UNIT – II

INTRODUCTION TO HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES

Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV):

The hybrid electric vehicle combines a gasoline engine with an electric motor. An alternate is
a diesel engine and an electric motor.

Figure 1: Components of a hybrid Vehicle that combines a pure gasoline with a pure EV.

As shown in Figure 1, a HEV is formed by merging components from a pure electrical vehicle and
a pure gasoline vehicle. The Electric Vehicle (EV) has an M/G which allows regenerative braking
for an EV; the M/G installed in the HEV enables regenerative braking. For the HEV, the M/G is
tucked directly behind the engine. In Honda hybrids, the M/G is connected directly to the engine.
The transmission appears next in line. This arrangement has two torque producers; the M/G in motor
mode, M-mode, and the gasoline engine. The battery and M/G are connected electrically.
HEVs are a combination of electrical and mechanical components. Three main sources of electricity
for hybrids are batteries, FCs, and capacitors. Each device has a low cell voltage, and, hence,
requires many cells in series to obtain the voltage demanded by an HEV. Difference in the source of
Energy can be explained as:

• The FC provides high energy but low power.

• The battery supplies both modest power and energy.
• The capacitor supplies very large power but low energy.

The components of an electrochemical cell include anode, cathode, and electrolyte (shown in fig2).
The current flow both internal and external to the cell is used to describe the current loop.

Figure 2: An electrode, a circuit for a cell which is converting chemical energy to electrical energy.
The motion of negative charges is clockwise and forms a closed loop through external wires and
load and the electrolyte in the cell.

A critical issue for both battery life and safety is the precision control of the Charge/Discharge
cycle. Overcharging can be traced as a cause of fire and failure. Applications impose two boundaries
or limitations on batteries. The first limit, which is dictated by battery life, is the minimum allowed
State of Charge. As a result, not all the installed battery energy can be used. The battery feeds
energy to other electrical equipment, which is usually the inverter. This equipment can use a broad
range of input voltage, but cannot accept a low voltage. The second limit is the minimum voltage
allowed from the battery.
HISTORY OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES:
In 1900, steam technology was advanced. The advantages of steam-powered cars included high
performance in terms of power and speed. However, the disadvantages of steam-powered cars
included poor fuel economy and the need to ―fire up the boiler‖ before driving. Feed water was a
necessary input for steam engine, therefore could not tolerate the loss of fresh water. Later, Steam
condensers were applied to the steam car to solve the feed water problem. However, by that time
Gasoline cars had won the marketing battle.

Gasoline cars of 1900 were noisy, dirty, smelly, cantankerous, and unreliable. In comparison,
electric cars were comfortable, quiet, clean, and fashionable. Ease of control was also a desirable
feature. Lead acid batteries were used in 1900 and are still used in modern cars. Hence lead acid
batteries have a long history (since 1881) of use as a viable energy storage device. Golden age of
Electrical vehicle marked from 1890 to 1924 with peak production of electric vehicles in 1912.
However, the range was limited by energy storage in the battery. After every trip, the battery
required recharging. At the 1924 automobile show, no electric cars were on display. This announced
the end of the Golden Age of electric-powered cars.

The range of a gasoline car was far superior to that of either a steam or an electric car and
dominated the automobile market from 1924 to 1960. The gasoline car had one dominant feature; it
used gasoline as a fuel. The modern period starts with the oil embargoes and the gasoline shortages
during the 1970s which created long lines at gas stations. Engineers recognized that the good
features of the gasoline engine could be combined with those of the electric motor to produce a
superior car. A marriage of the two yields the hybrid automobile.

Figure 3: Historical development of automobile and development of interest and activity in the EV from 1890 to present
day. Electric Vehicle merged into hybrid electric vehicle.
1769:

The first steam-powered vehicle was designed by Nicolas-Joseph Cug not and constructed by
M. Brez in that could attain speeds of up to 6 km/hour. These early steam-powered vehicles
were soheavy that they were only practical on a perfectly flat surface as strong as iron.

1807:

The next step towards the development of the car was the invention of the internal combustion
engine. Francois Isaac de Rivaz designed the first internal combustion engine in, using a mixture
of hydrogen and oxygen to generate energy.

1825:

British inventor Goldsworthy Gurney built a steam car that successfully completed an 85 mile
round-trip journey in ten hours’ time.

1839:

Robert Anderson of Aberdeen, Scotland built the first electric vehicle.

1860:

In, Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir, a Frenchman, built the first successful two-stroke gas driven engine.

1886:

Historical records indicate that an electric-powered taxicab, using a battery with 28 cells and a small electric
motor, was introduced in England.

1888:

Immisch & Company built a four-passenger carriage, powered by a one-horsepower motor and 24-cell
battery, for the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. In the same year, Magnus Volk in Brighton, England made a
three-wheeled electric car. 1890 – 1910 (Period of significant improvements in battery technology)

INVENTION OF HYBRID VEHICLES:

1890:

Jacob Lohner, a coach builder in Vienna, Austria, foresaw the need for an electric vehicle that would be less
noisy than the new gas-powered cars. He commissioned a design for an electric vehicle from Austro-
Hungarian engineer Ferdinand Porsche, who had recently graduated from the Vienna Technical College.
Porsche's first version of the electric car used a pair of electric motors mounted in the front wheel hubs of a
conventional car. The car could travel up to 38 miles. To extend the vehicle's range, Porsche added a gasoline
engine that could recharge the batteries, thus giving birth to the first hybrid, the Lohner-Porsche
Elektromobil.
 EARLY HYBRID VEHICLES:

1900:

Porsche showed his hybrid car at the Paris Exposition of 1900. A gasoline engine was used to power a
generator which, in turn, drove a small series of motors. The electric engine was used to give the car a little
bit of extra power. This method of series hybrid engine is still in use today, although obviously with further
scope of performance improvement and greater fuel savings.

1915:

Woods Motor Vehicle manufacturers created the Dual Power hybrid vehicle, second hybrid car in market.
Rather than combining the two power sources to give a single output of power, the Dual Power used an
electric battery motor to power the engine at low speeds (below 25km/h) and used the gasoline engine to
carry the vehicle from these low speeds up to its 55km/h maximum speed. While Porsche had invented the
series hybrid, Woods invented the parallel hybrid.

1918:

The Woods Dual Power was the first hybrid to go into mass production. In all, some 600 models were built by.
However, the evolution of the internal combustion engine left electric power a marginal technology

1960:

Victor Wouk worked in helping create numerous hybrid designs earned him the nickname of the ―Godfather
of the Hybrid‖. In 1976 he even converted a Buick Skylark from gasoline to hybrid.

1978:

Modern hybrid cars rely on the regenerative braking system. When a standard combustion engine
car brakes, a lot of power is lost because it dissipates into the atmosphere as heat. Regenerative
braking means that the electric motor is used for slowing the car and it essentially collects this
power and uses it to help recharge the electric batteries within the car. This development alone is
believed to have progressed hybrid vehicle manufacture significantly. The Regenerative Braking
System, was first designed and developed in 1978 by David Arthurs. Using standard car components
he converted an Opel GT to offer 75 miles to the gallon and many home conversions are done using
the plans for this system that are still widely available on the Interne

MODERN PERIOD OF HYBRID HISTORY:

The history of hybrid cars is much longer and more involved than many first imagine. It is, however,
in the last ten years or so that we, as consumers, have begun to pay more attention to the hybrid
vehicle as a viable alternative to ICE driven cars. Whether looking for a way to save money on
spiralling gas costs or in an attempt to help reduce the negative effects on the environment we are
buying hybrid cars much more frequently.

1990:

Automakers took a renewed interest in the hybrid, seeking a solution to dwindling energy supplies
and environmental concerns and created modern history of hybrid car
 1993:

In USA, Bill Clinton's administration recognized the urgency for the mass production of cars
powered by means other than gasoline. Numerous government agencies, as well as Chrysler, Ford,
GM, and USCAR combined forces in the PNGV (Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles), to
create cars using alternative power sources, including the development and improvement of hybrid
electric vehicles.

1997:

The Audi Duo was the first European hybrid car put into mass production and hybrid production and
consumer take up has continued to go from strength to strength over the decades.

2000:

Toyota Prius and Honda Insight became the first mass market hybrids to go on sale in the United
States, with dozens of models following in the next decade. The Honda Insight and Toyota Prius
were two of the first mainstream Hybrid Electric Vehicles and both models remain a popular line.

2005:

A hybrid Ford Escape, the SUV, was released in 2005. Toyota and Ford essentially swapped patents
with one another, Ford gaining a number of Toyota patents relating to hybrid technology and
Toyota, in return, gaining access to Diesel engine patents from Ford.

PRESENT OF HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLES:

Toyota is the most prominent of all manufacturers when it comes to hybrid cars. As well as the
specialist hybrid range they have produced hybrid versions of many of their existing model lines,
including several Lexus (now owned and manufactured by Toyota) vehicles. They have also stated
that it is their intention to release a hybrid version of every single model they release in the coming
decade. As well as cars and SUVs, there are a select number of hybrid motorcycles, pickups, vans,
and other road going vehicles available to the consumer and the list is continually increasing.

FUTURE OF HYBRID ELECTRICAL VEHICLE:

Since petroleum is limited and will someday run out of supply. In the arbitrary year 2037, an
estimated one billion petroleum-fuelled vehicles will be on the world's roads. Gasoline will become
prohibitively expensive. The world need to have solutions for the ―400 million otherwise useless
cars”. So year 2037 ―gasoline runs out year‖ means, petroleum will no longer be used for personal
mobility. A market may develop for solar-powered EVs of the size of a scooter or golf cart. Since
hybrid technology applies to heavy vehicles, hybrid buses and hybrid trains will be more significant.

SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPORTANCE OF HYBRID EECTRIC

VEHICLES:

As modern culture and technology continue to develop, the growing presence of global warming and
irreversible climate change draws increasing amounts of concern from the world's population. It has
only been recently, when modern society has actually taken notice of these changes and decided that
something needs to change if the global warming process is to be stopped.

Countries around the world are working to drastically reduce CO 2 emissions as well as other
harmful environmental pollutants. Amongst the most notable producers of these pollutants are
 automobiles, which are almost exclusively powered by internal combustion engines and spew out
unhealthy emissions.

According to various reports, cars and trucks are responsible for almost 25% of CO 2 emission and
other major transportation methods account for another 12%. With immense quantities of cars on the
road today, pure combustion engines are quickly becoming a target of global warming blame. One
potential alternative to the world's dependence on standard combustion engine vehicles are hybrid
cars. Cost-effectiveness is also an important factor contributing to the development of an
environment friendly transportation sector.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ANALYSIS:

All stages of the life cycle were considered, starting from

a. The extraction of natural resources to produce materials and

b. Ending with conversion of the energy stored on board the vehicle into mechanical energy
for vehicle displacement and

c. Other purposes (heating, cooling, lighting, etc.).

In addition, vehicle production stages and end-of-life disposal contribute substantially when
quantifying the life cycle environmental impact of fuel-propulsion alternatives.

The analysis were conducted on six vehicles, each was representative of one of the above discussed
categories. The specific vehicles were:

1. Toyota Corolla (conventional vehicle),

2. Toyota Prius (hybrid vehicle),
3. Toyota RAV4EV (electric vehicle),
4. Honda FCX (hydrogen fuel cell vehicle),
5. Ford Focus H2 -ICE (hydrogen ICE vehicle),
6. Ford Focus H2 -ICE adapted to use ammonia as source of hydrogen (ammonia-fuelled
ICE vehicle).

Two environmental impact elements were accounted for in the:

a. Air pollution (AP) and

b. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions

The main GHGs were CO2,CH4, N2O, and SF6 (sulphur hexafluoride), which have GHG impact
weighting coefficients relative to CO2 of 1, 21, 310, and 24,900, respectively.

For AP, the airborne pollutants CO, NOX,SOX, and VOCs are assigned the following weighting
coefficients: 0.017, 1, 1.3, and 0.64, respectively.

The vehicle production stage contributes to the total life cycle environmental impact through the
pollution associated with

a. The extraction and processing of material resources,

 b. Manufacturing and

c. The vehicle disposal stage.

Additional sources of GHG and AP emissions were associated with the fuel production and
utilization stages. The environmental impacts of these stages have been evaluated in numerous life
cycle assessments of fuel cycles.

Regarding electricity production for the electric car case, three case scenarios were considered here:

1. When electricity is produced from renewable energy sources and nuclear energy;
2. When 50% of the electricity is produced from renewable energy sources and 50% from
natural gas at an efficiency of 40%;
3. When electricity is produced from natural gas at an efficiency of 40%.

AP emissions were calculated assuming that GHG emissions for plant manufacturing correspond
entirely to natural gas combustion. GHG and AP emissions embedded in manufacturing a natural
gas power generation plant were negligible compared to the direct emissions during its utilization.
Taking those factors into account, GHG and AP emissions for the three scenarios of electricity
generation were presented in Table 2.

Table2: GHG and air pollution emissions per MJ of electricity produced

Hydrogen charging of fuel tanks on vehicles requires compression. Therefore, presented case
considered the energy for hydrogen compression to be provided by electricity.

Table 3: GHG and air pollution emissions per MJ fuel of Hydrogen from natural gas produced

GHG and AP emissions were reported for hydrogen vehicles for the three electricity-generation
scenarios considered (see table 3), accounting for the environmental effects of hydrogen
compression.
 Table 4. Environmental impact associated with vehicle Overall Life cycle and Fuel Utilization
State.

The environmental impact of the fuel utilization stage, as well as the overall life cycle is presented in
Table 4. The H2-ICE vehicle results were based on the assumption that the only GHG emissions
during the utilization stage were associated with the compression work, needed to fill the fuel tank
of the vehicle. The GHG effect of water vapor emissions was neglected in this analysis due its little
value,. For the ammonia fuel vehicle, a very small amount of pump work was needed therefore,
ammonia fuel was considered to emit no GHGs during fuel utilization.
 ECONOMICAL ANALYSIS

A number of key economic parameters that characterize vehicles were:

a. Vehicle price,

b. Fuel cost, and

c. Driving range.

This case neglected maintenance costs; however, for the hybrid and electric vehicles, the cost of battery
replacement during the lifetime was accounted for. The driving range determines the frequency (number and
separation distance) of fuelling stations for each vehicle type. The total fuel cost and the total number of
kilometres driven were related to the vehicle life (see Table 1).
 Table1: Technical and economical values for selected vehicle types

For the Honda FCX the listed initial price for a prototype leased in 2002 was USk$2,000, which is estimated
to drop below USk$100 in regular production. Currently, a Honda FCX can be leased for 3 years with a
total price of USk$21.6. In order to render the comparative study reasonable, the initial price of the
hydrogen fuel cell vehicle is assumed here to be USk$100. For e electric vehicle, the specific cost was
estimated to be US$569/kWh with nickel metal hydride (NiMeH) batteries which are typically used in
hybrid and electric cars. Historical prices of typical fuels were used to calculate annual average price.

RESULTS OF TECHNICAL–ECONOMICAL–ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS:

In present situation this case study provides a general approach for assessing the combined technical–
economical–environmental benefits of transportation options.

This analysis showed that the hybrid and electric cars have advantages over the others. The economics and
environmental impact associated with use of an electric car depends significantly on the source of the
electricity:

 a. If electricity is generated from renewable energy sources, the electric car is advantageous to the
hybrid vehicle.

b. If the electricity is generated from fossil fuels, the electric car remains competitive only if the
electricity is generated on-board.

c. If the electricity is generated with an efficiency of 50–60% by a gas turbine engine connected to a
high-capacity battery and electric motor, the electric car is superior in many respects.

d. For electricity-generation scenarios 2 and 3, using ammonia as a means to store hydrogen

onboard a vehicle is the best option among those analysed (as shown in figure 2).

Figure2: Normalized economic and environmental indicators for six vehicle types
The electric car with capability for on-board electricity generation represents a beneficial option and is
worthy of further investigation, as part of efforts to develop energy efficient and ecologically benign
vehicles.

The main limitations of this study were as follows:

(i) The use of data which may be of limited accuracy in some instances;

(ii) The subjectiveness of the indicators chosen; and

(iii) The simplicity of the procedure used for developing the general indicator without using unique
weighting coefficients.

Despite these limitations, the study reflects relatively accurately and realistically the present situation and
provides a general approach for assessing the combined technical–economical–environmental benefits of
transportation options.

IMPACT OF MODERN DRIVE TRAINS ON ENERGY SUPPLIES:

In terms of overall energy efficiency, the conceptual advantages of a hybrid over a conventional vehicle are:

• Regenerative braking. A hybrid can capture some of the energy normally lost as heat to the mechanical
brakes by using its electric drive motor(s) in generator mode to break the vehicle

• More efficient operation of the ICE, including reduction of idle. A hybrid can avoid some of the
energy losses associated with engine operation at speed and load combinations where the engine is
inefficient by using the energy storage device to either absorb part of the ICE's output or augment it or even
substitute for it. This allows the ICE to operate only at speeds and loads where it is most efficient. When an
HEV is stopped, rather than running the engine at idle, where it is extremely inefficient, the control system
may either shut off the engine, with the storage device providing auxiliary power (for heating or cooling the
vehicle interior, powering headlights, etc.), or run the engine at a higher-than-idle (more efficient) power
setting and use the excess power (over auxiliary loads) to recharge the storage device. When the vehicle
control system can shut the engine off at idle, the drive train can be designed so that the drive motor also
serves as the starter motor, allowing extremely rapid restart due to the motor's high starting torque.

• Smaller ICE: Since the storage device can take up a part of the load, the HEV's ICE can be down sized.
The ICE may be sized for the continuous load and not for the very high short term acceleration load. This
enables the ICE to operate at a higher fraction of its rated power, generally at higher fuel efficiency, during
most of the driving.

There are counterbalancing factors reducing hybrids' energy advantage, including:

• Potential for higher weight. Although the fuel-driven energy source on a hybrid generally will be of
lower power and weight than the engine in a conventional vehicle of similar performance, total hybrid
weight is likely to be higher than the conventional vehicle it replaces because of the added weight of the
storage device, electric motor(s), and other components. This depends, of course, on the storage mechanism
chosen, the vehicle performance requirements, and so forth.
• Electrical losses. Although individual electric drive train components tend to be quite efficient for one-
way energy flows, in many hybrid configurations, electricity flows back and forth through components in a
way that leads to cascading losses. Further, some of the components may be forced to operate under
conditions where they have reduced efficiency. For example, like ICEs, most electric motors have lower
efficiency at the low-speed, low-load conditions often encountered in city driving. Without careful
component selection and a control strategy that minimizes electric losses, much of the theoretical efficiency
advantage often associated with an electric drive train can be lost.
 HYDRODYNAMIC TRANSMISSION
Hydrodynamic transmissions use fluid to transmit power in the form of torque and speed and are widely
usedin passenger cars. They consist of a torque converter and an automatic gearbox. The torque converter
consists of at least three rotary elements known as the impeller (pump), the turbine, and the reactor, as
shown in Figure 2.18.
The impeller is connected to the engine shaft and the turbine is connected to the output shaft of the
converter, which in turn is coupled to the input shaft of the multispeed gearbox. The reactor is coupled to
external housing to provide a reaction on the fluid circulating in the converter. The function of the reactor is
to enable the turbine to develop anout put torque higher than the input torque of the converter, thus
producing torque multiplication. The reactor is usually mounted on a free wheel (one-way clutch) so that
when the starting period has been completed and the turbine speed is approaching that of the pump, the
reactor is in free rotation. At this point, the converter operates as a fluid coupled with a ratio of output
torqueto input torque that is equal to 1.0.
The major advantages of hydrodynamic transmission may be summarized as follows:
• When properly matched, the engine will not stall.
• It provides flexible coupling between the engine and the driven wheels.
• Together with a suitably selected multispeed gearbox, it provides torque–speed characteristics
thatapproach the ideal.

Figure1.5.3.2.1.Schematic view of a torque converter

The major disadvantages of hydrodynamic transmission are its low efficiency in a stop–go driving pattern
and its complex construction.
The performance characteristics of a torque converter are described in terms of the following four
parameters:

1. Speed ratio:

………………….eq1
Which is the reciprocal of the gear ratio mentioned before.
2. Torque ratio:

…………..eq2

3. Efficiency:

………….eq3

4. Capacity factor (size factor):

………….eq4

The capacity factor, Kc, is an indicator of the ability of the converter to absorber transmit torque, which is
proportional to the square of the rotary speed. Typical performance characteristics of the torque converter
are shown in Figure 1.5.3.2.2, in which torque ratio, efficiency, and input capacity factor — that is the ratio
of input speed to the square root of input torque — are plotted against speed ratio. The torque ratio has the
maximum value at stall condition, where the output speed is zero. The torque ratio decreases as the speed
ratio increases (gear ratio decreases) and the converter eventually acts as a hydraulic coupling with a torque
ratio of 1.0. At this point, a small difference between the input and output speed exists because of the slip
between the impeller (pump) and the turbine. The efficiency of the torque converter is zero at stall condition
and increases with increasing speed ratio (decrease in the gear ratio). It reaches the maximum when the
converter acts as a fluid
coupling (torque ratio equal to 1.0).
To determine the actual operating condition of the torque converter, the engine operating point has to be
specified because the engine drives the torque converter.
To characterize the engine operating condition for the purpose of determining the combined performance
ofthe engine and the converter, an engine capacity factor, Ke, is introduced and defined as

……..eq5

Where ne and Te are engine speed and torque, respectively.

The variation of the capacity factor with speed for a typical engine is shown in Figure 1.5.3.2.3.
To achieve proper matching, the engine and the torque converter should have a similar range in the
capacityfactor.
 Figure 1.5.3.2.3.: Performance characteristics of a torque converter

Figure 1.5.3.2.4:Capacity factor of a typical engine

The engine shaft is usually connected to the input shaft of the torque converter, as mentioned above. That is,

………..eq6

The matching procedure begins with specifying the engine speed and engine torque. Knowing the engine
operating point, one can determine the engine capacity factor, Ke(see Figure 1.5.3.2.5). Since Ke_ Kc, the
input capacity factor of the torque converter corresponding to the specific engine operating point is then
known. As shown in Figure 1.5.3.2.4, for a particular value of the input capacity factor of the torque
converter, Ktc, the converter speed ratio, Csr, and torque ratio, Ctr, can be determined from the torque
converter performance characteristics. The output torque and output speed of the converter are then given by
 …………………….eq7

and

…………….eq8

Where Ttc and ntc are the output torque and output speed of the converter, Respectively.
Since the torque converter has a limited torque ratio range (usually less than 2), a multispeed
gearbox is usually connected to it. The gearbox comprises several planetary gear sets and is
automatically shifted. Withthe gear

Figure 1.5.3.2.5.: Tractive effort–speed characteristics of a passenger car with automatic

transmissionRatios of the gearbox, the tractive effort and speed of the vehicle can be

calculated by

………eq9

and

………….eq10

Above fig shows the variation of the tractive effort with speed for a passenger car equipped with
a torqueconverter and a three-speed gearbox.