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Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs
JavaScript Edition
Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs
JavaScript Edition

Harold Abelson and Gerald Jay Sussman

adapted to JavaScript by Martin Henz and Tobias Wrigstad
with Julie Sussman

The MIT Press

Cambridge, Massachusetts
London, England
© 2022 Massachusetts Institute of Technology

This book is published by The MIT Press under a Creative Commons

Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC-SA). To view a
copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/.

The text of this book is derived from the book Structure and Interpretation of Computer
Programs, Second Edition, 1996, (SICP) and is subject to a Creative Commons
Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License (CC BY-SA). A comparison edition available
at http://sicp.sourceacademy.org indicates the changes that were made to the text. The figures
are derived from figures created by Andres Raba in 2015 and are also subject to CC BY-SA.
To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/.

The JavaScript programs in this book are derived from the Scheme programs in SICP and are
subject to the GNU General Public License v3.0. To view a copy of this license, visit
https://www.gnu.org/licenses/gpl-3.0.html.

The original image of MIT founder William Barton Rogers in section 2.2.4 is courtesy MIT
Museum.

The cover image is adapted from Le Moyen Age et la Renaissance, Paris, 1848–1851.

This book was set in Times by the authors using the LATEX typesetting system and ancillary
scripts (see https://github.com/source-academy/sicp), and was printed and bound in the United
States of America.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Abelson, Harold, author. | Sussman, Gerald Jay, author. | Henz, Martin, adapter. |
Wrigstad, Tobias, adapter. | Sussman, Julie, other.
Title: Structure and interpretation of computer programs / Harold Abelson and Gerald Jay
Sussman; adapted to JavaScript by Martin Henz and Tobias Wrigstad; with Julie Sussman.
Description: Javascript edition. | Cambridge : The MIT Press, [2022] | Series: MIT electrical
engineering and computer science series | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021047249 | ISBN 9780262543231 (paperback)
Subjects: LCSH: Computer programming. | JavaScript (Computer program language)
Classification: LCC QA76.6 .A255 2022 | DDC 005.13–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021047249

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
This book is dedicated, in respect and admiration,
to the spirit that lives in the computer.
“I think it’s extraordinarily important that we in computer science keep fun
in computing. When it started out, it was an awful lot of fun. Of course,
the paying customers got shafted every now and then, and after a while we
began to take their complaints seriously. We began to feel as though we
really were responsible for the successful, error-free, perfect use of these
machines. I don’t think we are. I think we’re responsible for stretching them,
setting them off in new directions, and keeping fun in the house. Fun comes
in many ways. Fun comes in making a discovery, proving a theorem, writing
a program, breaking a code. Whatever form or sense it comes in I hope the
field of computer science never loses its sense of fun. Above all, I hope we
don’t become missionaries. What you know about computing other people
will learn. Don’t feel as though the key to successful computing is only in
your hands. What’s in your hands, I think and hope, is intelligence: the ability
to see the machine as more than when you were first led up to it, that you
can make it more.”
—Alan J. Perlis (April 1, 1922–February 7, 1990)
Contents

Foreword xiii

Foreword to Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs, 1984 xvii

Preface xxi

Prefaces to Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs, 1996 & 1984 xxiii

Acknowledgments xxvii

1 Building Abstractions with Functions 1

1.1 The Elements of Programming 3
1.1.1 Expressions 3
1.1.2 Naming and the Environment 5
1.1.3 Evaluating Operator Combinations 6
1.1.4 Compound Functions 8
1.1.5 The Substitution Model for Function Application 11
1.1.6 Conditional Expressions and Predicates 13
1.1.7 Example: Square Roots by Newton’s Method 18
1.1.8 Functions as Black-Box Abstractions 21
1.2 Functions and the Processes They Generate 26
1.2.1 Linear Recursion and Iteration 27
1.2.2 Tree Recursion 32
1.2.3 Orders of Growth 36
1.2.4 Exponentiation 38
1.2.5 Greatest Common Divisors 41
1.2.6 Example: Testing for Primality 43
1.3 Formulating Abstractions with Higher-Order Functions 48
1.3.1 Functions as Arguments 49
1.3.2 Constructing Functions using Lambda Expressions 53
1.3.3 Functions as General Methods 58
1.3.4 Functions as Returned Values 63

2 Building Abstractions with Data 69

2.1 Introduction to Data Abstraction 72
2.1.1 Example: Arithmetic Operations for Rational Numbers 72
2.1.2 Abstraction Barriers 76
2.1.3 What Is Meant by Data? 78
2.1.4 Extended Exercise: Interval Arithmetic 81
x Contents

2.2 Hierarchical Data and the Closure Property 84

2.2.1 Representing Sequences 85
2.2.2 Hierarchical Structures 93
2.2.3 Sequences as Conventional Interfaces 98
2.2.4 Example: A Picture Language 110
2.3 Symbolic Data 124
2.3.1 Strings 124
2.3.2 Example: Symbolic Differentiation 126
2.3.3 Example: Representing Sets 131
2.3.4 Example: Huffman Encoding Trees 140
2.4 Multiple Representations for Abstract Data 148
2.4.1 Representations for Complex Numbers 150
2.4.2 Tagged data 153
2.4.3 Data-Directed Programming and Additivity 157
2.5 Systems with Generic Operations 164
2.5.1 Generic Arithmetic Operations 165
2.5.2 Combining Data of Different Types 170
2.5.3 Example: Symbolic Algebra 177

3 Modularity, Objects, and State 191

3.1 Assignment and Local State 192
3.1.1 Local State Variables 192
3.1.2 The Benefits of Introducing Assignment 199
3.1.3 The Costs of Introducing Assignment 202
3.2 The Environment Model of Evaluation 208
3.2.1 The Rules for Evaluation 209
3.2.2 Applying Simple Functions 212
3.2.3 Frames as the Repository of Local State 215
3.2.4 Internal Declarations 220
3.3 Modeling with Mutable Data 224
3.3.1 Mutable List Structure 224
3.3.2 Representing Queues 233
3.3.3 Representing Tables 237
3.3.4 A Simulator for Digital Circuits 243
3.3.5 Propagation of Constraints 254
3.4 Concurrency: Time Is of the Essence 265
3.4.1 The Nature of Time in Concurrent Systems 266
3.4.2 Mechanisms for Controlling Concurrency 270
3.5 Streams 282
3.5.1 Streams Are Delayed Lists 283
3.5.2 Infinite Streams 290
3.5.3 Exploiting the Stream Paradigm 297
3.5.4 Streams and Delayed Evaluation 307
3.5.5 Modularity of Functional Programs and Modularity of Objects 313
Contents xi

4 Metalinguistic Abstraction 319

4.1 The Metacircular Evaluator 321
4.1.1 The Core of the Evaluator 323
4.1.2 Representing Components 330
4.1.3 Evaluator Data Structures 341
4.1.4 Running the Evaluator as a Program 346
4.1.5 Data as Programs 350
4.1.6 Internal Declarations 353
4.1.7 Separating Syntactic Analysis from Execution 357
4.2 Lazy Evaluation 362
4.2.1 Normal Order and Applicative Order 363
4.2.2 An Interpreter with Lazy Evaluation 364
4.2.3 Streams as Lazy Lists 372
4.3 Nondeterministic Computing 375
4.3.1 Search and amb 376
4.3.2 Examples of Nondeterministic Programs 380
4.3.3 Implementing the amb Evaluator 388
4.4 Logic Programming 400
4.4.1 Deductive Information Retrieval 403
4.4.2 How the Query System Works 413
4.4.3 Is Logic Programming Mathematical Logic? 421
4.4.4 Implementing the Query System 426

5 Computing with Register Machines 451

5.1 Designing Register Machines 452
5.1.1 A Language for Describing Register Machines 454
5.1.2 Abstraction in Machine Design 458
5.1.3 Subroutines 459
5.1.4 Using a Stack to Implement Recursion 464
5.1.5 Instruction Summary 470
5.2 A Register-Machine Simulator 470
5.2.1 The Machine Model 472
5.2.2 The Assembler 476
5.2.3 Instructions and Their Execution Functions 479
5.2.4 Monitoring Machine Performance 486
5.3 Storage Allocation and Garbage Collection 489
5.3.1 Memory as Vectors 490
5.3.2 Maintaining the Illusion of Infinite Memory 495
5.4 The Explicit-Control Evaluator 501
5.4.1 The Dispatcher and Basic Evaluation 502
5.4.2 Evaluating Function Applications 506
5.4.3 Blocks, Assignments, and Declarations 514
5.4.4 Running the Evaluator 515
xii Contents

5.5 Compilation 521

5.5.1 Structure of the Compiler 524
5.5.2 Compiling Components 529
5.5.3 Compiling Applications and Return Statements 537
5.5.4 Combining Instruction Sequences 545
5.5.5 An Example of Compiled Code 548
5.5.6 Lexical Addressing 556
5.5.7 Interfacing Compiled Code to the Evaluator 559

References 567

Index 573

List of Exercises 609

Foreword
I had the pleasure of meeting the amazing Alan Perlis and talking with him a few
times, when I was still a student. He and I had in common a deep love and respect
for two very different programming languages: Lisp and APL. Following in his
footsteps is a daunting task, even though he blazed an excellent trail. Still, I would
like to reexamine one comment he made in the original foreword to this book (and,
please, I suggest that you read his foreword, which immediately follows this one,
before you finish this one). Is it really true that it is better to have 100 functions
operate on one data structure than to have 10 functions operate on 10 data structures?
To answer that question carefully, we first need to ask whether that one data struc-
ture is “universal”: can it conveniently fulfill the roles of those 10 more specialized
data structures?
For that matter, we can also ask: do we really need 100 functions? Is there a
single universal function that can fulfill the roles of all those other functions?
The surprising answer to that last question is “yes”; it is only slightly tricky to
construct a function that accepts (1) a data structure that serves as a description
of some other function, and (2) a list of arguments, and behaves exactly as that
other function would when applied to the given arguments. And it is only slightly
tricky to design a data structure capable of describing any computation whatsoever.
One such data structure (the tagged-list representation of expressions and statements,
paired with environments that associate names with values) and one such universal
function (apply) are described in Chapter 4 of this book. So maybe we need only
one function and one data structure.
That is true in theory. In practice, we find it convenient to draw distinctions that
help us, as human beings constructing descriptions of computations, to organize the
structure of our code so that we can better understand them. I believe that Perlis was
making a remark not about computational capability, but about human abilities and
human limitations.
One thing the human mind seems to do well is to name things; we have powerful
associative memories. Given a name, we can quickly recall some associated thing to
mind. This is why we typically find it easier to work with the lambda calculus than
the combinatory calculus; it is much easier for most people to interpret the Lisp
expression (lambda (x) (lambda (y) (+ x y))) or the JavaScript expression
x => y => x + y than the combinatory expression
((S ((S (K S)) ((S ((S (K S)) ((S (K K)) (K +)))) ((S (K K)) I)))) (K I))
even though there is a direct structural correspondence, easily expressed in five lines
of Lisp code.
So while in principle we could get by with just one universal function, we pre-
fer to modularize our code, to give names to the various pieces, and to mention
the names of function descriptions rather than constantly feeding the descriptions
themselves to the universal function.
xiv Foreword

In my 1998 talk “Growing a Language,” I commented that a good programmer

“does not just write programs. A good programmer builds a working vocabulary.” As
we design and define more and more parts of our programs, we give names to those
parts, and the result is that we have a richer language in which to write the rest.
But we also find it natural to draw distinctions among data structures, and to give
them names.
It may be that nested lists are a universal data structure (and it is worth noting
that many modern and widely used data structures, such as HTML and XML and
JSON, are also parenthetically nested representations, only slightly more elaborate
than Lisp’s bare parentheses). There are also many functions, such as finding the
length of a list or applying a function to every element of a list and getting back a
list of the results, that are useful in a wide variety of situations. And yet, when I am
thinking about a specific computation, I often say to myself, “This list of two things
I expect to be a personal name and a surname, but that list of two things I expect
to be the real and imaginary parts of a complex number, and that other list of two
things I will regard as the numerator and denominator of a fraction.” In other words,
I draw distinctions—and it may be useful to represent those distinctions explicitly in
the data structure, in part to prevent mistakes such as accidentally treating a complex
number as a fraction. (Again, this is a comment about human abilities and human
limitations.)
Since the first edition of this book was written, almost four decades ago, a lot
more ways of organizing data have become relatively standard, in particular the
“object-oriented” approach, and many languages, including JavaScript, support spe-
cialized data structures such as objects and strings and heaps and maps with a variety
of built-in mechanisms and libraries. But in doing so, many languages abandoned
support for more general, universal notions. Java, for example, originally did not sup-
port first-class functions, and has incorporated them only relatively recently, greatly
increasing its expressive power.
APL, likewise, originally did not support first-class functions, and moreover its
original single data structure—arrays of any number of dimensions—was not so
conveniently useful as a universal data structure because arrays could not contain
other arrays as elements. More recent versions of APL do support anonymous
function values and nested arrays, and these have made APL dramatically more
expressive. (The original design of APL did have two very good things going for it:
a comprehensive set of functions applicable to that one data structure, and moreover
an extremely well chosen set of names for those functions. I’m not talking about
the funny symbols and Greek letters, but the spoken words that APL programmers
use when mentioning them, words like shape, reshape, compress, expand, and
laminate; these are names not for the symbols, but for the functions they repre-
sent. Ken Iverson had a real knack for choosing short, memorable, vivid names for
functions on arrays.)
While JavaScript, like Java, was originally designed with objects and methods
in mind, it also incorporated first-class functions from the beginning, and it is not
difficult to use its objects to define a universal data structure. As a result, JavaScript
Foreword xv

is not as distant from Lisp as you would think, and as this edition of Structure and
Interpretation of Computer Programs demonstrates, it is a good alternate framework
for presenting the key ideas. SICP was never about a programming language; it
presents powerful, general ideas for program organization that ought to be useful in
any language.
What do Lisp and JavaScript have in common? The ability to abstract a compu-
tation (code plus some associated data) for later execution as a function; the ability
to embed references to such functions within data structures; the ability to invoke
functions on arguments; the ability to draw a distinction (conditional execution); a
convenient universal data structure; completely automatic storage management for
that data (which seems like a no-brainer, given everything else, until you realize
that many widely used programming languages don’t have it); a large set of useful
functions for operating on that universal data structure; and standard strategies for
using the universal data structure to represent more specialized data structures.
So maybe the truth is somewhere in between the extremes that Perlis so elo-
quently posited. Maybe the sweet spot is something more like 40 functions general
enough to operate usefully on a universal data structure such as lists, but also 10
sets of 6 functions each that are relevant when we take one of 10 specialized views
of that universal data structure. This is manageable if we give good names to these
functions and specialized views.
As you read this book, please pay attention not only to the programming lan-
guage constructs and how they are used, but also to the names given to functions
and variables and data structures. They are not all as short and vivid as the names
Iverson chose for his APL functions, but they have been chosen in a deliberate and
systematic way to enhance your understanding of the overall program structure.
Primitives, means of combination, functional abstraction, naming, and conven-
tions for using a universal data structure in specialized ways by drawing distinctions:
these are the fundamental building blocks of a good programming language. From
there, imagination and good engineering judgment based on experience can do the
rest.

—Guy L. Steele Jr., Lexington, Massachusetts, 2021

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