Progress in Additive Manufacturing (2024) 9:2483–2497

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40964-024-00595-z

FULL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Mechanical properties of lightweight 3D‑printed structures made

with carbon‑filled nylon
Roberto Spina1,2,3 · Luigi Morfini1,2 · Luigi M. Galantucci1

Received: 8 November 2023 / Accepted: 4 March 2024 / Published online: 11 April 2024
© The Author(s) 2024

Abstract
Material extrusion additive manufacturing is a widely used 3D-printing process involving depositing molten thermoplastic
materials layer by layer to create a 3D object. Combining material extrusion with composites creates strong, lightweight,
and functional parts with unique properties. This study uses chopped carbon fiber reinforcement to investigate polyamide's
thermal, rheological, and mechanical properties. The study includes an analysis of the material's thermal properties via dif-
ferential scanning calorimetry and its flow behavior via rotational rheometry. This study provides a comprehensive under-
standing of carbon-filled nylon PA material's economic and mechanical properties, which will help optimize its performance
for various applications. Tensile and flexural tests were used to appraise the material's strength and stiffness under different
loading conditions. A cost analysis was performed to compute the specimen cost as a function of orientation and infill density.
The aim was to understand how the type and strategy of infill design impact the material's mechanical properties, helping
optimize the performance of components and evaluating its cost.

Keywords Material extrusion · Polyamide · Material testing

1 Introduction of components made of composite material. Specifically,

printers with CFR technology possess two nozzles assigned
Composite materials with a high percentage of fillers have to printing: one dedicated to manufacturing the polymeric
recently become of great interest in material extrusion matrix and the other to depositing the continuous fiber rein-
(MEX) additive manufacturing (AM) due to nozzle-based forcement [5]. These materials find use in various industries
technologies, such as fused filament fabrication (FFF) [1], such as automotive, mechanical engineering, biomedical,
continuous filament fabrication (CFF) and continuous fiber and aviation.
reinforcement (CFR) [2], automated fiber placement (AFP) Carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRP) are of most
and automated tape laying (ATL) [3]. AFP/ATL can be clas- significant interest for metal replacement applications
sified as a material extrusion process using fiber-polymer [6–8]. Adding carbon fiber gives the material superior
tape as feedstock with the same layer-by-layer manufactur- mechanical performance to its polymer counterparts. Many
ing methodology based on the deposition in a layer-wise researchers have tested CFRP structures with continuous
manner [4]. These technologies take their design cues from carbon fiber as reinforcement and achieved good results
MEX in that there is a head that deposits material. Still, at regarding tensile properties. The use of continuous fiber
the same time, they differ, because they allow the fabrication reinforcement further elevates the mechanical properties
by having a material consisting of a composite matrix
* Roberto Spina and a continuous fiber reinforcement [6, 9, 10]. Several
roberto.spina@poliba.it reinforcement techniques have been developed, such as
optimizing the printing parameters, adding fibrous and
1
Dipartimento di Meccanica, Matematica e Management, powdered material into the printed polymer, and applying
Politecnico di Bari, Bari, Italy
post-processing treatments [11].
2
Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN)-Sezione di Bari, The ability to manufacture lightweight composite
Bari, Italy
components is highly desirable as it offers numerous
3
Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche-Istituto di Fotonica e advantages to exploit. Lubombo [12] studied lightened
Nanotecnologie (CNR-IFN), Bari, Italy

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2484 Progress in Additive Manufacturing (2024) 9:2483–2497

structures, analyzing the tensile and flexural properties of chopped carbon fiber reinforcement. The material was ini-
3D-printed parts with five infill patterns. The square infill tially characterized with differential scanning calorimetry
structure had the best tensile and strength, while the hexag- (DSC) to measure its thermal properties, such as glass
onal infill exhibited the best flexural modulus and strength. transition and melting temperatures. Rheometer tests then
Using numerical and experimental approaches, Dorčiak allowed the evaluation of the material's flow behavior and
et al. [13] examined how the size and shape of inner struc- viscosity under different conditions. Furthermore, the study
tures affect the mechanical properties of 3D-printed con- investigated the changes in mechanical properties with vari-
structions. The results proved that increasing the volume ous infill patterns (hexagonal, triangular, gyroids, rectan-
structure improved the mechanical properties, and a square gular) and building directions (XY/flat, XZ/on-edge) at a
shape infill type was the most effective. Bárnik et al. [14] constant infill density. Tensile and flexural tests were used
analyzed hexagonal, triangular, and rectangular struc- to appraise the material's strength and stiffness under dif-
tures using tensile tests, identifying that the rectangular ferent loading conditions. A cost analysis was performed to
infill increased ultimate load force per unit volume com- compute the specimen cost as a function of orientation and
pared to the other infill types. Moreover, specimens with infill density. The aim was to understand how the type and
higher infill densities yielded higher ultimate tensile loads. strategy of infill design impact the material's mechanical
Ahmadifar et al. [15] conducted experiments on tensiles properties, helping optimize the performance of components
with different printing conditions. The study evaluated the and evaluating its cost. The remainder of the manuscript is
effect of infill patterns (triangular, rectangular, hexagonal, organized as follows. Section 2 describes the material and
and solid) on tensile strength, demonstrating that the solid methods used to characterize it. In particular, the material
infill pattern had the highest tensile strength. In contrast, characterization is functional to the following experimen-
the triangular infill pattern had the lowest. Changing the tal study of material deposition. The deposition pattern is
infill pattern to rectangular or hexagonal slightly improved also investigated, evaluating the dimensional quality and
the tensile strength. The hexagonal infill was also a topic the accuracy of the produced samples. The result section
of interest in AM due to its unique properties and poten- initially discusses the accuracy of the developed model. Sec-
tial applications [16, 17]. Researchers conducted numerous tion 3 reports the results of the mechanical tests and their
studies to investigate the effects of varying the dimensions statistical analysis. Finally, the outcomes of the statistical
and parameters of hexagonal cells on the mechanical and analysis are compared.
thermal properties of 3D-printed objects. Pipalla et al. [18]
observed that the number of hexagon cells decreased with
the increase in the thickness and length of the cell. The 2 Materials and methods
study found that the void space and weight significantly
impact mechanical properties. Wang et al. [19] investi- The carbon-filled polyamide (PA) used in the investigation
gated the effects of infill pattern, infill density, and strain was the Onyx (Markforged Inc., USA), a proprietary mate-
rate on the mechanical properties of 3D-printed composite rial with a 1.75 mm filament diameter. The main proper-
structures. The results showed that the infill pattern signifi- ties were a nominal density of 1.2 g/cm3, filled with 10.5%
cantly affected deformation and failure modes, and com- volume of chopped carbon microfiber [22]. The chopped
posites with hexagonal units had higher tensile modulus fiber has a high variation in length (168 ± 37 μm) within the
and strength. Increasing infill density improved strength. micrometer, as measured with laboratory facilities. It offered
Strain rate affected stiffness, but imperfections dominated good mechanical properties, wear, and chemical resistance
deformation and failure modes. The build orientation of a for parts with a high-quality surface finish and high heat
3D-printed component also impacted mechanical proper- tolerance [23]. The supplier declared an ultimate tensile
ties, because the direction of depositing layers affected the strength (UTS) of 70 MPa and a tensile strain at break of
anisotropy of the material, resulting in different levels of 25% when printed with 100% filler [22].
strength and stiffness. According to Ali et al. [20], the on- The material's thermal properties were analyzed via
edge build direction showed higher tensile strength and DSC, and its viscosity at the printing temperature was ana-
Young's modulus but lower toughness than flat build direc- lyzed via a rotational rheometer. A DSC 403 F1 Pegasus
tion composites. Secondary operations were also essential (Netzsch-Gerätebau GmbH, Selb, Germany), equipped
to improve the quality of manufactured parts and surface with a silver furnace, was used for the thermal analysis
structuring to improve tribological properties, with reduced of filaments in the supplied state and extruded from the
or no supplementary investments in machinery or produc- nozzle. The samples of a few micrograms were placed in
tion steps [21]. pure aluminum pans under a nitrogen atmosphere from
This work analyzes the material's thermal, rheological, ambient temperature to the maximum temperature of
and mechanical properties of the Nylon PA6 matrix and 300 °C with heating and cooling rates equal to 10 °C/min.
Progress in Additive Manufacturing (2024) 9:2483–2497 2485

Rheological analyses were conducted using a HAAKE and limited strength to the maximum were realized with an
Mars III rheometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc., MA, infill percentage between 15% and 50%. This range of infill
USA) with parallel-plate geometry with a plate diameter density provided a limited degree of strength by reinforcing
of 20 mm. Frequency sweep tests were performed with a the part structure without adding significant weight or print
strain amplitude of 1.0% to ensure a rheological behavior in time. Functional parts withstanding higher forces and loads
the linear viscoelastic region, varying frequencies from 0.1 required a higher infill density, typically higher than 50%,
to 100 ­s−1. The plate gap was kept constant at 0.5 mm dur- to avoid ruptures under pressure. The choice of 100% infill
ing the test. The rheological properties of the Onyx were density gave the best performance, but the part fabrication
determined at different temperatures, from 230 to 270 °C, was long, and much material was used. The lower the infill
using a new sample for each test to ensure no thermal deg- percentage, the less material was used, and thus, the cheaper
radation occurred and starting at 120 s after inserting it the part cost was.
between the plates. All the measurements were repeated Tensile tests were carried out on type 1B specimen,
in the air five times, with each test lasting 3 min to check according to ISO 527:2019—plastics—determination of
reproducibility. Under these experimental conditions, the tensile properties, which dimensions are reported in Fig. 1.
morphology of Onyx was stable, as verified before and Prismatic samples of dimensions 80 × 10 × 4 ­mm3 were used
after measurements. The time–temperature superposition for flexural tests following the ISO 178:2019—Plastics—
(TTS) principle shifted frequency data into a single master Determination of flexural properties. Before mechanical test-
curve at the investigated temperature of 275 °C. ing, all specimens were inspected using optical and contact
Mark Two (Markforged Inc., USA) produced the sam- techniques to appraise their dimensional quality. A digital
ples. The spool was stored in a dry box to avoid moisture microscope, RH-2000 (Hirox Europe, Limonest, France),
absorption, because it was a highly hygroscopic material. with a 1920 × 1200 pixels CMOS camera, captured images at
Based on FFF and CFR technology, the main features of this 50 fps to measure the deposited line and evaluate the quality
desktop series printer were a fully enclosed build volume of the inner structure of the samples. A coordinate measure-
of 320 × 132 × 154 ­mm3 and two independent nozzles, one ment machine (CMM) DeMeet 400 (Schut Geometrische
designed for FFF printing and one for CFR printing. On Meettechniek bv, The Netherlands), with a standard Ren-
the other hand, some significant limitations arose with this ishaw TP20 system with a 2 mm diameter stylus, was also
printer, such as the printing speed and nozzle temperature used to measure the macro geometry. All measurements
being predetermined and being unable to be changed. The were conducted in a temperature-controlled environment,
build platform could not be heated. The printer also used the with a maximum variation of ± 0.5 °C from the ambient
proprietary slicer Eiger™, optimized to be user-friendly. The temperature. Mechanical tests were conducted on an eSun
slicer software selected the printing temperature of 275 °C 10 universal testing machine (Galdabini, Italy) with a 100
and a specific printer speed unknown to the operator. Addi- kN load cell.
tional main parameters fixed for this study were: A mixed design of experiment (DoE) allowed the study
of the effect of some specific parameters on mechanical
The diameter of the FFF nozzle was 0.4 mm. behavior. Investigated factors were the printing orientation
The layer height was 0.125 mm. (the specimen position on the build platform) and the infill
The number of wall layers was equal to 2. pattern. The printing orientation had two levels: XY (flat)
The number of top/bottom layers was equal to 2. and XZ (on-edge). On the other hand, the infill pattern had
The infill percentage was greater than 60%. four levels: gyroid, hexagonal, rectangular, and triangular.
Three replications were made for each combination of fac-
The choice to set the infill percentage was made con- tors, and 24 specimens were obtained for tensile tests and
sidering that the infill density commonly affected the part 24 for flexural tests. The specimens were weighed, and
strength. Standard 3D components subjected to light usage their dimensional accuracy was initially evaluated with a

Fig. 1  Tensile specimen (a) and flexural specimen (b) (all dimensions in mm)
2486 Progress in Additive Manufacturing (2024) 9:2483–2497

caliper and then with the CMM. The infill density of the resulting in superior mechanical characteristics. The dif-
tensile (Table 1) and flexural samples (Table 2) was calcu- ference in weight due to the orientation was associated
lated through the actual weight and plastic volume, a quan- with the different extensions of the top/bottom layers.
tity computed by the Eiger slicer, representing the volume This condition was particularly evident when analyzing
of material the specimen was made of. From Tables 1 and the fully dense flexural samples, in which the difference
2, the weight of the samples was different, as well as the in weight was 0.44 g.
amount of plastic used, due to the diversity of the fill-
ing cells selected for testing (Fig. 2), but the infill density
was almost the same. At the same infill density, different
filling cells required more material. This behavior was
then reflected in the mechanical tests, where some fillings
were better optimized despite lower material consumption,

Table 1  Tensile specimens Specimen ID Build orientation Plastic volume Weight (g) Infill density (%)
­(cm3)

Full XY Flat 8.27 9.92 100.00

Full XZ On-edge 8.81 10.57 100.00
Gyroid XY Flat 5.37 6.44 64.93
Gyroid XZ On-edge 5.68 6.82 64.47
Hexagonal XY Flat 5.43 6.52 65.56
Hexagonal XZ On-edge 5.56 6.67 63.11
Rectangular XY Flat 5.38 6.46 65.06
Rectangular XZ On-edge 5.52 6.62 62.66
Triangular XY Flat 5.32 6.38 64.33
Triangular XZ On-edge 5.54 6.65 62.88

Table 2  Flexural specimens Specimen ID Build orientation Plastic volume Weight (g) Infill density (%)
­(cm3)

Full XY Flat 3.22 3.86 100.00

Full XZ On-edge 4.10 3.42 100.00
Gyroid XY Flat 2.07 2.48 64.29
Gyroid XZ On-edge 2.19 2.58 62.87
Hexagonal XY Flat 2.03 2.44 63.04
Hexagonal XZ On-edge 2.19 2.63 64.04
Rectangular XY Flat 2.09 2.51 64.91
Rectangular XZ On-edge 2.17 2.60 63.45
Triangular XY Flat 2.09 2.51 64.91
Triangular XZ On-edge 2.09 2.51 61.11

Fig. 2  Detail of printing orientation and infill strategies

Progress in Additive Manufacturing (2024) 9:2483–2497 2487

3 Results and discussion scenario of MEX, the thermal behavior of Onyx affected the
deposition and, hence, the performance of the final compo-
3.1 DSC and rheological analysis nent. The material was considered fully melted at the extru-
sion temperature of 275 °C, maintaining its thermal stability
The properties of carbon-filled PA were highly dependent for the two consecutive runs. No appreciable variations were
on processing conditions, such as humidity, temperature, detected in the main thermal properties.
shear rates, and processing time [24]. The DSC analysis and The rheological characterization was performed to
rheometry were employed to assess the thermal and flow achieve relevant information for evaluating the MEX
properties of the Onyx material in the MEX process. This process. The viscoelastic behavior of the polymer influ-
analysis was crucial to measuring effective thermal proper- enced the melt extrusion through the nozzle and following
ties, considering that additives could influence them [25]. welding of deposited layers. Viscoelastic functions such
The maximum temperature of the DSC analysis was set to as storage modulus G′, loss modulus G″, and complex vis-
320 °C to repeat the cycle two times, avoiding the material cosity η* were measured from 230 to 290 °C (Fig. 4). The
decomposition occurring at higher temperatures. The degree material seemed to obey the linear viscoelasticity models,
of crystallinity Xc was calculated as with G′ and G″ proportional to ω2 and ω at low ω, respec-
tively. The material showed almost a linear Newtonian
ΔHm − ΔHcc melt behavior over the experimental frequency and tem-
Xc = , (1)
ΔHm0 perature ranges, typical of a PA6. The temperature had an
important effect on the rheological properties, especially
where ΔHm is the melting enthalpy at the melting tempera-
at high shear rates. The apparent viscosity η* significantly
ture Tm, ΔHcc is the cold crystallization enthalpy, and ΔHm,0
but steadily decreased over the investigated frequency
is the melting enthalpy for a complete crystalline material
range. The rigid carbon fibers in the nylon matrix probably
at the reference temperature Tm0. This last value of enthalpy
contributed to orientation under shear force, disturbing
was equal to 196 J × ­g−1 [26]. Figure 3 reports the DSC ther-
the arrangement of the polymer chain entanglements and
mograms of the filament. The glass transition temperature
causing the strong shear thinning behavior (Fig. 5). These
Tg and melting temperature Tm were 100.2 °C and 201.5 °C,
curves were then fitted, and the master curve was com-
respectively. The melting enthalpy was 38.57 J × ­g−1, with
puted at the reference temperature of 275 °C. The inter-
a crystallinity of 48%. No cold crystallization was detected.
section between G' and G" was identified for an angular
The crystallization temperature Tc was 160.3 °C. Based on
frequency of 628 rad/s.
the result of the DSC test, in the context of the dynamic

Fig. 3  DSC thermograms (heat flux vs. temperature)

2488 Progress in Additive Manufacturing (2024) 9:2483–2497

Fig. 4  Storage G′, loss G″ moduli (a), and apparent viscosity η* (b)

Fig. 5  Master curves at 275 °C computed with TTS

The other individual frequency data sets at different state, the samples were measured using a caliper to roughly
temperatures were shifted horizontally and vertically match the dimensions. After verifying the absence of
towards the reference temperature, covering a frequency printing defects and an error of less than 2% on all main
range more significant than the limited range of the single dimensions, a more precise measurement was done using a
sweep experiments, especially for higher angular frequen- CMM. The total volume of a printed sample was calculated
cies. For a printing speed of 25 mm/s, the extrusion shear based on its actual geometry, using the average of five rep-
rate was 200 ­s−1. The viscosity of Onyx at the printing licates. The errors made in the dimensions and geometry of
temperature of 275 °C for this value of shear rate was these parts were usually systematic. The perimeters were
750 Pa × s, lower than that of acrylonitrile-styrene (ABS), filled continuously with specified layer thickness to real-
equal to 1000 Pa × s, but higher than that of polylactic acid ize the physical part. Since the whole object was fabricated
(PLA) equal to 200 Pa × s. layer-by-layer, the surface finish was poor because of the
approximation of part surfaces into two-dimensional planer
3.2 Dimensional analysis sections/layers. A volume deviation in MEX parts existed,
known as volumetric error V%, computed as the difference
­ m3 prismatic
To ensure dimensional stability, 40 × 4 × 15 m between the volumes of deposited part Vp and the digital
parts were realized in the same batch on the machine plat- model Vd:
form. After waiting eight hours to achieve the conditioned
Progress in Additive Manufacturing (2024) 9:2483–2497 2489

Fig. 6  Dimensional analysis

Fig. 7  Designation of the wall and infill lines for the various patterns

Vp − Vd
V% = . (2)
Vd

The results of the volumetric error V% of the printed speci-

mens are reported in Fig. 6. The other data in the same graph
represent the deviation of length L, width W, and thickness
T. The results showed that dimensional accuracy was high,
below ± 2% for each dimension and between + 0.5/− 1.5%
for V%. The most accurate specimen was the flat gyroid infill,
while the worst was the on-edge hexagonal infill. The sig- Fig. 8  Diameter of the FFF nozzle
nificant error in the width dimension was independent of the
build orientation.
Dimensional analyses were extended to the specimen
patterns to appraise their accuracy. Figure 7 shows the 2D 80–120% of the nozzle diameter. The diameter of the FFF
schemes for the different infill patterns, showing the type nozzle, shown in Fig. 8, was checked, obtaining a value
of lines estimated with the digital microscope. The depos- of 430 ± 3.5 μm averaged on five measures. The infill was
ited line, representing the line width, had a thickness of
2490 Progress in Additive Manufacturing (2024) 9:2483–2497

Fig. 9  Dimensional analysis of the infill patterns (all dimensions in mm)

(red arrow). Identifying fiber orientation and volume fraction

could be a key aspect in the performance analysis, because
it greatly influenced the material properties, producing an
increase in tensile strength more than twice and the elastic
modulus seven times [27]. The deposition line presented a
thickness of 0.408 mm and an uneven fiber distribution with
polymer-rich areas alternated to high fiber-density regions.

Fig. 10  Detail of the center section of the filament (a) and specimen 3.3 Tensile tests
section (b) observed with an optical microscope
Tensile tests were carried out in two steps, according to the
ISO 527:2019—plastics—determination of tensile proper-
created using individual lines (in green), while the perimeter ties. A first step was done with a strain gauge at a reduced
walls (in red) comprised two adjacent deposited lines. speed (1 mm/min) to calculate Young's modulus and yield
All infill patterns of the flat specimen were controlled, point, whereas a second phase was carried out at a higher
showing good dimensional accuracy in the perimeter and speed (5 mm/min) to failure. Figure 11 shows the specimen
inner structure (Fig. 9). The variation in the deposition line and the extensometer mounting. Extensometers measured
width for each infill pattern was minimal, with a maximum strain directly on the specimen, eliminating measurement
value of less than 8%. The angle variation was very low, influences from other testing components and increasing
with a maximum value of 0.5%. The situation changed for accuracy. This information was essential to compare the
the on-edge specimens due to the reduced section on the effect of the infill pattern.
XY plane. All infills presented a flattened cell shape with The summary of tensile modulus E, yield strength σY, and
a less thick perimeter, probably due to the slicer's internal ultimate tensile strength UTS is reported in Table 3.
adjustments on the flow rate. The gyroid pattern was the The curves of the tensile tests are reported in Fig. 12
least influenced, while the most deformed was hexagonal. of flat and on-edge specimens for a maximum strain equal
The chopped carbon fiber in the material was also inves- to 20%. From a first analysis, the strength of the on-edge
tigated. Figure 10a shows the arrangement of the chopped specimens was greater than that of flat specimens with the
fiber in the filament before deposition. The fibers, with a same infill patterns, confirming the outcomes of previ-
diameter of 8.70 ± 0.13 µm and a length of 168 ± 37 μm, ous research [17, 18]. The strength performance, in terms
were oriented along the extrusion direction parallel to the of yield σY and ultimate tensile strengths UTS, of tensile
filament axis, with a nonuniform distribution in the polymer specimens with the gyroid infill was superior to other infill
phase. Some areas were fiber-rich, whereas others only pre- strategies for both orientations. This behavior could be
sented the polymer matrix. This inhomogeneous distribution due to the complex gyroid infill pattern and interlocking
across the cross-section contributed to the local fiber volume spiral shapes providing strength and support in all direc-
fraction difference. Minor changes were detected after depo- tions. The printed object was consequently less susceptible
sition, as shown in Fig. 10b. The black spaces represented to warp, supporting higher stresses without rupture. On
the air gaps between deposition lines in a deposited layer. the contrary, the lowest performance characterized the
Most of the fibers were oriented along the moving direction hexagonal infill. The rectangular and the triangular infills
Progress in Additive Manufacturing (2024) 9:2483–2497 2491

Fig. 11  Specimen mounted on the tensile test machine with the longitudinal extensometer

Table 3  Tensile specimens Specimen ID Build orientation Tensile modulus Yield strength σY Ultimate tensile
E (MPa) (MPa) strength UTS
(MPa)

Gyroid XY Flat 871 18.29 51.30

Gyroid XZ On-edge 1944 22.91 65.86
Hexagonal XY Flat 1015 10.66 26.20
Hexagonal XZ On-edge 2101 18.38 29.51
Rectangular XY Flat 961 11.53 28.19
Rectangular XZ On-edge 1835 21.58 47.87
Triangular XY Flat 901 12.61 26.16
Triangular XZ On-edge 1660 26.13 45.93

were almost equivalent, with intermediate results. Young than samples with 100% infill. The analysis of variance
modulus E showed a similar trend in the XY printing orien- (ANOVA) of the above data revealed that printing orienta-
tation, varying between 871 MPa (gyroid) and 1015 MPa tion and infill patterns were both influential, with a prob-
(hexagonal). Young modulus values doubled in the XZ ability value (p value) less than 0.05. Figure 13 reports the
printing orientation, ranging between 1660 MPa (trian- plots of the main effects and interactions for the investi-
gular) and 2100 MPa (hexagonal). The different printing gated response variables E, σY, and UTS. A design point
orientations exhibited varying tensile properties due to two represented the measured value, whereas the ANOVA
types of failures, one caused by layer separation and slip- model computed the predicted point. The coefficient of
page and the other caused by single-layer breakage. The determination R 2 of each response variable was higher
specimens printed along the XY and XZ directions exhibit than 98%, confirming an excellent agreement between
a build direction parallel to the load during the test. All measurements and predictions. Optimal results could be
experimental strength and modulus values were 50% less
2492 Progress in Additive Manufacturing (2024) 9:2483–2497

Fig. 12  Tensile test results for flat specimens (a) and on-edge specimens (b)

Fig. 13  Main effect and interaction plots of Young modulus (a), yield strength (b), and ultimate tensile strength (c)

achieved by printing the sample in the XZ direction using

the gyroid infill pattern.

3.4 Flexural tests

The flexural tests were carried out following the ISO

178:2019—plastics—determination of flexural properties,
Fig. 14. The specimen with dimensions 80 × 10 × 4 ­mm3 was
mounted with a span L between supports equal to 60 mm.
The flexural strain and stress were
6×s×h
𝜀f = (3)
L2
Fig. 14  Flexural test
3×F×L
𝜎f = , (4)
2 × b × h2
Progress in Additive Manufacturing (2024) 9:2483–2497 2493

Table 4  Results of flexural tests the rectangular infills were almost equivalent, with intermedi-
Specimen ID Build orientation Flexural modu- Flexural
ate results. Flexural modulus Ef showed a similar trend in the
lus Ef (MPa) stress σf XY printing orientation, varying between 873 MPa (triangular)
(MPa) and 1128 MPa (gyroid). Modulus values were 60% in the XZ
printing orientation, ranging between 1118 MPa (triangular)
Gyroid XY Flat 1128 37.84
and 1774 MPa (gyroid). All experimental strength and modu-
Gyroid XZ On-edge 1774 47.23
lus values were 50% less than samples with 100% infill. The
Hexagonal XY Flat 941 29.81
analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the above data revealed that
Hexagonal XZ On-edge 1754 37.08
printing orientation and infill patterns were both influential,
Rectangular XY Flat 938 27.23
with a probability value (p value) less than 0.05. Figure 16
Rectangular XZ On-edge 1367 34.66
reports the plots of the main effects and interactions for the
Triangular XY Flat 873 27.47
investigated response variables Ef and σf. A design point repre-
Triangular XZ On-edge 1188 30.36
sented the measured value, whereas the ANOVA model com-
puted the predicted point. The coefficient of determination R2
of each response variable was higher than 98%, confirming an
where s is deflection, h is thickness, and F is applied force. excellent agreement between measurements and predictions.
The flexural modulus Ef was computed using a linear regres- Optimal results could be achieved by printing the sample in
sion applied to the stress–strain curve between the two flex- the XZ direction using the gyroid infill pattern.
ural couples (εf1, σf1) and (εf2, σf2) with εf1 = 5 × ­10–3 and
εf2 = 25 × ­10–3. 3.5 Time and cost analysis
The summary of flexural modulus Ef and flexural strength
σf is reported in Table 4. The curves of the flexural tests A cost and production time analysis was carried out to ana-
are reported in Fig. 15 of flat and on-edge specimens for a lyze the trade-off with mechanical properties. A simple cost
maximum strain equal to 12%. evaluation model was used to compute the final cost of the
From a first analysis, the strength of the on-edge specimens printed sample. The final cost was the sum of the material,
was greater than flat specimens with the same infill patterns, labor, operation, and electricity costs. The material cost was
confirming the outcomes of tensile tests. The results were in defined as
agreement with those achieved in previous research [28]. The
flexural strength σf of specimens with the gyroid infill was Material cost = M × p = 𝜌 × 𝜋 × (d∕2)2 × L × p, (5)
superior to other infill strategies for both orientations. This
where M was the part mass, p was the filament cost per kilo-
behavior demonstrated the efficiency of the complex gyroid
gram, ρ the material density, and d and L were the filament
infill pattern and interlocking spiral shapes, providing strength
diameter and deposited length. The labor cost was defined as
and support in all directions. On the contrary, the lowest per-
formance characterized the triangular infill. The hexagonal and

Fig. 15  Flexural test results for flat specimens (a) and on-edge specimens (b)
2494 Progress in Additive Manufacturing (2024) 9:2483–2497

Fig. 16  Main effect and interaction plots of flexural modulus (a) and flexural strength (b)

Table 5  Cost specifications neglecting time and cost for the supports, the minimum
Cost Abbreviation Value Unit
printing time was 75 min for the triangular, and the maxi-
mum was 92 min for the gyroid. Also, in this case, the cost
Material price p 287.5 USD/kg variation was minimal, varying between the minimum of
Hourly labor rate hlr 30 USD/h the rectangular (8.2 USD) and the maximum of the gyroid
Hourly operation charge hoc 1 USD/h (8.5 USD). The difference in printing times was higher
Local electricity cost lec 0.15 USD/kW than the printing costs, independently of specimen print-
ing orientation. The data of fully dense specimens were
also reported in the graph, achieving 72 min and 9.1 USD
Labor cost = tdesign × hlr, (6) for the flat specimen and 111 min and 9.9 USD for the
on-edge sample. All data are shown in Fig. 17a. The trend
where tdesign was the time to orient the part, set up printing of the flexural specimens was very similar to the tensile
parameters and slicing, and hlr was the hourly labor rate. specimens, with an average cost savings of about 10% for
The operation cost was defined as almost all configurations to fully dense specimens. The
average printing time of the flat specimen was 25 min,
Operation cost = tprinting × hoc, (7) costing 6.13 USD, and 30 min and 6.26 USD for the on-
where tprinting was the time needed to realize the part, and hoc edge specimen. All data are shown in Fig. 17b.
was the hourly operation charge. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) of the above data
The electricity cost was revealed that printing orientation and infill patterns were
both influential, with a probability value (p value) less than
Electricity cost = tprinting × Pow × lec, (8) 0.05. Figure 16 reports the plots of the main effects and
interactions for the investigated response variables Final
where Pow was the rated power of the MEX printer, and lec Cost %, as the ratio between the final cost of the specimen,
the local electricity cost. Table 5 reports the cost adopted. tensile and flexural, with the selected infill compared to that
For the tensile specimens printed along the XY plane, with a full infill. A design point represented the measured
the minimum printing time was 52 min for the rectan- value, whereas the ANOVA model computed the predicted
gular infill, and the maximum was 67 min for the gyroid point. The coefficient of determination R2 of each response
infill. The cost variation was minimal, because the weight variable was higher than 97%, confirming an excellent
was very similar, varying between the minimum of the agreement between measurements and predictions. The low-
triangular specimen (7.7 USD) and the maximum of the est cost could be achieved by printing the sample in the XZ
gyroid (8.0 USD). For samples printed along the XZ plane, direction using the triangular infill pattern. In contrast, the
Progress in Additive Manufacturing (2024) 9:2483–2497 2495

Fig. 17  Time and cost analysis graph of tensile (a) and flexural specimens (b)

Fig. 18  Main effect and interaction plots of the final cost of tensile (a) and flexural specimens (b)

highest cost was associated with the specimen with gyroid 4 Conclusions
infill printed in the XY direction. The comparison between
cost and mechanical results indicated that higher strength This study aimed to analyze the tensile and flexural perfor-
and moduli values could be achieved with infill patterns mance of Onyx specimens with different filling patterns and
requiring higher deposition time and, consequently, higher printing orientations and investigate the influence of these
cost (Fig. 18). patterns on manufacturing time and cost. The results of the
tensile tests showed that the gyroid-type infill was found to
have the highest tensile strength, both in the case of print
orientation along the XY and XZ planes. The second type of
infill with higher tensile strength was the rectangular infill,
2496 Progress in Additive Manufacturing (2024) 9:2483–2497

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mater​ials/​plast​ics/​onyx. Accessed 01 2024