SRI VENKATESWARA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY
(AUTONOMOUS)
R. V. S. NAGAR, CHITTOOR-517127
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

HEAT TRANSFER LAB

OBSERVATON

Name of the student: _____________________________

Roll Number: ______________ Branch: ______________
Name of the Laboratory: __________________________
Year & Sem: _______________ Academic Year: _______

1
 SRI VENKATESWARA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
(AUTONOMOUS) R.V.S NAGAR, CHITTOOR-517 127
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

HEAT TRANSFER LAB MANUAL

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. Composite wall apparatus

2. Critical heat flux apparatus

3. Heat transfer in drop and film wise condensation apparatus

4. Emissivity measurement of radiating surfaces apparatus

5. Heat transfer by forced convection apparatus

6. Heat pipe demonstration apparatus

7. Thermal conductivity of insulating powder apparatus

8. Lagged pipe apparatus

9. Heat transfer by natural convection apparatus

10. Parallel flow/counter flow heat exchanger apparatus

11. Heat transfer from pin-fin apparatus

12. Stefan Boltzmann apparatus

13. Thermal conductivity of metal rod apparatus

14. Study of two phase flow apparatus

15. Experiment on Transient heat conduction apparatus

2
 INDEX
S.No: Date Name of the Experiment Page No: Signature of the
Faculty
1

10

11

12

13

14

15

3
Date:
Exp No:

COMPOSITE WALL APPARATUS

AIM:
To find out total thermal resistance and total thermal conductivity of
composite wall.

DESCRIPTION:

The apparatus consists of central heater sandwiched between the slabs of

MS, Asbestos and Wood, which forms composite structure. The whole structure is
well tightened make perfect contact between the slabs. A dimmer stat is provided
to vary heat input of heaters and it is measured by a digital volt meter and
ammeter. Thermocouples are embedded between interfaces of slabs. A digital
temperature indicator is provided to measure temperature at various points.

SPECIFICATION:

1. Slab assembly arranged symmetrically on both sides of the Heater.

2. Heater coil type of 250-Watt capacity.
3. Dimmer stat open type, 230V, 0-5 amp, single phase.
4. Volt meter range 0-270V
5. Ammeter range 0-20A
6. Digital temperature indicator range 0-8000 c
7. Thermocouple used: Teflon coated, Chromal - Alumal
8. Slab diameter of each =150 mm.
9. Thickness of mild steel = 10 mm.
10. Thickness of Asbestos = 6 mm.
11. Thickness of wood= 10 mm.
PROCEDURE:

1. Start the main switch.

4
 2. By adjusting the dimmer knob give heat input to heater. (Say 60V).
3. Wait for about 20 -30 min. approximately to reach steady state.
4. Take the readings of all (8) thermocouples.
5. Tabulate the readings in observation table.
6. Make dimmer knob to “zero” position and then put main switch off.
7. Repeat the procedure for different heat input.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sl. V I T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
No Volts amps °C °C °C °C °C °C °C °C
1.

2.

3.

FORMULAE:
VX I
1. Heat input Q  Watts …………………..
2
5
 T1 + T8
TWood  °C……………….
2
T +T
T Asbestos  2 7 °C……………..
2
T +T
T Mild steel  3 6 °C………………
2
T +T
T Heater  4 5 °C ……………………..
2
2. Area of Slab
d2 2
A m (Where “d” is diameter of slab= 300 mm)
4
3. Thermal Resistance of Slab ( R )
T -T
R  heater wood °C/W
Q
4. Thermal Conductivity ( K )
Qxt W
K (Where “t” is total thickness of slab=26mm)
A(T heater - T wood ) m  k

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Keep the dimmer stat to zero before starting the experiment.
2. While removing plates do not disturb thermocouples.
3. Use the selector switch knob and dimmer knob gently.
RESULT:

1. Total thermal resistance of composite wall =……………………..

2. Total thermal conductivity of composite wall=……………………

6
Date:

Exp No:

CRITICAL HEAT FLUX APPARATUS

AIM:

To study the phenomenon of the boiling heat transfer and to plot the graph
of heat flux versus temperature difference.

APPARATUS:

It consists of a cylindrical glass container, the test heater and a heater coil
for initial heating of water in the container. This heater coil is directly connected to
the mains and the test heater is also connected to the mains via a Dimmer stat and
an ammeter is connected in series to the current while a voltmeter across it to read
the voltage.
The glass container is kept on the table. The test heater wire can be viewed
through a magnifying lens. Figure enclosed shows the set up.

SPECIFICATIONS:
1. Length of Nichrome wire L = 52 mm
2. Diameter of Nichrome wire D = 0.25 mm (33 gauge)
3. Distilled water quantity = 4 liters
4. Thermometer range : 0 – 100 0C
5. Heating coil capacity (bulk water heater ) : 2 kW
6. Dimmer stat
7. Ammeter
8. Voltmeter

7
THEORY:
When heat is added to a liquid surface from a submerged solid surface
which is at a temperature higher than the saturation temperature of the liquid, it is
usual that a part of the liquid to change phase. This change of phase is called
‘boiling’. If the liquid is not flowing and present in container, the type of boiling is
called as ‘pool boiling’. Pool boiling is also being of various types depending upon
the temperature difference between the surfaces of liquid. The different types of
zones are as shown in the figure A. The heat flux supplied to the surface is plotted
against (Tw - Ts) where Ts is the temperature of the submerged solid and ‘Tw’ is the
saturation temperature of the liquid at exposed pressure. The boiling curve can be
divided into three regions:
I. Natural convection region
II. Nucleate boiling region
III. Film boiling region

Figure A TYPICAL POOL BOILING CURVE

As temperature difference (Tw - Ts) is very small (10C or so), the liquid near
to the surface gets slightly superheated and rises up to the surface. The heat
8
transfer from the heating surface to the liquid is similar to that by natural
convection and hence this region is called ‘natural convection region’.
When (Tw - Ts) becomes a few degrees, vapor bubble start forming at some
discrete locations of the heating surface and we enter into ‘Nucleate boiling
region’. Region II consists of two parts. In the first part, the bubbles formed are
very few in number and before reaching the top liquid surface, they get condensed.
In second part, the rate of bubble formation as well as the locations where they are
formed increases with increase in temperature difference. A stage is finally reached
when the rate of formation of bubbles is so high that they start coalesce and blanket
the surface with a vapor film. This is the beginning of region III since the vapor
has got very low thermal conductivity, the formation of vapor film on the heating
surface suddenly increases the temperature beyond the melting point of the
submerged surface and as such the end of ‘Nucleate boiling’ is important and its
limiting condition is known as critical heat flux point or burn out point.
The pool boiling phenomenon up to critical heat flux point can be visualized
and studied with the help of apparatus described above.
PROCEDURE:
1. Distilled water of about 5 liters is taken into the glass container.
2. The test heater (Nichrome wire) is connected across the studs and electrical
connections are made.
3. The heaters are kept in submerged position.
4. The bulk water is switched on and kept on, until the required bulk temperature
of water is obtained. (Say 400 C )
5. The bulk water heater coil is switched off and test heater coil is switched on.
6. The boiling phenomenon on wire is observed as power input to the test heater
coil is varied gradually.
7. The voltage is increased further and a point is reached when wire breaks
(melts) and at this point voltage and current are noted.
8. The experiment is repeated for different values of bulk temperature of water.
(Say 600 C, and 800 C).

9
 OBSERVATION TABLE:

Bulk water Specimen Voltage Current

Heat Input Critical heat
Sl. Temperature temperatur ‘V’ ‘I’
‘Q’ Flux q = Q/A
No in 0C e in 0C in in
in watt In W/m2
‘T w’ ‘Ts’ Volt Amps
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
10
MODEL CALCUALATIONS:
a. Area of Nichrome wire A = π x D x L =
b. Heater input Q = V x I =
c. Critical heat flux q = Q/A =

PRECAUTIONS:
1. All the switches and Dimmer stat knob should be operated gently.
2. When the experiment is over, bring the Dimmer stat to zero position.
3. Run the equipment once in a week for better performance.
4. Do not switch on heaters unless distilled water is present in the container.

RESULT:

The phenomenon of the boiling heat transfer is studied and plotted the graph
of the heat flux versus temperature difference and critical heat flux is calculated.

Critical heat flux q=-------------

11
Date:
Exp No:

HEAT TRANSFER IN DROP AND FILM WISE CONDENSATION

AIM:
To determine the experimental and theoretical heat transfer coefficient for
drop wise and film wise condensation.

INTRODUCTION:

Condensation of vapor is needed in many of the processes, like steam

condensers, refrigeration etc. When vapor comes in contact with surface having
temperature lower than saturation temperature, condensation occurs. When the
condensate formed wets the surface, a film is formed over surface and the
condensation is film wise condensation. When condensate does not wet the
surface, drops are formed over the surface and condensation is drop wise
condensation

APPARATUS:
The apparatus consists of two condensers, which are fitted inside a glass
cylinder, which is clamped between two flanges. Steam from steam generator
enters the cylinder through a separator. Water is circulated through the
condensers. One of the condensers is with natural surface finish to promote film
wise condensation and the other is chrome plated to create drop wise condensation.
Water flow is measured by a Rota meter. A digital temperature indicator measures
various temperatures. Steam pressure is measured by a pressure gauge. Thus heat
transfer coefficients in drop wise and film wise condensation cab be calculated.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Heater : Immersion type, capacity 2kW
Voltmeter : Digital type, Range 0-300v
Ammeter : Digital type, Range 0-20 amps
Dimmer stat : 0-240 V, 2 amps
Temperature Indicator : Digital type, 0-800°C

12
 Thermocouple Used : Teflon coated, Chromal - Alumal (Ch-Al)
Diameter of copper tube d=16 mm
Length of copper tube L= 300 mm
Maximum Capacity of boiler : 2kg/cm2
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

1. Fill up the water in the steam generator and close the water-filling valve.
2. Start water supply through the condensers.
3. Close the steam control valve, switch on the supply and start the heater.
4. After some time, steam will be generated. Close water flow through one of the
condensers.
5. Open steam control valve and allow steam to enter the cylinder and pressure
gauge will show some reading.
6. Open drain valve and ensure that air in the cylinder is expelled out.
7. Close the drain valve and observe the condensers.
8. Depending upon the condenser in operation, drop wise or film wise
condensation will be observed.
9. Wait for some time for steady state, and note down all the readings.
10. Repeat the procedure for the other condenser.
OBSERVATIONS:

Volume flow
Thermocouple readings
‘V’ ‘I’ rate of
(0C)
Volt Amp water, V
cc/min
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8

Water inlet temperature -T1

Copper tube surface temperature (Film wise condensation) -T2
Copper specimen chamber steam temperature - T3
Gold tube surface temperature (Drop wise condensation) -T4
Gold specimen chamber steam temperature - T5
Steam Inlet temperature - T6
Copper tube Water outlet temperature - T7
Gold tube Water outlet temperature - T8
13
CALCULATIONS:

(FILM WISE & DROP WISE CONDENSATION)

Water flow mw= kg/sec
o
Water inlet temperature = C
o
Water outlet temperature = C
(T8 for drop-wise condensation and T7 for film-wise condensation)
Heat carried away by the water,
Q= mw.cP. (T7 or 8 -T1) Watts
Q=………… Watts
Where cp = Specific heat of water = 4.2 x 103 J / Kg-K
Surface area of the condenser, A =πdL m2
Q o
Experimental heat transfer coefficient, h  W / m2 C
A(Ts  Tw )

(for both film wise and drop wise condensation)

Where Ts = Temperature of steam (T3 or T5)
TW = Condenser wall temperature (T2 or T4)
Theoretically, for film wise condensation
0.25
 h fg . 2 .g.k 3 
h  0.943 
 (Ts  Tw )..L 

Where
hfg = Latent heat of steam at TS J/kg
(Take from temperature tables in steam tables)
ρ = Density of water, Kg / m3
g = Gravitational acceleration, m / sec2
k = Thermal conductivity of water W / mo C
μ = Viscosity of water, N.s/m2
L = Length of condenser = 0.15 m
(Ts  TW )
Above values at mean temperature, Tm  o
C (from data book)
2

14
 (For drop wise condensation, determine experimental heat transfer
coefficient only) In film wise condensation, film of water acts as barrier to heat
transfer whereas, in case of drop formation, there is no barrier to heat transfer,
Hence heat transfer coefficient in drop wise condensation is much greater than film
wise condensation, and is preferred for condensation. But practically, it is difficult
to prolong the drop wise condensation and after a period of condensation the
surface becomes wetted by the liquid. Hence slowly film wise condensation starts.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Operate all the switches and controls gently
2. Never allow steam to enter the cylinder unless the water is flowing through
condenser.
3. Always ensure that the equipment is earthed properly before switching on the
supply.

RESULTS:

Thus we studied and compared the drop wise and film wise condensation.
1. Film wise condensation:
Experimental average heat transfer coefficient =
Theoretical average heat transfer coefficient =
2. Drop wise condensation:
Experimental average heat transfer coefficient =
Theoretical average heat transfer coefficient =

15
Date:
Exp No:

EMISSIVITY MEASUREMENT OF RADIATING SURFACES

AIM:

To determine the emissivity of given test plate surface.

THEORY:
Any hot body maintained by a constant heat source, loses heat to
surroundings by conduction, convection and radiation. If two bodies made of same
geometry are heated under identical conditions, the heat loss by conduction and
convection can be assumed same for both the bodies, when the difference in
temperatures between these two bodies is not high. In such a case, when one body
is black & the other body is gray from the values of different surface temperatures
of the two bodies maintained by a constant power source emissivity can be
calculated. The heat loss by radiation depends on
a) Characteristic of the material
b) Geometry of the surface and
c) Temperature of the surface
The heat loss by radiation when one body is completely enclosed by the other
body is given by

A1 (T1 4  T2 4 )
Q
1 A1  1 
   1
 A2   2 
If a body is losing heat to the surrounding atmosphere, then the area of
atmosphere A2 >> area of body A1. Thus if anybody is losing heat by radiation to
the surrounding atmosphere equation (1) takes the form.
Q  A1 (T1  T2 )
4 4

Where
σ = Stefan Boltzmannn constant = 5.6697 x 10-8 W/m² K4
A1 = Surface area in m²
ε = Emissivity
16
 T1 = surface temperature of the body in K and
T2 = surrounding atmospheric temperature in K
Let us consider a black body & a gray body with identical geometry being
heated under identical conditions, assuming conduction & convection heat loss to
remain the same.
Let Qb and Qg be the heat supplied to black & gray bodies respectively. If
heat input to both the bodies are same,
Qb = Q g
Assuming, heat loss by conduction and convection from both bodies to
remain same.

Heat loss by radiation by the black body = Heat loss by radiation by the gray body

Ab b (Tb 4  Ta 4 ) = Ag  g (Tg  Ta )

4 4

As geometry of two bodies are identical A = Ag = Ab and εb = 1 for black body.

(Tb  Ta )
4 4

Therefore, εg =
(Tg  Ta )
4 4

Where
Suffix ‘b’ stands for black body,
Suffix ‘g’ stands for gray body,
Suffix ‘c’ stands for chamber.

DESCRIPTION:
The experimental set up consists of two circular aluminium plates of
identical dimensions. One of the plates is made black by applying a thick layer of
lamp black while the other plate whose emissivity is to be measured is a gray body.
Heating coils are provided at the bottom of the plates. The plates are mounted on
asbestos cement sheet and kept in an enclosure to provide undisturbed natural
convection condition. Three thermocouples are mounted on each plate to measure
the average temperature. One thermocouple is in the chamber to measure the
ambient temperature or chamber air temperature. The heat input can be varied with

17
the help of variac for both the plates , that can be measured using digital volt and
ammeter.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Specimen material : Aluminum
Specimen Size :  150 mm, 10 mm thickness (gray & black body)
Voltmeter : Digital type, 0-300v
Ammeter : Digital type, 0-3 amps
Dimmer stat : 0-240 V, 2 amps
Temperature Indicator : Digital type, 0-300°C, K type
Thermocouple Used : 7 nos.
Heater : Sand witched type Nichrome heater, 400 W
PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the electric mains.
2. Operate the dimmer stat very slowly and give same power input to both the
heater Say 60 V by using (or) operating cam switches provided panel.
3. When steady state is reached note down the temperatures T 1 to T7 by rotating
the temperature selection switch gently.
4. Also note down the volt & ammeter reading
5. Repeat the experiment for different heat inputs.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Chamber
Temperature of black Temperature of gray
Heater input Temp
Sl. surface °C surface °C
°C
No.
V I T1 T2 T3 T5 T6 T7 T4

1.

2.

3.

18
SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS:

(T1  T2  T3 )
1. Temperature of the black body Tb = + 273 .15 K
3
(T5  T6  T7 )
2. Temperature of the gray body Tg = + 273 .15 K
3

3. Temperature of the Chamber Tc = (T7 + 273.15) K

4. Heat input to the coils Q = V x I watt

 (Tb 4  TC 4 ) 
5. Emissivity of gray body εg = εb  4 

4
 (
 gT TC ) 
Result:
Emissivity of the black body is greater than gray body.
The emissivity of the test plate (gray body) surface is determined =………………..

19
Date:
Exp No:

HEAT TRANSFER BY FORCED CONVECTION

AIM:
To determine the convective heat transfer coefficient and the rate of heat
transfer by forced convection for flow of air inside a horizontal pipe.

THEORY:
Convective heat transfer between a fluid and a solid surface takes place by
the movement of fluid particles relative to the surface. If the movement of fluid
particles is caused by means of external agency such as pump or blower that forces
fluid over the surface, then the process of heat transfer is called forced convection.

In convectional heat transfer, there are two flow regions namely laminar &
turbulent. The non-dimensional number called Reynolds number is used as the
criterion to determine change from laminar to turbulent flow. For smaller value of
Reynolds number viscous forces are dominant and the flow is laminar and for
larger value of Reynolds numbers the inertia forces become dominant and the flow
is turbulent. Dittus –Boelter correlation for fully developed turbulent flow in
circular pipes is,

Nu = 0.023 (Re) 0.8 (Pr) n (from data book)

Where
n = 0.4 for heating of fluid
n = 0.3 for cooling of fluid
hd
Nusselt number= Nu =
k
Vd
Re = Reynolds Number =

C P
Pr = Prandtl Number =
k
DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS:

The apparatus consists of a blower to supply air. The air from the blower
passes through a flow passage, heater and then to the test section. Air flow is
20
measured by an orifice meter placed near the test section. A heater placed around
the tube heats the air, heat input is controlled by a dimmer stat. Temperature of the
air at inlet and at outlet are measured using thermocouples. The surface
temperature of the tube wall is measured at different sections using thermocouples
embedded in the walls. Test section is enclosed in a asbestos rope where the
circulation of rope is avoid the heat loss to outside.

PROCEDURE:
1. Start the blower after keeping the valve open, at desired rate.
2. Put on the heater and adjust the voltage to a desired value and maintain it as
constant
3. Allow the system to stabilize and reach a steady state.
4. Note down all the temperatures T1 to T7, voltmeter and ammeter readings, and
manometer readings.
5. Repeat the experiment for different heat input and flow rates.

SPECIFICATIONS:

Specimen : Copper Tube

Size of the Specimen : I.D. 25mm x 300mm long
Heater : Externally heated, Nichrome wire Band Heater
Ammeter : Digital type, 0-20amps, AC
Voltmeter : Digital type, 0-300volts, AC

21
 Dimmer stat for heating Coil : 0-230v, 2amps
Thermocouple Used : 7 nos.
Centrifugal Blower : Single Phase 230v, 50 hz, 3000rpm
Manometer : U-tube with water as working fluid
Orifice diameter, ‘d2’ : 20 mm
G. I pipe diameter, ‘d1’ : 40 mm
Coefficient of discharge : 0.62
Length of the tube : 500 mm

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Heater input Q Diff. in

Air temp. °C Tube surface Temperature °C
(Watts) Mano
Sl.
meter
No V I Inlet Outlet
V X I reading T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
volt amp T1 T7
hm mm
1.

2.

3.

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

Method -I:
Q
1. Velocity of the air in the tube Va 
a1
C d a1a2 2 ghm
Discharge of the air in the tube Q
a12  a22
Where
Coefficient of discharge Cd= 0.62
 2
Area of GI pipe a1  d1 →d1 is diameter of the GI pipe = 40mm.
4
 2
Area of Orifice a2  d 2 →d2 is diameter of the Orifice = 20mm.
4
hm Differential manometer reading .
Th + Ts
2. Properties of air are taken at temperature T f 
2

22
 T2 + T3  T4 + T5
Average surface temperature of the tube Th 
4
T1  T6
Mean temperature of air Ts 
2
Va d 1
3. Reynolds Number Re 

(  KinematicVis cos ity From data book at Tf)
4. Nusselt number Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Pr0.3
(Pr= Prandtl number from data book at Tf)
hd1
5. Nusselt number Nu =
k
Nu k
6. Forced convective heat transfer co-efficient h  W/m² - K
d1
(k= thermal conductivity from data book at Tf)
Method -II:

From Newton’s Law of Cooling:

1. Rate of heat transfer Q  hA(Th - Ts )

Where
Amount of heat supplied Q = V X I Watts
Surface area of the pipe A   d1L
Q
Forced convective heat transfer co-efficient h  W/m² - K
 d1 L(Th - Ts )
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Never switch on main power supply before ensuring that all on/off switches
given on the panel are at off position
2. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 or above 200 volts.

RESULT:
The convective heat transfer coefficient and the rate of heat transfer by
forced convection for flow of air inside a horizontal pipe has been determined.

1. The convective heat transfer coefficient by forced convection h=………………

2. The rate of heat transfer by forced convection Q=………………………………..

23
Date:
Exp No:

HEAT PIPE DEMONSTRATION

AIM:

To compare the performance characteristics of a heat pipe with two other

geometrically similar pipes of copper and stainless steel.

THEORY:
The performance of heat pipes can be studied by measuring the temperature
distributed along the length of the pipe and heat transfer characteristics of each
pipe under steady state for each heat pipe.
Energy input to heater in time ∆t
Q=V X I ∆t
Heat transferred to water
Q w = Mw Cw (T final –T initial)
PROCEDURE:
1) Fill the known quantity (500ml) of water in three heat sinks and measure its
initial temperatures.
2) Switch on the mains and supply the same power input to each heater equipped
with three pipes.
3) Wait for steady state conditions, and note down the readings of thermocouples
connected to pipes.
4) Measure the final temperature of water in three heat sinks.
5) Repeat the experiment for different heat input.
SPECIFICATIONS
Standard heat pipe: A
Inside Diameter of the pipe = 24 mm
Outside Diameter of the pipe = 28 mm
Length of pipes = 300 mm.

24
OBSERVATION TABLES:
Quantity of the water in the out let-500ml
I. STAIN LESS STEEL PIPE

Readings of thermocouple Temperature of

Sl. Heat input
along pipe ◦C water 0C
No
V I T1 T2 T3 T4 inlet outlet
1.
2.
3.

II. COPPER PIPE

Readings of thermocouple Temperature of

SL Heat input
along pipe ◦C water 0C
No
V I T5 T6 T7 T8 inlet outlet
1.
2.
3.

III. HEAT PIPE

Readings of thermocouple Temperature of

SL Heat input
along pipe ◦C water 0C
No
V I T9 T10 T11 T12 inlet outlet
1.
2.
3.

25
MODEL CALCULATIONS:
1. Stain less steel Pipe
Energy input to heater in time ∆t
Q=V X I ∆t
Heat transferred to water,
Q w =Mw Cw (T final –T initial)

T1= ◦c T2= ◦c T3= ◦c T4= ◦c

2. Copper Pipe
Energy input to heater in time ∆t
Q=V X I ∆t
Heat transferred to water,
Q w =Mw Cw (T final –T initial)

T5= ◦c T6= ◦c T7= ◦c T8= ◦c

3. Standard heat Pipe

Energy input to heater in time ∆t
Q=V X I ∆t
Heat transferred to water,
Q w =Mw Cw (T final –T initial)
26
T9= ◦c T10= ◦c T11= ◦c T12= ◦c

RESULT:

The performance characteristics of a heat pipe with two other geometrically

similar pipes of copper and stainless steel has been determined.

27
Date:
Exp No:

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF INSULATING POWDER

AIM:
To determine the thermal conductivity of insulating powder at various heat
inputs.

THEORY:

FORIER LAW OF HEAT CONDUCTION:

A Materials having lower thermal conductivity are called insulators.

Examples for good conductors include all metals. While asbestos, magnesia, glass
wool etc., are some the examples for insulators.

The radial heat conduction for single hollow sphere transferring heat from
inside to outside is given by

4k .ri ro (Ti - To )

Q =
ro - ri

This law states that rate of heat flow through a surface is directly
proportional to the area normal to the surface and the temperature gradient across
the surface.
dT
Q 
dX

dT
Q = -kA
dX

Negative sign indicates that the heat flows from higher temperature to the
lower temperature. K is called the thermal conductivity.
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY:

This can be defined as the amount of heat that can flow per unit time across a
unit cross sectional area when the temperature gradient is unity. The units of
thermal conductivity are w/m-K. Materials having higher thermal conductivity are
called conductors while those

Where:

28
 Q = rate of heat transfer in watts = VXI
k = Thermal conductivity w/m-k

ri = radius of inner sphere in meters

ro = radius of outer sphere in meters

Ti =Temperature of the inner sphere

To =Temperature of the outer sphere

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS:

The apparatus consists of two concentric copper spheres. Heating coils is

provided in the inner sphere. The space between the inner and outer spheres are
filled by the insulating powder whose thermal conductivity is to be determined.
The power supply to the heating coils is adjusted by using dimmer stat. Chromel -
Alumel thermocouples are used to record the temperatures. Thermocouples 1 to 6
are embedded on the surface of inner sphere and 7 to 12 are embedded on the outer
shell surface.

SPECIFICATIONS:

1. Radius of inner sphere = 50mm

2. Radius of outer sphere = 100 mm
3. Voltmeter 0-300V & Ammeter 0-5amps.
4. Dimmer stat – 2 amps.
5. Temperature indicator 0-3000c

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the unit to an AC source 240 V 5amps and switch on the MCB.
2. Operate the dimmer stat slowly to increase the heat input to the heater and
adjust the voltage to any desired voltage (do not exceed 150V).
3. Maintain the same heat input throughout the experiment until the temperature
reaches a steady state.
29
 4. Note down the following readings provided in the Observation table.
5. Repeat the experiment for other heat inputs.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sl. Heat Input Inner Surface temp C Outer Surface temp C

No. V A T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11 T12
1.

2.

3.

T1  T2  T3  T4  T5  T6 O
Average Ti = C
6

T7  T8  T9  T10  T11  T12 O

Average To = C
6

Q ro - ri 
k = w /mK
4 ri ro (Ti - To )
GRAPH:

Plot the graph K vs Heat Input

PRECAUTIONS:
4. Keep the dimmer stat to zero before starting the experiment.
5. Take readings at study state condition only.
6. Use the selector switch knob and dimmer knob gently.
RESULT:

The thermal conductivity of insulating powder at various heat inputs has

been determined.

30
Date:
Exp No:

LAGGED PIPE
AIM
To determine thermal conductivity of different insulating materials, Overall heat
transfer coefficient of lagged pipe and thermal resistance.

APPARATUS
The apparatus consists of three concentric pipes mounted on suitable stand.
The hollow space of the innermost pipe consists of the heater. Between first two
cylinders the insulating material with which lagging is to be done is filled
compactly. Between second and third cylinders, another material used for lagging
is filled. The third cylinder is concentric to other outer cylinder. The
thermocouples are attached to the surface of cylinders appropriately to measure the
temperatures. The input to the heater is varied through a dimmerstat .
SPECIFICATIONS:
Diameter of heater rod dH= 20 mm
Diameter of heater rod with asbestos lagging d A= 40mm
Diameter of heater rod with asbestos and saw dust lagging d S=80mm
Effective length of the cylinder l= 500mm.

PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the unit and check if channels of temperature indicator showing
proper change temperature.
2. Switch on the heater using the regulator and keep the power input at some
particular value.
3. Allow the unit to stabilize for about 20 to 30 minutes
4. Now note down the ammeter reading, voltmeter reading, which gives the heat
input, temperatures 1,2,3 are the temperature of heater rod, 4,5,6 are the

31
 temperatures on the asbestos layer, 7 and 8 are the temperatures on the sawdust
lagging.
5. The average temperature of each cylinder is taken for calculation.
6. The temperatures are measured by thermocouple with multipoint digital
temperature indicator.
7. The experiment may repeat for different heat inputs.

OBSERVATIONS:
Sl. V I Heater Temp(TH) Asbestos Temp(TA) Sawdust Temp(TS)
Volt amps
No
. T1 T2 T3 (TH)Avg T4 T5 T6 (TA)Avg T7 T8 (TS)Avg

32
CALCULATIONS:
1. Mean readings
T1  T2  T3 o
T 
H Aveg 
3
C

T  T5  T6 o
T 
A Aveg  4
3
C

T  T8 o
T 
S Aveg
 7
2
C

2. Temperature difference
 T1= TH Aveg - TA Aveg

 T2= TH Aveg - TS 

Aveg

3. Heat flow Q=VI

4. Thermal conductivity of Asbestos lagging

Q ln (r2 / r1 )
k Asbestos  W / mK
2LT1

5. Thermal conductivity of Asbestos lagging

Q ln (r3 / r2 )
k Sawdust  W / mK
2LT2
 
 
1 1  W
6. Overall heat transfer coefficient U  r   1 r2 1
 2
r3   m k
1 
  k ln r  k ln r  
 1 1 2 2

T1
7. Thermal resistance of Asbestos RAsbestos  k /W
Q

T2
8. Thermal resistance of Sawdust RSawdust  k /W
Q

33
PRECAUTIONS:
1) Keep dimmer stat to ZERO position before start.
2) Increase voltage gradually.
3) Keep the assembly undisturbed while testing.
4) While removing or changing the lagging materials do not disturb the
thermocouples.
5) Do not increase voltage above 150V
6) Operate selector switch of temperate indicator gently.

RESULTS: Thermal conductivity of different insulating materials, Overall heat

transfer coefficient of lagged pipe and thermal resistance has been determined.

1. Thermal conductivity of asbestos powder lagging k Asbestos =…………………

2. Thermal conductivity of sawdust lagging kSawdust =……………………….
3. Overall heat transfer coefficient U=…………………………
4. Thermal resistance of Asbestos RAsbestos =……………………………

5. Thermal resistance of Sawdust RSawdust =………………………………..

34
Date:
Exp No:

HEAT TRANSFER BY NATURAL CONVECTION

AIM:

To find out heat transfer coefficient and heat transfer rate from vertical
cylinder in natural convection.

THEORY:

Natural convection heat transfer takes place by movement of fluid particles

on solid surface caused by density difference between the fluid particles on
account of difference in temperature. Hence there is no external agency facing
fluid over the surface. It has been observed that the fluid adjacent to the surface
gets heated, resulting in thermal expansion of the fluid and reduction in its density.
Subsequently a buoyancy force acts on the fluid causing it to flow up the surface.
Here the flow velocity is developed due to difference in temperature between fluid
particles.
The following empirical correlations may be used to find out the heat
transfer coefficient for vertical cylinder in natural convection.

Nu  0.53Gr. Pr 4 for Gr.Pr<105

1

Nu  0.56Gr. Pr 4 for 105<Gr.Pr<108

1

Nu  0.13Gr. Pr 3 for 108<Gr.Pr<1012

1

Where,
hL
Nu = Nusselt number =
k
L  g (TS  Ta )
3

Gr = Grashof number =
2
C p
Pr = Prandtl number =
k

35
 β = Coefficient of Volumetric expansion (or) temperature co-efficient of
1
thermal conductivity in
K
1
For ideal gases β =
Tf
Where ‘Tf’ is the absolute film temperature at which the properties are taken.

SPECIFICATIONS:

Specimen : Stainless Steel tube,

Size of the Specimen : Outer diameter 45mm, 500mm length
Heater : Nichrome wire type heater along its length
Thermocouples used : 6nos.
Ammeter : Digital type, 0-2amps, AC
Voltmeter : Digital type, 0-300volts, AC
Dimmer stat for heating coil : 0-230 V, 2 amps, AC power
Enclosure with acrylic door : For visual display of test section (fixed)

APPARATUS:

The apparatus consists of a stainless steel tube fitted in a rectangular duct in

a vertical position. The duct is open at the top and bottom and forms an enclosure
and serves the purpose of undisturbed surroundings. One side of the duct is made
of acrylic sheet for visualization. A heating element is kept in the vertical tube,
which heats the tube surface. The heat is lost from the tube to the surrounding air
by natural convection. Digital temperature indicator measures the temperature at
different points with the help of seven temperature sensors, including one for
measuring surrounding temperature. The heat input to the heater is measured by
Digital Ammeter and Digital Voltmeter and can be varied by a dimmer stat.

PROCEDURE:
1. Ensure that all ON/OFF switches given on the panel are at OFF position.
2. Ensure that variac knob is at zero position, provided on the panel.
3. Now switch on the main power supply (220 V AC, 50 Hz).

36
 4. Switch on the panel with the help of mains ON/OFF switch given on the
panel.
5. Fix the power input to the heater with the help of variac, voltmeter and
ammeter provided.
6. Take thermocouple, voltmeter & ammeter readings when steady state is
reached.
7. When experiment is over, switch off heater first.
8. Adjust variac to zero position.
9. Switch off the panel with the help of Mains On/Off switch given on the panel.
10. Switch off power supply to panel.
TABULAR COLUMN:

Thermocouple readings °C
Sl. V I Chamber
No. Volts Amps T2 T3 T4 T5 Lower Upper
T1 T6
1.

2.

3.

CALCULATIONS:
T2  T3  T4  T5
1. Temperature of vertical cylinder wall Tw   273.15 º K =………...
4
T T
2. Surrounding ambient temperature T  1 6 = + 273.15 º K
2
T T
3. Obtain the properties of air at a mean temperature of Tf = w  ºK
2
1
4. Volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion β=
Tf
5. Rayleigh Number Ra = Gr.Pr
L3  g (Tw  T )
6. Grashof Number, Gr=

2

Where,
Pr= Prandtl number (from Data book at Tf )………………

37
 ν =kinematic viscosity……….. m2/sec (from Data book at Tf)
hL
7. Nusselt Number Nu =
k
The following correlations are used to find Nusselt Number
Nu  0.53Gr. Pr 4 for Gr.Pr<104
1

Nu  0.59Gr. Pr  4 for 104<Gr.Pr<109

1

Nu  0.10Gr. Pr 3 for 109<Gr.Pr

1

8. Free convective heat transfer coefficient

Nu.k
h W/m²–K
L
9. Heat transfer rate by convection

Qc = h A (Tw – T∞)

Qc = h π d L (Tw – T∞) watt

10. Heat Input to the coil

Qi = V x I watts

38
PRECAUTIONS:

1. Never switch on the main power supply before ensuring that all on / off
switches give on the panel are at off position.
2. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 or above 200 Volts.
3. Make sure that convection should conduct in closed container.
4. Before switch on the main supply observer that the dimmer is in zero
position.
RESULT:

The convective heat transfer coefficient and heat transfer rate from vertical
cylinder in natural convection has been determined.
1. Convective heat transfer coefficient=…………………………..

2. Heat transfer rate=………………………………….

39
Date:
Exp No:

PARALLEL FLOW AND COUNTER FLOW HEAT EXCHANGER

AIM:

To determine LMTD, effectiveness and overall heat transfer coefficient for

parallel and counter flow heat exchanger

SPECIFICATIONS:

Length of heat exchanger L =2440 mm

Inner copper tube ID =12 mm
OD =15 mm
Outer GI tube ID =40 mm
Geyser capacity =1 Lt, 3 kW

THEORY:

Heat exchanger is a device in which heat is transferred from one fluid to

another. Common examples of heat exchangers are:
i. Condensers and boilers in steam plant
ii. Inter coolers and pre-heaters
iii. Automobile radiators
iv. Regenerators

CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT EXCHANGERS:

1. Based on the nature of heat exchange process:
i. Direct contact type – Here the heat transfer takes place by direct mixing
of hot and cold fluids
ii. Indirect contact heat exchangers – Here the two fluids are separated
through a metallic wall. ex. Regenerators, Recuperators etc
2. Based on the relative direction of fluid flow:
40
 i. Parallel flow heat exchanger – Here both hot and cold fluids flow in the
same direction.
ii. Counter flow heat exchanger – Here hot and cold fluids flow in opposite
direction.
iii. Cross-flow heat exchangers – Here the two fluids cross one another.
LOGARITHMIC MEAN TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE (LMTD):
This is defined as that temperature difference which, if constant, would give
the same rate of heat transfer as usually occurs under variable conditions of
temperature difference.

FOR PARALLEL FLOW:

Where

(Tho  Tco )  (Thi  Tci )  2  1

LMTD = =
 T  Tco   2 
ln ho  ln  
 Thi  Tci   1
For Counter flow:

(Thi  Tci )  (Tho  Tci )  2  1

LMTD = =
 T  Tco   2 
ln hi  ln
  
 Tho  Tci   1

41
 Tho = Outlet temperature of hot fluid
Tco = Outlet temperature of cold fluid
Thi = Inlet temperature of hot fluid
Tci = Inlet temperature of cold fluid
OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICINET:

The rate of heat transfer between hot and cold fluid is given by
Q =Uo Ao / LMTD
Where,
Uo is overall heat transfer coefficient based on outer surface area of
tubes, W/m²-K
Ao is the total outer surface area of tubes, m²

EFFECTIVENESS:

Effectiveness of a heat exchanger is defined as the ratio of actual heat

transfer rate to the theoretical maximum possible heat transfer rate.
Q
Effectiveness: ε =
Qmax

It can be shown that

Thi  Tho
ε= if mh ch < mc cc
Thi  Tci
And

Tco  Tci
ε= if mc cc < mh ch
Thi  Tci

Where,
mh and mc are the mass flow rate of hot and cold fluids respectively in kg/s;
ch and cc are the specific heat of hot and cold fluids respectively in J/kg–K.

DESCRIPTION OF THE APPRATUS:

42
 The apparatus consists of a concentric tube heat exchanger. The hot fluid
namely hot water is obtained from the Geyser (heater capacity 3 kW) & it flows
through the inner tube. The cold fluid i.e. cold water can be admitted at any one of
the ends enabling the heat exchanger to run as a parallel flow or as a counter flow
exchanger. Measuring jar used for measure flow rate of cold and hot water. This
can be adjusted by operating the different valves provided. Temperature of the
fluid can be measured using thermocouples with digital display indicator. The
outer tube is provided with insulation to minimize the heat loss to the
surroundings.

PROCEDURE:

1. First switch ON the unit panel

2. Start the flow of cold water through the annulus and run the exchanger as
counter flow or parallel flow.
3. Switch ON the geyser provided on the panel & allow to flow through the
inner tube by regulating the valve.
4. Adjust the flow rate of hot water and cold water by using rotameters & valves.
5. Keep the flow rate same till steady state conditions are reached.
6. Note down the temperatures on hot and cold water sides. Also note the flow
rate.
7. Repeat the experiment for different flow rates and for different temperatures.
The same method is followed for parallel flow also.
OBSERVATION TABLE:

PARALLEL FLOW
Temperature of Temp. of hot
Hot water Cold water
cold water in °C water in °C
Sl. No. flow rate flow rate
Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet
mh, kg/s mc, kg/s
Tci Tco Thi Tho
1.
2.
3.

43
 COUNTER FLOW
Temperature of Temp. of hot
Hot water Cold water
cold water in °C water in °C
Sl. No. flow rate flow rate
Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet
mh, kg/s mc, kg/s
Tci Tco Thi Tho
1.
2.
3.

EQUATIONS USED:

1. Heat transfer from hot water

Qh = mh Cph (Thi –Tho) watts

mh = mass flow rate of hot water kg/sec

Cph = Specific heat of hot water = 4186.8 J kg-K

2. Heat gain by the cold fluid

Qc = mc Cpc (Tco- Tci) watts

mc = Mass flow of cold fluid, kg/s

Cpc = Specific heat of cold fluid = 4186.8 J/kg -K

Qh  Qc
3. Q= watts
2
  1
LMTD = 2
 2 
ln
  
 1
θ1 = Thi – Tci and θ2 = Tho – Tco for parallel flow heat exchanger

θ1 = Tho – Tci and θ2 = Thi – Tco for counter flow heat exchanger

5. Overall heat transfer coefficient based on outside surface area of inner tube
Q
Uo = W/m² oK
Ao .LMTD
Where,
Ao =π do l m²
do = Outer diameter of the tube = 0.0125 m
L = length of the tube = 1.5 m
44
6. Effectiveness:

Find Ch = mh cph and Cc = mccpc

Thi  Tho
Effectiveness = if Ch < Cc
Thi  Tci

Tco  Tci
And Effectiveness = if Cc < Ch
Thi  Tci
This is applicable both for Parallel and counter flow heat exchanger

7. Effectiveness using NUMBER OF TRANSFER UNIT (NTU) method

U o Ao
i) NTU =
C min
Note: if Ch<Cc then Ch = Cmin, Cc =Cmax

And if Cc<Ch then Cc = Cmin, Ch = Cmax

ii) Effectiveness of parallel flow heat exchanger
 Cmin 
 NTU 1 C 
1 e  max 

Cmin
1
Cmax
iii) Effectiveness of counter flow heat exchanger

 Cmin 
 NTU 1 C 
1 e  max 

  C 
 NTU 1 min 
Cmin
1 e  C max 
Cmax
RESULT:

The overall heat transfer coefficient of parallel flow and counter flow heat
exchangers has been determined.

45
Date:
Exp No:

HEAT TRANSFER FROM PIN-FIN APPARATUS

AIM:

To determine the temperature of a pin-fin for forced convection and to find

fin efficiency and effectiveness.
SPECIFICATIONS:

Length of the fin, ‘L’ = 145mm

Diameter of the fin, ‘df’ = 12mm
Diameter of the orifice, ‘do’ = 20 mm
Width of the duct, ‘W’ = 150 mm
Breadth of the duct, ‘B’ = 100 mm
Coefficient of discharge of the orifice, ‘C d’ = 0.62
Density of manometric fluid (water) =1000 kg/m3

THEORY:

The heat transfer from a heated surface to the ambient surrounding is given
by the relation, q = h A T. In this relation hc is the convective heat transfer
coefficient, T is the temperature difference & A is the area of heat transfer. To
increase q, h may be increased or surface area may by increased. In some cases it is
not possible to increase the value of heat transfer coefficient & the temperature
difference T & thus the only alternative is to increase the surface area of heat
transfer. The surface area is increased by attaching extra material in the form of rod
(circular or rectangular) on the surface where we have to increase the heat transfer
rate. "This extra material attached is called the extended surface or fin."
The fins may be attached on a plane surface, and then they are called plane
surface fins. If the fins are attached on the cylindrical surface, they are called
circumferential fins. The cross section of the fin may be circular, rectangular,
triangular or parabolic.

46
Temperature distribution along the length of the fin:
 T  T coshmL  x 
 
0 T0  T coshmL 
Where
T = Temperature at any distance x on the fin
T0 = Temperature at x = 0
T = Ambient temperature
L = Length of the fin
hc P
m 
kA
Where
h = convective heat transfer coefficient
P = Perimeter of the fin
A = area of the fin
K = Thermal conductivity of the fin

Rate of heat flow for end insulated condition:

Q  0 hc PkA tanh mL 
Effectiveness of a fin is defined as the ratio of the heat transfer with fin to
the heat transfer from the surface without fins.


0  
hPkA tanh mL 
hA0
 Pk 
    tanh mL 
hA 
 
The efficiency of a fin is defined as the ratio of the actual heat transferred by
the fin to the maximum heat transferred by the fin if the entire fin area were at base
temperature.

f 
 
0 hPkA tanh mL 
hPL0
tanh mL 
f 
mL
PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the equipment to electric power supply.

2. Keep the thermocouple selector switch to zero position.

47
3. Turn the dimmer stat clockwise and adjust the power input to the heater to the
desired value and switch on the blower.
4. Set the air–flow rate to any desired value by adjusting the difference in water
levels in the manometer and allow the unit to stabilize.
5. Note down the temperatures, T1 to T6 from the thermocouple selector switch.

Note down the difference in level of the manometer and repeat the experiment
for different power inputs to the heater.

CALCULATIONS:
Q
7. Velocity of the air in the tube Va 
a1
C d a1a2 2 ghm
Discharge of the air in the tube Q
a12  a22
Where
Coefficient of discharge Cd= 0.62
 2
Area of Pipe a1  d1 →d1 is diameter of the pipe = 40mm.
4
 2
Area of Orifice a2  d 2 →d2 is diameter of the Orifice = 20mm.
4
hm Differential manometer reading .
Tw + T
8. Properties of air are taken at temperature T f 
2
Where

48
 Average surface temperature of the Pin-fin
T  T2 + T3  T4 + T5  T6 + T7
Tavg  Tw  1
7
Ambient temperature of air in Duct T∞= T8
Va .d f
9. Reynolds Number Re D 

(  KinematicVis cos ity From data book at Tf)
(Pr= Prandtl number from data book at Tf)
m 0.333
10. Nusselt number Nu = C Re D Pr
For
ReD = 0.4 to 4.0 C = 0.989 m = 0.33
ReD = 4 to 40 C = 0.911 m = 0.385
ReD = 40 to 4000 C = 0.683 m = 0.466
ReD = 4000 to 40,000 C = 0.293 m = 0.618
ReD = 40,000 to 400,000 C = 0.27 m = 0.805

hd f
11. Nusselt number Nu 
k
Nu k
12. Forced convective heat transfer co-efficient h  W/m² - K
df
(k= thermal conductivity from data book at Tf)

13. Rate of heat transfer Qc = h A (Tw – T∞)

Qc = h π d L (Tw – T∞) watt
14. Temperature distribution is given by
T  T coshmL  X 

T0  T coshmL 

 coshmL  X 
15. Therefore T  T8  T1  T8   
 coshmL  

Temperature
Distance Temperature °C
from
x, m from calculation
Experiment °C
x1 = 0.02 T0.02= T0.02=
x2 =0.04 T0.04= T0.04=
x3 =0.06 T0.06= T0.06=
x4 = 0.08 T0.08= T0.08=
x5 =0.10 T0.1= T0.1=

49
 x6 =0.12 T0.12= T0.12=
x7 =0.14 T0.14= T0.14=

tanh mL 
16. Efficiency of fin  f 
mL
Where L= Length of the Fin= 145mm
hP
m
kbrass A
h= Convective heat transfer coefficient w/m2-K
P= Perimeter of the Fin (πd f)
 2
A= Cross-sectional area of the Fin A  df
4
kbrass= Thermal conductivity of brass =110.7 W/m-K

 Pk 
17. Effectiveness of fin     tanh mL 
hA 
 
GRAFF: surface temperature of Pin-Fin Vs Distance (location of thermocouples on Pin-Fin)

PRECAUTIONS:

3. Never switch on main power supply before ensuring that all on/off switches
given on the panel are at off position
4. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 or above 200 volts.

RESULT:
The temperature distribution of a pin – fin for forced convection
efficiency and effectiveness has been determined.
50
1. Temperature distribution of a pin fin is given by
Temperature
Distance Temperature °C
from
x, m from calculation
Experiment °C
x1 = 0.02 T0.02= T0.02=
x2 =0.04 T0.04= T0.04=
x3 =0.06 T0.06= T0.06=
x4 = 0.08 T0.08= T0.08=
x5 =0.10 T0.1= T0.1=
x6 =0.12 T0.12= T0.12=
x7 =0.14 T0.14= T0.14=

2. Efficiency of Pin-Fin=……………………………

3. Effectiveness of Pin-Fin=…………………………

51
Date:
Exp No:

STEFAN BOLTZMANN APPARATUS

AIM:
To determine the value of Stefan Boltzmann constant for radiation heat
transfer.
APPARATUS:
Hemisphere, Heater, Temperature indicator, Stopwatch.
THEORY:
Stefan Boltzmann law states that the total emissive power of a perfect black
body is proportional to fourth power of the absolute temperature of black body
surface.
Eb = σT4
Where
σ = Stefan Boltzmann constant = 5.6697 x 10-8 W/(m² K4)
DESCRIPTION:
The apparatus consists of a flanged copper hemisphere fixed on a flat non-
conducting plate. A test disc made of copper is fixed to the plate. Thus the test disc
is completely enclosed by the hemisphere. The outer surface of the hemisphere is
enclosed in a vertical water jacket used to heat the hemisphere to a suitable
constant temperature. Three Cr-Al thermocouples are attached at three strategic
places on the surface of the hemisphere to obtain the temperatures. The disc is
mounted on an ebonite rod which is fitted in a hole drilled at the center of the base
plate. Another Cr-Al thermocouple is fixed to the disc to record its temperature.
Fill the water in the SS water container with immersion heater kept on top of the
panel.
SPECIFICATIONS:
Specimen material : Copper
Size of the disc :  20mm x 0.5mm thickness
Base Plate :  250mm x 12mm thickness (hylam)

52
 Heater : 1.5 kW capacity, immersion type
Copper Bowl :  200mm
Digital temperature indicator : 0 -199.9° C
Thermocouples used : 3 nos. on hemisphere
Stop Watch : Digital type
Overhead Tank : SS, approx. 12 liter capacity
Water Jacket :  230 mm, SS
Mass of specimen, ‘m’ : 5 gm
Specific heat of the disc Cp : 0.38 kJ/kg K
PROCEDURE:
1. Remove the test disc before starting the experiment.
2. Allow water to flow through the hemisphere, Switch on the heater and allow
the hemisphere to reach a steady state temperature.
3. Note down the temperatures T1,T2 & T3. The average of these temperatures
is the hemisphere temperature Th .
4. Insert the test disc at the bottom of the hemisphere and lock it. Start the stop
clock simultaneously.
5. Note down the temperature of the test disc at an interval of about 15 sec for
about 15 to 20 minutes.

53
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Let Td = Temperature of the disc before inserting into the plate in K

Temperature of the
Thermocouple copper hemisphere °
C
T1

T2

T3
Th Average of T1 , T2 and T3 =

Temperature – time response of test disc:

Time Temper Time Temper

‘t’ ature Td ‘t’ ature Td
sec °C sec °C

CALCULATIONS:
1. Plot the graph of temperature of the disc v/s time to obtain the slope (dT/dt) of
the line, which passes through/nearer to all points.
2. Average temperature of the hemisphere
T1  T2  T3
Th   273.15
3
54
3. Td = Temperature of the disc before inserting to
Test chamber º K (ambient)
dT
4. Rate of change of heat capacity of the disc = mC p
dt
Net energy radiated on the disc = σ Ad (T4h – T4d)
Where

Ad = area of the disc = d2 in m2
4
d = 20 mm
Cp = specific heat of copper = 0.38 kJ/kg–K

Rate of change of heat capacity of the disc = Net energy radiated on the disc
dT
mC p = σ Ad (T4avg – T4d)
dt
Thus ‘σ’ can be evaluated as shown
dT
mC p
  4
dt
4
A d (T avg - Td )

Result: The experiment on Stefan Boltzmann apparatus has been conducted and
the value of Stefan Boltzmann constant is determined.

55
Date:
Exp No:

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF METAL ROD

AIM:
To determine the thermal conductivity of given metal rod.
THEORY:
From Fourier’s law of heat conduction
dT
Q  kA
dx
where
Q = Rate of heat conducted, W
A = Area of heat transfer, m²
k = Thermal conductivity of the material, W/m-K
dT
= Temperature gradient
dx
Thermal conductivity is a property of the material and may be defined as the
amount of heat conducted per unit time through unit area, when a temperature
difference of unit degree is maintained across unit thickness.

DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS:

The apparatus consists of a brass rod, one end of which is heated by an
electric heating coil while the other end projects into the cooling water jacket. The
rod is insulated with glass wool to minimize the radiation and convection loss from
the surface of the rod and thus ensure nearly constant temperature gradient
throughout the length of the rod. The temperature of the rod is measured at five
different locations. The heater is provided with a dimmerstat for controlling the
heat input. Water is circulated through the jacket and its flow rate and temperature
rise can be measured.
SPECIFICATIONS :
Specimen material : Brass rod
Size of the Specimen : 20 mm, 450mm long
Cylindrical shell : 300mm long
56
 Voltmeter : Digital type, 0-300volt, AC
Ammeter : Digital type, 0-20amp, AC
Dimmer for heating Coil : 0-230v, 12amps
Heater : Band type Nichrome heater, 250 W
Thermocouple used : 11 nos.
Temperature indicator : Digital type, 0-2000c, Cr-Al
PRODEDURE:
1. Power supply is given to the apparatus.
2. Give heat input to the heater by slowly rotating the dimmer and adjust the
voltage to say 60 V, 80 V, etc
3. Start the cooling water supply through the jacket and adjust its flow rate so
that the heat is taken away from the specimen constantly.
4. Allow sufficient time for the apparatus to reach steady state.
5. Take readings of voltmeter and ammeter.
6. Note the temperatures along the length of the specimen rod at 5 different
locations.
7. Note down the inlet & outlet temperatures of cooling water and measure the
flow rate of water.
8. Repeat the experiment for different heat inputs.
OBSERVATION TABLE:

Water
Volume
temp (0C)
Metal rod thermocouple reading flow rate
‘V’ ‘I’
(0C) of water,
Volt Amp In Ou
V
let tlet
cc/min
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 T11
1.
2.
3.

CALCULATION:
Plot the variation of temperature along the length of the rod. From the graph,
obtain dT/dx, which is the slope of the straight line passing through/near to the
57
points in the graph. Assuming no heat loss, heat conducted through the rod = heat
carried away by the cooling water

 m f C p T11  T10 
dT
kA
dx
Where, ‘k’ = thermal conductivity of metal rod, (W/m-K)
‘A’ = Cross sectional area of metal rod = πd²/4 (m²)
‘d’ = diameter of the specimen = 20 mm
‘Cp’ = Specific heat of water = 4.187 kJ/kg-K
Thus, the thermal conductivity ‘k’ of metal rod can be evaluated.

m f C p T11  T10 
k
dT
A
dx
GRAPH:

Plot the graph Distance vs Temperature.

PRECAUTIONS:
7. Keep the dimmer stat to zero before starting the experiment.
8. Take readings at study state condition only.
9. Use the selector switch knob and dimmer knob gently.
RESULT:

The thermal conductivity of given metal rod has been determined.

58
Date:
Exp No:
TWO PHASE HEAT TRANSFER APPARATUS
AIM:
To Study the Two Phase heat transfer phenomena for pool boiling of water.
THEORY:
Two phase heat transfer is a mode of heat transfer that occurs because of
vaporization. Vaporization is a process in which a substance is changed from liquid
to vapour state. Pool boiling takes place when a liquid is confined in a container
and a heater is submerged in the liquid.
BOILING REGIMES:
Consider that the rate of heat convection, heat transfer for the system is
expressed analytically by the Newton’s equation:
Q= h A ∆t-------- (1)
Where ‘h’ is the heat transfer coefficient, ‘A’ is area involved in heat
transfer and ∆t is some well defined temperature difference, The difference
between the temperature of the solid and the mean temperature of fluid at the limit
of the thermal boundary layer, An analogous equation issued for boiling heat
transfer.
.
Q
= h ∆t-------- (2)
A
Where q’’ = q/A is called the heat flux and h the boiling heat transfer coefficient.t w
is the wall superheat or surface temperature. ∆t which is defined as difference
between the wall temperature of the heating surface and saturation temperature of
the liquid ts.
∆t= tw - ts -------------------- (3)
DESCRIPTION:
The main apparatus is fitted on MS tube frame consisting of a glass column
with a sample holding sump with a heater and drain valve at the bottom and a

59
helical condenser, with water inlet and outlet , a safety valve, and a feed valve at
the top and the unit is made leak proof with necessary flange connections.

The panel consists of voltmeter, ammeter, temperature indicator, dimmer,

thermocouple selector switch, toggle switch for pump, Rotameter. Below the table
a water sump fitted with pump is provided to circulate water through the helical
condenser coil, a bypass is also provided for the pump to safety guard the motor.
PROCEDURE:
1. Fill the sample holding sump with sample of about 250ml (appox) through
the feed valve provided on top of the column (ensure that the drain valve
provided at the bottom is closed) and close the feed valve after filling.
2. Ensure that the dimmer is ‘OFF’, thermocouple selector switch at any
position; the pump toggle switch is ‘OFF’.
3. Connect the three pin plug top to 230V, 50, 5 amps power supply socket
with proper earthling.
4. Fill water into the water sump provided below the table.
5. Open the bypass valve fully and also open the Rota meter valve.
6. Switch ‘ON’ the toggle switch for pump.
7. Observe water falling into the sump through bypass.
8. Slowly turn the bypass valve clock wise and observe the Rota meter float to
rise.
9. Set the water flow rate to any desired value indicated by the Rota meter.
10. Turn the dimmer clockwise and set the power input to the heater at the
minimum possible limit by observing the volt and ammeter (V x I=W) and
note the readings.
11. Note down the temperatures indicated by the temperature indicator by
turning the thermocouple selector switch clockwise step by step.
12. Bring back the thermocouple selector switch to any position.

60
 13. Increase the power input to the heater by lowest possible value (increasing
of the power output to the heater should be made at a known interval time)
record the readings.
14. Record the temperatures indicated at each step T1 & T2.
15. Repeat increasing of power input to the heater and recording the
temperatures at an interval of time till the sample start boiling.
16. Tabulate all the readings and calculate.
17. After the experiment is over turn the dimmer anticlockwise to ‘ZERO’
position. Also bring back thermocouple selector switch to any position allow
the water circulation pump to work for some time, switch ‘OFF’ the pump
switch, drain the sample by opening the drain valve and close the drain valve
after draining.
EXPERIMENT APPARATUS:
The apparatus consists of a vertical glass cylinder, in which liquid WATER
boils. Inside the glass cylinder a copper-condensing coil is placed. At the bottom of
the glass column a copper bowl heater electrically by a heating coil. Cooling water
is circulated through the condenser by means of pump. Water flow control is
achieved through valve V1 Rota meter gives an indication of water flow rate.
Thermocouple T1, measures the temperature in the heating pad a T 2
measures the liquid and temperature. Voltmeter ‘V’ and Ammeter ‘A’ measure the
heater input voltage and current respectively.
THERMOCOUPLE DETAILS:
T1=Heater temperature
T2=Liquid temperature
T3=Vapour temperature
T4=Water inlet temperature to coil
T5=Water outlet temperature from coil

61
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Volume flow
Sl. Volts amps
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 rate of water,
No (V) (I)
cc/min

1.
2.
3.

CALCULATIONS:
Heat input Q = V x I watts
𝜋
Heat transfer area A= D2 m2
4
Where D= Dia of copper bowl=100mm
.
Heat flux Q =Q/A w/m2
∆t=T1-T2
GRAPH:

Plot the graph Q vs ∆t.

PRECAUTIONS:

10. Keep the dimmer stat to zero before starting the experiment.
11. Take readings at study state condition only.
12. Use the selector switch knob and dimmer knob gently.

RESULT: Hence the study of boiling heat transfer for pool boiling of WATER is
studied. The two phase heat transfer of phenomenon for cool boiling of water is
studied and graph is plotted between the heat flux and temperature.

62
Date:
Exp No:
UNSTEADY STATE HEAT TRANSFER
AIM:
To obtain the specimen temperature at any interval of time by theoretical
methods and observe the heating and cooling curves of unsteady state.
INTRODUCTION:
Unsteady state designates a phenomenon which is time dependent.
Conduction of heat in unsteady state refers to transient conditions where in, heat
flow and temperature distribution at any point of system varies with time.
Transient conditions occur in heating or cooling of metal billets, cooling of IC
engine cylinder, brick and vulcanization of rubber.
DESCRIPTION:
Unsteady state heat transfer equipment has oil check which is at top of oil
heater. Thermocouple No.1is located inside the specimen No.2 thermocouple
measures the atmospheric temperature. No.3 thermocouple measures the oil
temperature.
Digital temperature indicator indicates respective temperatures of
thermocouples as we select it by selector switch. Heater ON/OFF toggle switch
and buzzer ON/OFF toggle switch is provided on the control panel.
SPECIFICATIONS:
1. D.C Buzzer : 10-30 volt
2. Oil Heater : 1 kW
3. Digital temperature indicator : 1200C0
4. Thermocouple : Al-Cr type
5. Specimens material : Copper
6. Fuse : 4 Amps.
EXPERIMENTATION:
Obtain the specimen temperature at any interval of time by practical and by
theoretical methods and observe the heating and cooling curves of unsteady state.

63
PROCEDURE:
1. Put ON the mains switch.
th
3
2. Fill the oil jar up to of its height.
4
3. Insert the thermocouple in jar having tag No.3.
4. Keep thermocouple No.2 near to the specimen inside the transparent
chamber.
5. Start the oil heater by putting heater’s toggle switch in downward direction.
6. Keep selector switch No.3 and observe oil temperature.
7. When the oil temperature reaches up to 950C insert specimen in oil jar. At
the same time note down the specimen temperature and start the stop watch.
8. Note down the specimen reading for every 30 sec. Check the oil temperature
by selecting No.3 on selector switch.
9. Take the readings of specimen temperature till it comes nearly too hot oil
temperature.
10. Now put the specimen inside the rectangular chamber. At the same timed
put OFF the heater.
11. Take the atmospheric temperature by selecting No.2 and specimen
temperature. Note the specimen temperature reading till it comes closer to
atmospheric temperature.
12. Put OFF the main switch.
OBSERVATIONS:
1. Specimen material : Copper
2. Thermal conductivity of copper, k=386 W/m0k.
3. Coefficient of thermal expansion a=17.7x10-6/0C
4. Specimen diameter, d=30mm
5. Specimen lengh, l=30mm

64
 TABULATION:
In case of Heating: In case of Cooling:

Oil Specimen Time Specimen

Time
Sl. tempera Temperatu in Atmospheric Temperatur
Sl. in
N ture T1 re T3 in 0C secon temperature e T3 in 0C at
No second
o in 0C at interval d T2 in 0C interval of
t
of 30 sec. t 30 sec
1. 70 0 1. 0
2. 30 2. 30
3. 60 3. 60
4. 90 4. 90
5. 120 5. 120
6. 150 6. 150
7. 180 7. 180
8. 240 8. 240
9. 270 9. 270
10
300 10. 300
.
11 330 11 330

CALCULATION:
Specimen material : Copper
Thermal conductivity of copper, k=386 W/m0k.
Coefficient of thermal expansion a=17.7x10-6/0C
Specimen diameter, d=30mm
Specimen length, l=30mm
Characteristic length for cylinder L= d/2
hL
Biot number Bi=
k
t
Fourier number Fo=
L2

65
 Tmax  Tmin
Mean temperature = T 
2
In case of cooling
Tmax=specimen temperature just after the hot oil both
Tmin= atmosperic temperature
In case of heating
Tmax=hot oil temperature
Tmin= specimen temperature before inserting into oil both
T - T
 e  Bi...X ..Fo 
T0 - T
Where
T= temperature of the specimen at time interval of ‘t’ sec
Ta= atmospheric temperature in 0C
Ts=specimen temperature
In case of cooling
Ta= atmospheric temperature
Ts= specimen temperature
In case of heating
Ta= Specimen temperature
Ts= hot oil temperature
Obtain the temperature at any desired interval of the time
Plot the graph of temperature difference V/S time for heating and cooling
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Keep the dimmer stat to zero before starting the experiment.
2. Operate the stop watch carefully.
3. Use the selector switch knob and dimmer knob gently.
RESULT:
The specimen temperature at an interval of time by practical and by
theoretical methods and observe the heating and cooling curves of unsteady state is
observed.

66