2
At temperature Tm, kinematic viscosity ‘ν’, Prandtl number ‘Pr’ and thermal
conductivity ‘k’ are taken from properties of air table
Reynolds Number Re = Va x ds
ν
7. Nusselt number Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr0.3
8. Nu = h x ds
K
Forced convective heat transfer h = Nu k W/m²-K

ds
10. Rate of heat transfer
Q = h A (T∞ – Ts)
Q = h π ds ls (T∞ – Ts)…… watt

37
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Never switch on main power supply before ensuring that all on/off switches
given on the panel are at off position
2. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 or above 200 volts.
RESULT:
38
S. Manometer
NO I reading hm AIR TEMP SURFACE TEMP
V volts amps mm
Inlet T1 Outlet T7 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
1 92 0.39 20 40 42 39 39 38 38 38
Average surface temperature of the tube
T2 + T3 + T4 + T5 + T6
TS = - 0C
5
39+39+38+38+38
TS =------------------------------- = 38.4 0C = 311.40K
5
Mean temp. of air

T1 + T7
0
Tm = ----------- C
2
40+42
Tm = ----------- = 410C = 3140K
2
From the data hand book pr0perties of air at temp (tm)

 = kinematic viscosity =
pr= prandtl number
k= thermal conductivity
39
1) Pressure drop across orifice meter in ‘m of air

h a = ρm hm = 13600 x 0.02
ρa 1.17
(Where hm=manometer diff 20mm=0.02m)
a = Density of air = 1.147 kg/m3
ha = 232.47 m
3) Velocity of air at the orifice (Where Cd = 0.62

d0 = 20mm orifice dia= 0.02m
dp= 40mm G I pipe dia=0.04m)
Vo = C d 2gha m/s
1- (do/dp)4
= 0.62 2 x 9.81 x 232.47
1- (0.02/0.04)4
VO = 43.24 m/s
4) Velocity of air in the tube
Vo d²o 43.24 x0 .022 (Where ds=dia of pecimen

Va = = ds=25mm =0.025m)
d²s 0 .0252
Va = 27.67 m/s
5) Average surface temperature of the tube

Ts = T2 + T3 +T4 +T5+T6 + 273.150K
5
= (52 + 51 + 51 + 50+50) + 273.15
5
40
Ts = 323.95 0K
6) Mean temp. of air
Tω=T1+T7/2+273.15 0K
= 51+51 /2
Tω= 324.150K
Tm = Ts+ Tω /2
= 323.95+324.15/2
Tm = 324.05 OK
From the data hand book pr0perties of air at temp (tm) in ok
V=kinematic viscosity
Pr=Prandtl number
K=Thermal conductivity
7) Reynolds number
Re = Va x ds/V
= 27.67X0.025/17.99x10-6 (Where ds=25mm=0.025m)
Re = 38.451x103
8) Nusselt number
Nu = .023 Re0.8 x Pr0.3
= 0.023x (38.451x103)0.8 x (0.7033)0.3
Nu=96.3376
9) Nu = h x ds / k
forced convective heat transfer
h = Nu K/ds W/m2- K
h = 96.3376x27.89x10-3/0.025
h = 107.47 W/m2-k
41
10) Rate of
heat transfer
Q=hA(TSTω)
= h π ds Ls (TS-Tω)
= 107.47x3.142x0.025x0.3 (323.95 -324.15)
Q = 0.506watt
COMMENTS
:
Do’s
position
Don’ts

42
EXPERIMENT NO-6
PARALLEL AND COUNTER FLOW STUDY IN DOUBLE PIPE

HEAT EXCHANGER
AIM:
To determine LMTD, effectiveness and overall heat transfer coefficient

for parallel and counter flow in a double pipe heat exchanger
SPECIFICATIONS:
Length of heat exchanger L =2440 mm

Inner copper tube ID =12 mm
OD =15 mm
Outer GI tube ID =40 mm
Geyser capacity =1 Lt, 3 kW
THEORY:
Heat exchanger is a device in which heat is transferred from one fluid to

another. Common examples of heat exchangers are:
i. Condensers and boilers in steam plant
ii. Inter coolers and pre-heaters
iii. Automobile radiators
iv. Regenerators
CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT EXCHANGERS:

1. Based on the nature of heat exchange process:
i. Direct contact type – Here the heat transfer takes place by direct
mixing of hot and cold fluids
ii. Indirect contact heat exchangers – Here the two fluids are
separated through a metallic wall. ex. Regenerators, Recuperators
etc
2. Based on the relative direction of fluid flow:
i. Parallel flow heat exchanger – Here both hot and cold fluids flow in
the same direction.
43
ii. Counter flow heat exchanger – Here hot and cold fluids flow in opposite
direction.
iii. Cross-flow heat exchangers – Here the two fluids cross one another.
LOGARITHMIC MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE (LMTD):
This is defined as that temperature difference which, if constant, would give

the same rate of heat transfer as usually occurs under variable conditions of
temperature difference.
FOR PARALLEL FLOW:
Where
LMTD = (Tho  Tco )  (Thi  Tci )  2  1

 Tho  Tco  =   2 

ln  T  T 
 ln 


 hi ci  1 

For Counter flow:
LMTD = (Thi  Tci )  (Tho  Tci ) = 2  1

 Thi  Tco   2 
 
ln  T  T 
ln  

 ho ci  1 
44
Tho = Outlet temperature of hot fluid

Tco = Outlet temperature of cold fluid
Thi = Inlet temperature of hot fluid
Tci = Inlet temperature of cold fluid
OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICINET:

The rate of heat transfer between hot and cold fluid is given by
Q =Uo Ao / LMTD
Where,
Uo is overall heat transfer coefficient based on outer surface area of
tubes, W/m²-K
Ao is the total outer surface area of tubes, m²
EFFECTIVENESS:
Effectiveness of a heat exchanger is defined as the ratio of actual heat

transfer rate to the theoretical maximum possible heat transfer rate.
Q
Effectiveness: ε =
Qmax
It can be shown that
Thi  Tho
ε= if mh ch < mc cc
Thi  Tci
And
Tco  Tci if mc cc < mh ch

ε=
Thi  Tci
Where,
mh and mc are the mass flow rate of hot and cold fluids respectively in kg/s;
ch and cc are the specific heat of hot and cold fluids respectively in J/kg–K
45
DESCRIPTION OF THE APPRATUS:
The apparatus consists of a concentric tube heat exchanger. The hot fluid
namely hot water is obtained from the Geyser (heater capacity 3 kW) & it flows
through the inner tube. The cold fluid i.e. cold water can be admitted at any one of
the ends enabling the heat exchanger to run as a parallel flow or as a counter flow
exchanger. Measuring jar used for measure flow rate of cold and hot water. This
can be adjusted by operating the different valves provided. Temperature of the
fluid can be measured using thermocouples with digital display indicator.
The outer tube is provided with insulation to minimize the heat loss to the
surroundings.
PROCEDURE:
1. First switch ON the unit panel

2. Start the flow of cold water through the annulus and run the exchanger as
counter flow or parallel flow.
3. Switch ON the geyser provided on the panel & allow to flow through the
inner tube by regulating the valve.
4. Adjust the flow rate of hot water and cold water by using rotameters &
valves.
5. Keep the flow rate same till steady state conditions are reached.
6. Note down the temperatures on hot and cold water sides. Also note the flow
rate.
7. Repeat the experiment for different flow rates and for different temperatures.
The same method is followed for parallel flow also.
8.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
PARALLEL FLOW
Temperature of Temp. of hot

Hot water Cold water
cold water in °C water in °C
Sl. No. flow rate flow rate
Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet
mh, kg/s mc, kg/s Tci Tco Thi Tho
1.
2.
3.
46
COUNTER FLOW
Temperature of Temp. of hot
Hot water Cold water
cold water in °C water in °C
Sl. No. flow rate flow rate
Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet
mh, kg/s mc, kg/s Tci Tco Thi Tho
1.
2.
3.
FORMULAE:
1. Heat transfer from hot water
Qh = mh Cph (Thi –Tho) watts
mh = mass flow rate of hot water kg/sec

Cph = Specific heat of hot water = 4186.8 J kg-K
2. Heat gain by the cold fluid
Qc = mc Cpc (Tco- Tci) watts
mc = Mass flow of cold fluid, kg/s
Cpc = Specific heat of cold fluid = 4186.8 J/kg -K

Qh  Q c
3. Q= watts
2
LMTD =  2  1
  
ln  2 
 1 
θ1 = Thi – Tci and θ2 = Tho – Tco for parallel flow heat exchanger
θ1 = Tho – Tci and θ2 = Thi – Tco for counter flow heat exchanger
5. Overall heat transfer coefficient based on outside surface area of inner tube
47
Q
Uo = W/m² oK
Ao .LMTD
Where,
Ao =π doL m²
do = Outer diameter of the tube = 0.0125 m
L = length of the tube = 1.5 m
1. Effectiveness:
Find Ch = mh cph and Cc = mccpc
Thi  Tho
Effectiveness = if Ch < Cc
Thi  Tci
Tco  T
And Effectiveness = ci if Cc < Ch
Thi  Tci
This is applicable both for Parallel and counter flow heat exchanger
2. Effectiveness using NUMBER OF TRANSFER UNIT (NTU) method
Uo A o
i) NTU =
Cmin
Note: if Ch<Cc then Ch = Cmin, Cc =Cmax
And if Cc<Ch then Cc = Cmin, Ch = Cmax

ii) Effectiveness of parallel flow heat exchanger
 Cmin 
NTU 1


1 e  Cmax 

Cmin
1
Cmax
iii) Effectiveness of counter flow heat exchanger
 Cmin 
NTU 1 
1 e  C
max 
   C 
 NTU 1 min 
C

1  min e
Cmax Cmax 
48

PRECAUTIONS:
1. All the switches and Dimmerstat knob should be operated gently.
2. When the experiment is over, bring the Dimmerstat to zero position.
3. Run the equipment once in a week for better performance.
4. Do not switch on heaters unless distilled water is present in the
container.
RESULT:
COMMENTS:
Do’s
position
Don’ts

49
EXPERIMENT NO-7(a)
HEAT TRANSFER FROM PIN-FIN APPARATUS
AIM:
To determine the value of heat transfer co-efficient under forced condition and to
find
a) Theoretical values of temperatures along the length of fin
b) Effectiveness and efficiency of the Pin-Fin for insulated and boundary
condition
THEORY:
The heat transfer from a heated surface to the ambient surrounding is given by
the relation, Q = h A T. In this relation hc is the convective heat transfer
coefficient, T is the temperature difference & A is the area of heat transfer. To
increase q, h may be increased or surface area may by increase. In some cases it
is not possible to increase the value of heat transfer coefficient & the
temperature difference T & thus the only alternative is to increase the surface
area of heat transfer. The surface area is increased by attaching extra material in
the form of rod (circular or rectangular) on the surface where we have to
increase the heat transfer rate. "This extra material attached is called the
extended surface or fin."The fins may be attached on a plane surface, and then
they are called plane surface fins. If the fins are attached on the cylindrical
surface, they are called circumferential fins. The cross section of the fin may be
circular, rectangular, triangular or parabolic.
Temperature distribution along the length of the fin is
 = T-T = cosh [m ( L-x )]

0 T0-T h (mL)
Where T = Temperature at any distance x on the fin
T0 = Temperature at x = 0
50
T = Ambient temperature
L = Length of the fin
Where h = convective heat transfer coefficient

hP P = Perimeter of the fin
m= A = area of the fin
KA K = Thermal conductivity of the fin
Heat flow Q = 0  hPKA Tanh mL

Effectiveness of a fin is defined as the ratio of the heat transfer with fin to the heat
transfer from the surface without fins.
For end insulated condition
h PKA Tan h mL
 = 0 -
h A 0
PK
 = ---------- Tanh (mL)
hA
The efficiency of a fin is defined as the ratio of the actual heat transferred by the fin
to the maximum heat transferred by the fin if the entire fin area were at base
temperature.
h PKA Tan h mL
f = 0
h PL0
Tan h mL
f =
mL
51
SPECIFICATIONS:
Length of the fin, ‘L’ = 150mm
Diameter of the fin, ‘df’ = 12mm
Thermal conductivity of fin material (brass) = 110.7 W/m2–K
Diameter of the orifice, ‘do’ = 20 mm
Width of the duct, ‘W’ = 150 mm
Breadth of the duct, ‘B’ = 100 mm
Coefficient of discharge of the orifice, ‘Cd’ = 0.62
Density of manometric fluid (mercury) = 13.6 x 1000 kg/m3
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the equipment to electric power supply.
2. Keep the thermocouple selector switch to zero position.
3. Turn the Variac (dimmer stat) clockwise and adjust the power input to the
heater to the desired value and switch on the blower.
4. Set the air–flow rate to any desired value by adjusting the difference in mercury
levels in the manometer and allow the unit to stabilize.
5. Note down the temperatures, T1 to T6 from the thermocouple selector switch.
6. Note down the difference in level of the manometer and repeat the experiment
for different power inputs to the heater.
52
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sl. Heat Input Pressure drop, ‘h’ Temperatures, 0C

No. mm of mercury,
V A T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
FORMULAE:
d0
 = d0 = Diameter of the Orifice
dp dp = Diameter of the pipe
Velocity of Orifice
2gh (m –a) 1
V0 = Cd a (1-)
m = density of manometrc fluid = 13.6 x 10³ kg/m³

a = density of air = 1.17 kg/m³
Velocity at orifice x cross sectional area of orifice

Va = Velocity of air in the duct =
Cross sectional area of duct
V0 x (d0²)/4
Va =
WxB
Where, dp = diameter of pipe

53
d0 = diameter of orifice
W = Width of the duct
B = Breadth of duct
Average surface temperature of fin is given by
TS = T1+T2+T3+T4+T5 + 273.15 K
5
T = T6 = Ambient temperature = + 273.15 K

Tm = Mean temperature = Ts + T
2
Properties of air at .............. 0C
ν= , Pr = , K =
V a df
Re = ----------- = Re = Reynolds number

ν Pr = Prandtl number
Nu = Nusselt number
Nu = C Re Pr
For Re = 0.4 to 4.0 C = 0.989 and n = 0.33

Re = 4 to 40 C = 0.911 and n = 0.385
Re = 40 to 4000 C = 0.683 and n = 0.466
Re = 4000 to 40,000 C = 0.293 and n = 0.618
Re = 40,000 to 400,000 C = 0.27 and n = 0.805
Nu k
h=
df
54
Thermal conductivity of fin material, ‘K’ = 110.7 W/m–K
hP
m= --------
KA
Temperature distribution is given by
T- T Cosh m (L-x)
=
To-T Cosh mL
Therefore, T = T + (To- T) Cosh m (L-x)

Cosh mL
x1 = 0.045 T1 =
Distance Temperature from Temperature °C
x2 = 0.075 T2 =
x, m Experiment °C from calculation
x3 = 0.105 T3 =
x4 = 0.135 T4 =
Effectiveness of fin = PK x Tanh mL

hA
Efficiency of fin = Tanh mL

mL
PRECAUTIONS:

RESULT:
55
Sl. Pressure drop, ‘h’

No. Heat Input mm of mercury, Temperatures, 0C
V A in MM T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
01 60 0.30 10 98 84 72 63 58 31
d0
 = d0 = Diameter of the Orifice
dp dp = Diameter of the pipe
0.02
 = = 0.5 m
0.04
Velocity of Orifice
2gh (m –a) 1
V o = Cd a (1-)
m = density of manometric fluid = 13.6 x 10³ kg/m³

a = density of air = 1.17 kg/m³
2x9.81x0.01(13.6x103-1.17) 1
V0 = 0.6 1.17 (1-0.5)
= 40.52 m/sec
Velocity at orifice x cross sectional area of orifice

Va = Velocity of air in the duct =
Cross sectional area of duct
40.52 x (π x 0.022/4)
Va = = 0.8486 m/sec
0.15x0.1
56
where, dp = diameter of pipe

d0 = diameter of orifice= 0.02 m
W = Width of the duct= 0.15m , B = Breadth of duct=0.1m
Average surface temperature of fin is given by
T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 + T5
Ts = 5 + 273 K
98+84+72+63+58
Ts = 5 + 273 = 348 K
T = T6 = Ambient temperature = 31 + 273 = 304 K

Tm = Mean temperature = 348 + 304 = 326
2
Properties of air at 50 0C From Heat Transfer Data Hand Book.
ν =17.95 x 10-6 m3/sec

Pr = 0.698
K = 0.02826 w/m k
Cp= 1005 J/Kg K
Va df 0.8486 x 0.012
Re = ----------- = ------------------------ = 567.30

ν 17.95 x 10-6
Re = Reynolds number
Pr = Prandtl number
Nu = Nusselt number
57
The relationship for Nu is
Nu = C Ren Pr 1/3
Nu = 0.683 x (567.30) 0.466 x (0.698) 1/3 = 11.63
For Re = 0.4 to 4.0 C = 0.989 and n = 0.33

Re = 4 to 40 C = 0.911 and n = 0.385
Re = 40 to 4000 C = 0.683 and n = 0.466
Re = 4000 to 40,000 C = 0.293 and n = 0.618
Re = 40,000 to 400,000 C = 0.27 and n = 0.805
COMMENTS:
Do’s
Don’ts
58
EXPERIMENT NO-7(b)
HEAT TRANSFER IN NATURAL CONVECTION – PINFIN
Aim:
To determine the heat transfer coefficient, fin efficiency and temperature

distribution along the length of a pinfin in natural convection.
Description of apparatus:
The apparatus consists of a pinfin of a placed inside an open duct (one side open)
the other end of the duct is connected to the suction side of the blower. The
delivery side of the blower is taken up through a gate value and an orificemeter to
the atmosphere. The air flow rate can be carried by the gate value and can be
measured on the ‘U’ tube manometer connected to the orifice meter. A heater is
connected to the pin fin and, thermo couples are connected equidistance all along
the length of the pin fine, sixth thermo couple is left in the duct. The panel of the
apparatus consists of voltmeter, ammeter, digital type temperature indicator,
dimmerstat to control power input to heater, thermo couple selector switch, U-
tube manometer and a schematic diagram.
Procedure:
1. Connect the three pin plug top to 230 V, 50 Hz, 15 Amp power socket.
2. Keep the thermo couple selector switch in “ZERO” position.
3. Turn the dimmer knob clockwise and set the power input to the heater to any
desired value by looking at the voltmeter and ammeter.
4. Allow the unit to stabilize.
5. Turn the thermocouple selector switch clock wise by step (1, 2, 3, …., 6).
6. Note down the temperatures indicated by the temperature indicator on each
step.
7. Repeat the experiment for different power input to the heater.
8. After the experiment for different power input to the heater position, keep the
thermo couple selector in ‘ZERO’ position and disconnect the plug.
Precautions:
1. Power input should be stable.
2. Keep the Blower in “OFF” position.
Graph:
A graph is drawn taking thermo couple location (x) on x-axis and experimental
59
Temperature on y-axis. Similarly another graph is drawn taking calculated

temperature on y-axis on the same sheet.
Observations:
1. Diameter of the Fin = D = 12 mm = 0.012 m.
2. Length of the Fin = l = 240 mm = 0.024 m.
3. Thermal conductivity of brass (Fin material) Kf
= Watts/ m0C
= Watts/ m0C
Calculations
60
61
EXPERIMENT NO-8
UNSTEADY STATE HEAT TRANSFER
AIM
To btain the specimen temperature at any interval of time by theoretical
methods and observe the heating and cooling curves of unsteady state.
INTRODUCTION:
Unsteady state designates a phenomenon which is time dependent.
Conduction of heat in unsteady state refers to transient conditions where in, heat
flow and temperature distribution at any point of system varies with time.
Transient conditions occur in heating or cooling of metal billets, cooling of IC
engine cylinder, brick and vulcanization of rubber.
DESCRIPTION:
Unsteady state heat transfer equipment has oil check which is at top of oil
heater. Thermocouple No.1is located inside the specimen No.2 thermocouple
measures the atmospheric temperature. No.3 thermocouple measures the oil
temperature.
Digital temperature indicator indicates respective temperatures of
thermocouples as we select it by selector switch. Heater ON/OFF toggle switch
and buzzer ON/OFF toggle switch is provided on the control panel.
SPECIFICATIONS:
1. D.C Buzzer : 10-30 volt
2. Oil Heater : 1 kW
3. Digital temperature indicator : 1200C0
4. Thermocouple : Al-Cr type
5. Specimens material : Copper
6. Fuse : 4 Amps.
EXPERIMENTATION:
62
Obtain the specimen temperature at any interval of time by practical and by

theoretical methods and observe the heating and cooling curves of unsteady state.
PROCEDURE:
1. Put ON the mains switch.
3 th
2. Fill the oil jar up to of its height.
4
3. Insert the thermocouple in jar having tag No.3.
4. Keep thermocouple No.2 near to the specimen inside the transparent
chamber.
5. Start the oil heater by putting heater’s toggle switch in downward direction.
6. Keep selector switch No.3 and observe oil temperature.
7. When the oil temperature reaches up to 950C insert specimen in oil jar. At
the same time note down the specimen temperature and start the stop watch.
8. Note down the specimen reading for every 30 sec. Check the oil
temperature by selecting No.3 on selector switch.
9. Take the readings of specimen temperature till it comes nearly too hot oil
temperature.
10. Now put the specimen inside the rectangular chamber. At the same timed
put OFF the heater.
11. Take the atmospheric temperature by selecting No.2 and specimen
temperature. Note the specimen temperature reading till it comes closer to
atmospheric temperature.
12. Put OFF the main switch.
OBSERVATIONS:
1. Specimen material : Copper

2. Thermal conductivity of copper, k=386 W/m0k.
3. Coefficient of thermal expansion a=17.7x10-6/0C
63
4. Specimen diameter, d=30mm

5. Specimen lengh, l=30mm
TABULATION:
In case of Heating: In case of Cooling:
Oil Specimen Time Specimen
Time
Sl. tempera Temperatu in Atmospheric Temperatur
Sl. in
ture T1 re T3 in 0C secon temperature e T3 in 0C at
N No second
in 0C at interval d T2 in 0C interval of
o
of 30 sec. 30 sec t
t
1. 70 0 1. 0
2. 30 2. 30
3. 60 3. 60
4. 90 4. 90
5. 120 5. 120
6. 150 6. 150
7. 180 7. 180
8. 240 8. 240
9. 270 9. 270
10
300 10. 300
.
11 330 11 330
105
CALCULATION:
Specimen material : Copper
Thermal conductivity of copper, k=386 W/m0k.
Coefficient of thermal expansion a=17.7x10-6/0C
64
Specimen diameter, d=30mm

Specimen length, l=30mm
Characteristic length for cylinder L= d/2
hL
Biot number Bi=
k
t
Fourier number Fo=
L2
Tmax  Tmin
Mean temperature = T
2
In case of cooling
Tmax=specimen temperature just after the hot oil both
Tmin= atmosperic temperature
In case of heating
Tmax=hot oil temperature
Tmin= specimen temperature before inserting into oil both
T - T
 eBi... X .. Fo
T0 - T
Where
T= temperature of the specimen at time interval of ‘t’ sec
Ta= atmospheric temperature in 0C
Ts=specimen temperature
In case of cooling
Ta= atmospheric temperature
Ts= specimen temperatur
In case of heating
Ta= Specimen temperature
Ts= hot oil temperature
65
Obtain the temperature at any desired interval of the time

Plot the graph of temperature difference V/S time for heating and cooling
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Keep the dimmer stat to zero before starting the experiment.
2. Operate the stop watch carefully.
3. Use the selector switch knob and dimmer knob gently.
RESULT:
The specimen temperature at an interval of time by practical and by theoretical
methods and observe the heating and cooling curves of unsteady state is observed.
66
EXPERIMENT NO-9
STEFAN BOLTZMANN APPARATUS
AIM:
To determine the value of Stefan Boltzmann constant for radiation heat transfer.
THEORY:
Stefan Boltzmann law states that the total emissive power of a perfect black
body is proportional to fourth power of the absolute temperature of black body
surface
Eb = σT4
Where, σ = Stefan Boltzmann constant = 5.6697 x 10 -8 W/ (m² K4)
DESCRIPTION:
The apparatus consists of a flanged copper hemisphere fixed on a flat non-
conducting plate. A test disc made of copper is fixed to the plate. Thus the test disc
is completely enclosed by the hemisphere. The outer surface of the hemisphere is
enclosed in a vertical water jacket used to heat the hemisphere to a suitable
constant temperature. Three Cr-Al thermocouples are attached at three strategic
places on the surface of the hemisphere to obtain the temperatures. The disc is
mounted on an ebonite rod which is fitted in a hole drilled at the center of the base
plate. Another Cr-Al thermocouple is fixed to the disc to record its temperature.
Fill the water in the SS water container with immersion heater kept on top of the
panel.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Specimen material : Copper
Size of the disc :  20mm x 0.5mm thickness
Base Plate :  250mm x 12mm thickness (hylam)
Heater : 1.5 kW capacity, immersion type
Copper Bowl :  200mm

Digital temperature indicator : 0 -199.9° C
Thermocouples used : 3 nos. on hemisphere
Stop Watch : Digital type
Overhead Tank : SS, approx. 3 liter capacity
Water Jacket :  230 mm, SS
Mass of specimen, ‘m’ : 5 gm
PROCEDURE:
1. Remove the test disc before starting the experiment.
2. Heat the water in the SS container to its boiling point.
67
3. Allow the boiling water into the container kept at the bottom containing
copper hemisphere until it is full. Allow sufficient time to attain thermal
equilibrium which is indicated by the four thermocouples provided on the
hemisphere.
4. Insert the test disc fixed on the ebonite rod sleeve completely inside and lock
it. Start the stop clock simultaneously.
5. Note down the temperature of the test disc at an interval of about 15 sec for
about 15 to 20 minutes.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Let Td = Temperature of the disc before inserting into the plate in K
Thermocouple Temperature of the

Copper hemisphere °
C
T1
T2
T3
Temperature – time response of test disc:

Time t sec Temperature T4 ° C
(Disc temp)
FORMULAE:
1. Plot the graph of temperature of the disc v/s time to obtain the slope (dT/dt) of
the line, which passes through/nearer to all points.
2. Average temperature of the hemisphere
68
Tavg = T1+T2+T3 + 273.15 K

3
3. Td = Temperature of the disc before inserting to test chamber º K (ambient)
4. Rate of change of heat capacity of the disc = m Cp dT
dt
Net energy radiated on the disc = σ Ad (T4avg – T4d)

Where, Ad = area of the disc = πd² m2
d = 20 mm 4
Cp = specific heat of copper = 0.38 kJ/kg–K
Rate of change of heat capacity of the disc = Net energy radiated on the disc
m Cp dT = σ Ad (T4avg – T4d)
dt
Thus ‘σ’ can be evaluated as shown

m Cp dT
dt
σ =
Ad (T4avg – T4d)
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Never switch on main power supply before ensuring that all on/off switches
given on the panel are at off position
2.
2. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 or above 200 volts.
RESULT:
69
SAMPLE CALCULATION:
Thermocouple Temperature of the

Copper hemisphere °
C
T1 35
T2 35.2
T3 35.1
Temperature – time response of test disc:
Time t sec Temperature T4 Time t sec Temperature

°C T4 ° C
(Disc temp) (Disc temp)
0 30.4 270 32.1
30 30.7 300 32.2
60 30.9 330 32.3
90 31.1 360 32.4
120 31.3 390 32.9
150 31.4
180 31.6
210 31.9
240 32
3. Average temperature of the hemisphere
Tavg = 35+35.2+35.1 + 273.15 K

3
=308.25K
70
Td = Temperature of the disc before inserting to test chamber º K (ambient)

dT/ dt=5.36
Td= 29.9+273.15
303.05k
4. Rate of change of heat capacity of the disc = m Cp dT
dt
-3
=5x10 x 0.38x5.36
=0.0101
Net energy radiated on the disc = σ Ad (T4avg – T4d)

Where, Ad = area of the disc = πd² m2
d = 20 mm 4
Cp = specific heat of copper = 0.38 kJ/kg–K
Rate of change of heat capacity of the disc = Net energy radiated on the disc
m Cp dT = σ Ad (T4avg – T4d)
dt
Thus ‘σ’ can be evaluated as shown
m Cp dT/ dt
σ =
Ad (T4avg – T4d)
= 0.01018
3.14X10-4(308.25)4-(303.08)4
=5.46X10-8 W/M2K4
COMMENTS:
Do’s
Don’ts
71
EXPERIMENT NO-10
EMISSIVITY MEASUREMENT OF RADIATING SURFACES
AIM:
To determine the emissivity of gray surface.
THEORY:
Any hot body maintained by a constant heat source, loses heat to surroundings
by conduction, convection and radiation. If two bodies made of same geometry
are heated under identical conditions, the heat loss by conduction and
convection can be assumed same for both the bodies, when the difference in
temperatures between these two bodies is not high. In such a case, when one
body is black & the other body is gray from the values of different surface
temperatures of the two bodies maintained by a constant power source
emissivity can be calculated. The heat loss by radiation depends on:
a) Characteristic of the material
b) Geometry of the surface and
c) Temperature of the surface
The heat loss by radiation when one body is completely enclosed by the other
body is given by
Q= σ A1 (T41 –T4 2)
1
1 + A1 1 – 1
ε1 A2 ε2
If a body is losing heat to the surrounding atmosphere, then the area of

atmosphere A2 >> area of body A1. Thus if any body is loosing heat by radiation to
the surrounding atmosphere equation (1) takes the form.
Q = σ A1 ε (T41 – T42)
Where, σ = Stefan Boltzmann constant = 5.6697 x 10-8 W/m² K4

A1 = Surface area in m²
ε = Emissivity
T1 = surface temperature of the body in K and
T2 = surrounding atmospheric temperature in K
72
Let us consider a black body & a gray body with identical geometry being
heated under identical conditions, assuming conduction & convection heat loss to
remain the same. Let Qb and Qg be the heat supplied to black & gray bodies
respectively.
If heat input to both the bodies are same,

Qb = Q g
Assuming, heat loss by conduction and convection from both bodies to remain
same.
Heat loss by radiation by the black body = heat loss by radiation by the gray body
σ x Ab x εb x (T4b –T4 a) = σ x Ag x εg x (T4 –T
g
4
)a
As geometry of two bodies are identical,

A = Ag = Ab and εb = 1 for black body.
Therefore, εg = (T4b –T4 a)

(T4g –T4a)
Where,
Suffix ‘b’ stands for black body,
Suffix ‘g’ stands for gray body,
Suffix ‘a’ stands for ambient.
DESCRIPTION:
The experimental set up consists of two circular brass plates of identical
dimensions. One of the plates is made black by applying a thick layer of lamp black
while the other plate whose emissivity is to be measured is a gray body. Heating
coils are provided at the bottom of the plates. The plates are mounted on asbestos
cement sheet and kept in an enclosure to provide undisturbed natural convection
condition. Three thermocouples are mounted on each plate to measure the average
temperature. One thermocouple is in the chamber to measure the ambient
temperature or chamber air temperature. The heat input can be varied with the help
of variac for both the plates that can be measured using digital volt and ammeter.
73
SPECIFICATIONS:
Specimen material : Brass
Specimen Size :  150 mm, 6 mm thickness ( gray & black body )
Voltmeter : Digital type, 0-300v
Ammeter : Digital type, 0-3 amps
Dimmerstat : 0-240 V, 2 amps
Temperature Indicator : Digital type, 0-300°C, K type
Thermocouple Used : 7 nos.
Heater : Sand witched type Nichrome heater, 400 W
PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the electric mains.
2. Operate the dimmer stat very slowly and give same power input to both the
heaters Say 50 V by using/operating cam switches provided.
3. When steady state is reached note down the temperatures T1 to T7 by rotating
the temperature selection switch.
4. Also note down the volt & ammeter reading
5. Repeat the experiment for different heat inputs.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sl. Temperature of Temperature of Chamber

No. Heater input black surface °C gray surface °C Temperature
°C
VxI
V I Watts T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7
FORMULAE:
1. Temperature of the black body
Tb = (T1 + T2 + T3) + 273 .15 K

3
2. Temperature of the gray body
74
Tg = (T4 + T5 + T6) + 273 .15 K

3
3. Ambient temperature
Ta = (T7 + 273.15) K
4. Heat input to the coils = V x I watt
5. Emissivity of gray body,
εg = (T4b –T4 a)
(T4g –T4a)
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Never switch on main power supply before ensuring that all on/off
switches given on the panel are at off position
2.
2. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 or above 200
volts.
RESULT:
75
SAMPLE CALCULATION:
Sl. Temperature of Temperature Chamber

No. Heater input black surface °C of gray surface Temperature
°C °C
VxI
V I Watts T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7
61 0.26 15 57 57 57 64 63 63 31
1
1. Temperature of the black body
Tb = 57+57+57 + 273 .15 K

3
=330.1K
2. Temperature of the gray body
Tg = 64+63+63 + 273 .15 K

3
=336.48K
3. Ambient temperature
Tb = (31 + 273.15) K=304.15K

Tg = (32 + 273.15) K=305.15K
4. Heat input to the coils = V x I watt

60X0.26=15W
5. Emissivity of gray body,
εg = 4
(330.15) -(304.15 )
4
4
(336.48) – (305.15)4
εg = 0.8119
76
COMMENTS:
Do’s
1. Before switching ON the unit makes sure that the Variac knob
in Zero position
Don’ts

77
EXPERIMENT NO-11
STUDIES ON SINGLE EFFECT EVAPORATORS
AIM
To study the effect of the pressure of the heating steam upon the rate of
evaporation of water and to determine the steam economy of the system.
THEORY
An evaporator is a unit operation that is typically used to concentrate a solution
by evaporating some of the solvent. In most cases, the solvent is water. To
achieve temperatures above the boiling point of the solvent, steam is often used
for heating purposes. Evaporation can take place at atmospheric pressure or
under vacuum. When vacuum is present, the temperature at which the solvent
will boil and evaporate is significantly less than at atmospheric pressure, which
makes evaporation easier and faster. The pressure of the steam used for
evaporation greatly affects the rate of evaporation; the higher the steam pressure
(hence higher the temperature) the more water can be evaporated over a given
length of time. The amount of water that has evaporated can readily be
calculated by a simple mass balance. It should be noted that when the
evaporation process occurs, it is assumed that only water is evaporating – any
solute is left in the concentrate.
The driving force for the evaporation process is the temperature difference, ΔT, between
the heating steam, Tsteam, and the boiling solution, Tliquid:
ΔT = Tsteam – Tliquid
This temperature difference can be increased by increasing the heating steam pressure
(hence, the steam temperature) and/or by reducing the temperature of the boiling solution
by applying a vacuum. Both Tsteam and Tliquid can be calculated from steam tables once
the pressure of the supplied steam or of the boiling solution are known.
78
PROCEDURE
1. Drain the evaporator and the condensate drum.

2. From the operator station, turn on the (service) condenser water.
3. Close all valves, except C and D as marked on the evaporator.
4. Open the cold water valve to fill the evaporator with water. The
evaporator is full when the water level is near the top of the sight glass on
the vapour-liquid separator.
5. Open the main steam valve at the operator station and then adjust the
steam pressure to 20 psig. This pressure will be constant throughout the
run.
6. Start timing the condensate collected when the solution has started
boiling. Boiling can be assessed two ways:
a. A constant solution temperature inside the evaporator. That temperature
should be close to 100°C, but not exactly there.
b. Water dripping from the condensate drum (provided that the solenoid
valve above the drum is open)
7. After 10 minutes, or when the water level has fallen to near the bottom of
the separator sight glass, whichever comes first, turn off the steam.
8. Collect the condensate in a weighed bucket
9. Collect the “concentrated product” (i.e. the remaining water in the
evaporator’s side)
10. Do one more run at a different heating steam pressure.
79
Run under vacuum
1. You can set the evaporator under vacuum by turning on the after-
condenser cooling water and then opening the after-condenser steam valve
at the operator’s station. When this valve is open, a vacuum of
approximately 5 in Hg can be applied to the system. Do that.
2. To fill the evaporator:
a. Use a big tank and fill it up with approximately 30 liters of water (use the
scale to measure exactly how much water you added to the tank).
b. Since the system is under vacuum, the outlet hose can be used to suck the
water into the evaporator. Do that and fill the evaporator with enough
water (near to the top of the sight glass).
c. Close the suction hose valve and weigh the tank with any remaining
water.
d. The difference between the weight of the tank before and after gives the
amount of water into the evaporator.
3. Turn on the heating steam and adjust to 25 psi. After-condenser steam and
heating steam come from the same pipe so adjust both as necessary to
keep the vacuum constant and the heating steam pressure constant.
4. Complete the run as before, but note that:
a. You will probably see no condensate flow as it all gets sucked into the
vacuum line.
b. Since there will be no condensate flow, assess the onset of boiling by
monitoring the water’s temperature.
c. Keep the process running for 10 minutes from the onset of boiling.
80
5. At the end of the run, shut the vacuum off and collect and weigh the water
remaining into the evaporator.
CALICULATIONS
 Calculate the evaporation rate for all runs.

 The evaporation rate is (kg water evaporated)/(evaporation time).
 Plot the evaporation rate versus ΔT (temperature difference between
steam and boiling water) for each run (one point for each run; put all three
points on the same graph). Comment on the relationship between
evaporation rate and ΔT.
 To calculate ΔT consider as steam temperature the boiling point of water
at the steam pressure and as the boiling water temperature the boiling
point of water at the system’s pressure.
 Calculate the steam economy (see notes below) for all runs and comment
on the results.
Steam Economy Calculation
In an evaporator, when the water boils and converts to steam, there is the
potential to use this steam in a secondary evaporator to further concentrate a
solution. This set up is quite common in industry; even introducing a 3rd
evaporator in series can be employed. The goal is to increase the steam
economy of the evaporator system. The steam economy is defined as the ratio
between the solvent evaporated vs. the steam introduced into the system. For a
single evaporator, the steam economy is typically 60 – 80%; when 2 or 3
evaporators are in series, the steam economy can approach 200%.
81
Where:
 Z = mass of steam used

 E = mass of water evaporated
To calculate steam economy using equation (1) above, a mass balance and
energy balance are required. Here the mass balance considers feed, product and
water evaporated;
Where:
 F = mass of feed (water fed into the evaporator)

 P = mass of product (water left into the evaporator that did not evaporate)
 E = mass of water evaporated (collected as condensate)
Along with the mass balance, an energy balance must be done. This states that
the energy provided by the steam is used for heating-up all the water to its
boiling point and for evaporating E kilograms of water.
82
Here,
 ΔHsteam is the enthalpy (energy) provided by 1 kilogram of steam.
It can be calculated as where the specific enthalpy values

can be found in the course Tables at the steam’s pressure.
 ΔHevaporation is the enthalpy (energy) required for evaporation of 1
kg of water. It can be calculated as where the specific

enthalpy values can be found in the course Tables at the system’s
pressure.
 Cp specific heat capacity of liquid water. Assumed constant at 4.18
kJ/(kg °C).
 Tboiling boiling temperature of water. It depends on the system’s
perssure
 Twater,in inflow temperature of water. It may be assumed constant
at 16°C.
RESULT:

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4

GODAVARI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS AS PER THE SYLLABUS

2 2 Determination of thermal conductivity of a metal rod. 15

3 3 Determination of natural convective heat transfer coefficient for 20

4 4 Determination of critical heat flux point for pool boiling of 28

5 5 Determination of forced convective heat transfer coefficient for 33

7 7 Study of the temperature distribution along the length of a pin- (a)49

8 8 Estimation of un-steady state film heat transfer coefficient 61

9 9 Determination of Stefan – Boltzmann constant. 66

10 10 Determination of emissivity of a given plate at various 71

Studies on single effect evaporator

[PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER LAB]

2 Thermal conductivity of metal rod apparatus

3 Heat transfer by natural convection apparatus

4 Determination of critical heat flux point for pool boiling of water.

5 Determination of forced convective heat transfer coefficient for air

flowing through a pipe.

6 Determination of overall heat transfer coefficient in double pipe heat

7 Study of the temperature distribution along the length of a pin-fin

under natural and forced convection conditions

8 Estimation of un-steady state film heat transfer coefficient between

the medium in which the body is cooled.

9 Stefan Boltzmann apparatus

10 Determination of emissivity of a given plate at various temperatures.

11 Studies on single effect evaporator

[PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER LAB]

COMPOSITE WALL APPARATUS

1. Slab assembly arranged symmetrically on both sides of the Heater.

[PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER LAB]

4. Thermal Resistance of Slab ( R )

R = (TA) + ( TD ) ................ °C/W

[PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER LAB]

Where “t” is thickness of slab

i) Keep the dimmer stat to zero before starting the experiment.

[PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER LAB]

5. Average temperature of wood TD =

[PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER LAB]

1. Do not go above 150 voltage

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF METAL ROD

DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS:

[PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER LAB]

Cylindrical shell : 300mm long

Voltmeter : Digital type, 0-300volt, AC

[PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER LAB]

- k x A x dT/dx = mf Cp (T11 – T10)

where, ‘k’ = thermal conductivity of metal rod, (W/m-K)

i) Keep the dimmer stat to zero before starting the experiment.

[PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER LAB]

Where, ‘k’ = thermal conductivity of metal rod, (W/m-K)

-k = mwCp (T11 – T10)

[PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER LAB]

1. Do not go above 150 voltage

[PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER LAB]

HEAT TRANSFER BY NATURAL CONVECTION

Nu = 0.53 (Gr. Pr)1/4 for GrPr<105

Nu = 0.56 (Gr x Pr) 1/4 for 105< GrPr <108

Nu = 0.13 (Gr x Pr) 1/3 for 108 < GrPr<1012

Where, Nu = Nusselt number = hL/K

Pr = Prandtl number = (µcp) / K