Advanced Welding Processes:

Introduction:
Welding is a process of joining two with the help of heat or pressure or by some other
means. The cost of welding is very less as compared to other processes and forms a
strong joint. For this reason, it is largely used in the following fields of engineering:1.
Manufacturing of machine tools, auto parts, cycle parts, etc.2. Fabrication of farm machinery
& equipment.3. Fabrication of buildings, bridges & ships.4. Construction of boilers, furnaces,
railways, cars, aeroplanes, rockets and missiles.5. Manufacturing of television sets,
refrigerators, kitchen cabinets, etc. A weld will inherit the common drawback of brittleness,
which is a disadvantage. The emphasis in welding technique should, therefore, be preventing
this brittleness to the maximum possible extent.
It is used in the manufacture of automobile bodies, aircraft frames, railway wagons, machine
frames, structural works, tanks, furniture, boilers, general repair work and ship building.
Types of Welding:
1) Plastic Welding or Pressure Welding: The piece of metal to be joined are heated to a
plastic state and forced together by external pressure. Eg: Resistance welding
2) Fusion Welding or Non-Pressure Welding: The material at the joint is heated to a molten
state and allowed to solidify. Eg: Gas welding, Arc welding
Classification of Welding Processes:
1) Arc Welding
i) Carbon Arc Welding
ii) Manual Metal Arc Welding (MMAW)
iii) Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
iv) Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding
v) Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
vi) Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)
vii) Electro Slag Welding (ESW)
viii) Atomic Hydrogen Welding (AHW)
2) Gas Welding
i) Air-Acetylene Welding (AAW)
ii) Oxy-Acetylene Welding (OAW)
iii) Oxy-Hydrogen Welding (OHW)
iv) Pressure Gas Welding (PGW)
3) Resistance Welding
i) Spot Welding (SW)
ii) Seam Welding (SEW)
iii) Percussion Welding (PEW)
iv) Flash Welding (FW)
v) Butt Welding (BW)
4) Solid-State Welding
i) Cold Welding (CW)
ii) Roll Welding (ROW)
iii) Diffusion Welding (DFW)
iv) Forge Welding (FOW)
v) Friction Welding (FRW)
vi) Explosion Welding (EXW)
vii) Ultrasonic Welding (USW)
5) Thermit Welding
6) Newer Welding methods
i) Electron-beam
ii) Laser
7) Related process
i) Oxy-acetylene cutting
ii) Arc cutting
iii) Hard facing
iv) Brazing
v) Soldering
Resistance Welding
Resistance welding is a pressure welding process in which it joins the two
workpieces together by raising the temperature to the fusion point and
applying mechanical pressure to join between them.
The resistance welding works on the principle of heat generation due to electric
resistance. The following expression of heat generated during resistance welding
is
H = I2RT.
Where, Here the H = Heat generated
I = Current in amperes
R = Resistance of area being welded and
T = Time for the flow of current.
Resistance Welding Parts or Construction:
The following construction of Resistance Welding is:
1. Power Supply
2. Initiating Switch
3. Timer
4. Contractor Point
5. Step Down Transformer
6. Primary and Secondary winding
7. Moveable and Fixed Electrode
8. Air valve and
9. Pneumatic cylinder

Resistance Welding Types:

There are four types of Resistance welding:
1. Spot welding
2. Seam Welding
3. Projection and
4. Flash butt welding
Spot Welding:
Spot welding is a type of resistance welding in which the two sheets are melted and joined by
the application of force and electrical energy. In spot welding the work pieces are held together
under pressure of anvil face. The electrodes are brought near the work piece and the power
is supplied to the welding. Here local heat generation take place in the work piece because of
material resistance and in flow of current. The resistance is high in the inner surface because
of less air gap. As current (as per requirement) is flowing to the surface and the inner surface
gets melt down.
After melt down now we stop the flow of current and pressure is being applied for some time
till it gets cooled. Here at the inner surface, it creates circular nugget and the nugget size
depends on size of electrode and it is about diameter 4 to 7 mm.

Seam Welding:
Seam welding is similar to spot welding and is also called a continuous spot-welding process.
The seam welding is used to create air-tight joints.
Here In seam welding, a roller-type electrode is used to flow current through workpieces. The
workpiece is being placed between the two rollers.
Now the power is supplied to the welding process and the roller starts rolling to the workpiece.
With the help of a roller, the interface surface is being melted to form a weld joint.
The weld timing and electrode movement are controlled so that the overlapping of welding
and workpiece does not get too hot.
Projection Welding:
Projection welding is also similar to the spot-welding process in which dimple can be
generated on the workpieces where welding is required. In projection welding, the current
required is much less current than the spot welding. The workpiece is kept between the two
electrodes. Now the force is applied to the electrodes. The current is supplied to the system.
As the current passes, the heat formation takes place due to the internal resistance of the
workpieces. Now the pressure applies to the electrodes and this pressure causes the dimple
to flatten and form a weld. The number of welds can be made at the same time when multiple
projections are present. Projection welding is a very efficient process.

Flash butt Welding:

This is also one of the important types of resistance welding process and the welding process
takes place due to plastic deformation. In this welding process, we used to weld pipe, tubes,
and rods of the various industries. For flash butt welding the workpiece is clamped in the
electrode holders a high pulsed current (Range is 100000 ampere) is supplied to the
workpiece material. There is a two-electrode holder used here. One is fixed and another one
is moveable. Now the current is supplied and the movable clamp is forced against the fixed
clamp due to contact of workpieces at high current, and now the flash will be produced. When
the interface surface comes into plastic form, the current is stopped and axial pressure is
increased to make a joint.
Arc Welding
Arc welding is one of several fusion processes for joining metals. By applying intense heat,
metal at the joint between two parts is melted and caused to intermix directly, or more
commonly, with an intermediate molten filler metal. Upon cooling and solidification, a
metallurgical bond is created.
Since the joining is an intermixture of metals the final weldment potentially has the same
strength properties as the metals of the parts.
A problem that arises in arc welding is the contamination of the metal with elements in the
atmosphere (O, H, N, etc). There can also be a problem with the surface that is not clean.
The solution to this Includes,
1. Gas shields: An inert gas is blown into the weld zone to drive away other atmospheric
gases
2. Flux: A material that is added to clean the surface may also give off a gas to drive
away unwanted gases.
The main parts are:
1. Welding Machine (Power Supply)
2. Cable
3. Holder
4. Electrode
5. Cable
6. Hand Gloves
7. Goggles
8. Aprons
9. Chipping Hammers
10. Wire Brush

Arc Welding Working Principle:

The Arc welding temperature ranges from a minimum 3000-degree centigrade to up to 20000-
degree centigrade. So as the Diagram is shown above in which set up has been shown. Now
supplying the power from the machine to the electrodes by the electrode cable and holder.
The workpiece is mounted there than before the electrode touches the workpiece we have to
maintain a 2 to 3 mm gap because when you directly touch it, It might get sticks and do
vibrates.
Carbon arc Welding

Carbon arc welding is one of the oldest welding techniques that are still in use today. The
process of carbon arc welding uses low voltage, high amp electricity to heat the metal once
an arc is formed between a carbon electrode and the piece being welded; if an arc is formed
between two carbon electrodes that technique is known as a twin-carbon arc. The technique
of single-carbon arc welding uses a direct current power supply which if required, filler rod
may be used in Carbon Arc Welding. End of the rod is held in the arc zone. The molten rod
material is supplied to the weld pool.

Shields (neutral gas, flux) may be used for weld pool protection depending on type of welded
metal. is connected using a straight polarity.

Advantages:

• Low cost of equipment and welding operation;

• High level of operator skill is not required;

• The process is easily automated;

• Low distortion of work piece.

Disadvantages:

• Unstable quality of the weld (porosity);

• Carbon of electrode contaminates weld material with carbides.

Shielded Metal Arc Welding Process

It is also known as Manual metal arc welding; stick welding or electric arc welding. It is a fusion
welding process. Welding is performed with the heat of an electric arc that is maintained
between the ends of a coated metal electrode and the work piece. The electric energy from
the arc thus formed produces temperatures of 10000-degree Fahrenheit or higher. A pool of
molten metal consisting of base metal and filler metal is formed near the tip of the electrode.
Both ferrous and non-ferrous metals and alloys can be welded by arc welding processes with
proper electrodes. The arc and the weld metal pool are protected by the arc flame and slag
produced and controlled by the electrode coating. The arc and the weld metal pool are
protected by the arc flame and slag produced and controlled by the electrode coating.

Arc time = (time arc is on)/ (Hours Worked)

Advantages of the SMAW process:

· The shielded metal arc welding process is simple, versatile and requires a smaller variety of
electrodes.

. The equipment cost is low and it can be easily maintained. Welds by this process can be
made in any position.

Limitation of the SMAW process:

· The process is slow

· Lot of electrode material is wasted in the form of unused ends, slag, arc gases

· If the slag is not removed properly, it remains in the bead leading to poor quality-welds.
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)/ Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding:
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is a fusion welding process. It works on basic principle of
heat generation due to electric arc. This heat is further used to melt consumable electrode
and base plates metal which solidify together and makes a strong joint. The shielded gases
are also supplied through nozzle which protect the weld zone from other reactive gases. This
gives good surface finish and a stronger joint.

Advantages:
• It provides higher deposition rate.
• It is faster comparing to arc welding because it supplies filler material continuously.
• It produces clean weld with better quality.
• There is no slag formation.
• Minimize weld defects.
• This welding produces very little slag.
• It can be used to make deep groove weld.
• It can be easily automated.

Disadvantages:
• It cannot be used for welding in difficult to reach portions.
• Higher initial or setup cost.
TIG (Tungsten Inert Gas) Welding:
TIG stands for tungsten inert gas welding or sometimes this welding is known as gas tungsten
arc welding. In this welding process, the heat required to form weld is provided by a very
intense electric arc which is form between tungsten electrode and work piece. In this welding
a non-consumable electrode is used which does not melt. Mostly no filler material is required
in this type of welding but if it required, a welding rod fed into the weld zone directly and melted
with base metal. This welding is mostly used for welding aluminium alloy.

Advantages:
• TIG provides stronger joint compare to shield arc welding.
• The joint is more corrosion resistant and ductile.
• Wide verity of joint design can form.
• It doesn’t required flux.
• It can be easily automated.
• This welding is well suited for thin sheets.
• It provides good surface finish because negligible metal splatter or weld sparks that
damage the surface.
• Flawless joint can be created due to non-consumable electrode.
• More control on welding parameter compare to other welding.
• Both AC and DC current can be used as power supply.
Disadvantages:
• Metal thickness to be weld is limited about 5 mm.
• It required high skill labour.
Submerged Arc Welding
Submerged Arc is one of the automatic processes of welding. The weld is submerged under
the layer of flux and slag—so the name submerged arc welding. The flux and slag normally
cover with the arc, so that it is not visible. Submerged arc welding is a process in which
coalescence is produced by heating with an arc between bare electrodes and the work. The
arc is shielded by a blanket of granular fusible material on the work. The submerged arc
process is widely used in heavy steel plate fabrication work. The work includes the welding of
structural shapes, the longitudinal seam of larger diameter pipes, the manufacture of machine
components for all types of heavy industry as also the manufacture of vessels and tanks for
pressure and storage etc. It is used by many other industries in the modern steel age where
steels are used in medium to heavy section thickness. It is also used for surfacing and build-
up work, maintenance, and repairing sections.

Submerged arc is called deep penetration welding in heavy section.

Advantages of Submerged Arc Welding: Applications Areas of Submerged Arc

Welding:
(1) Excellent quality of weld.
(1) Long, large weld jobs are required.
(2) Smooth and uniform finished weld.
(2) Where large amount of weld metal is
(3) No spatter, no smoke.
needed to be deposited.
(4) No Arc flash.
(3) Where the number of weld pass (multi-
(5) High rate of utilisation of electrode wire. pass) requirement is less.

(6) No need to change the electrode and (4) Welding can be done easily in down-
thus save welding time. hand position.

(7) Heavy section welding in high Amps. (5) Automatization of the weld can be done
easily.
(6) The jobs require special properties.
 Plasma Arc Welding
In Plasma arc welding (PAW) is an arc welding process, a concentrated plasma arc is
produced and directed towards the weld area. The arc is stable and reaches temperatures as
high as 33,000°C. A plasma is an ionized very hot gas composed of nearly the same numbers
of electrons and ions.

In Plasma-arc Welding (PAW) is an arc welding process, a concentrated plasma arc is

produced and directed towards the weld area. The arc is stable and reaches temperatures as
high as 33,000°C. A plasma is an ionized very hot gas composed of nearly same numbers of
electrons and ions. The plasma starts between the tungsten electrode and the orifice by a low
current pilot arc. What makes plasma-arc welding unlike other processes is that the plasma
arc is concentrated because it is forced through a relatively small orifice. Operating currents
usually are less than 100 A. When a filler metal is used it is fed into the arc as is done in Gas
Tungsten-arc Welding. Arc and weld-zone shielding are supplied by means of an outer
shielding ring and the use of inert gases like argon, helium or mixtures.

Advantages of Plasma Arc Welding: • It requires training and specialization to

perform plasma welding.
• Torch design allows better control of arc.
• It produces ultraviolet and infrared radiation.
• This method provides more freedom to
observe and control the weld. • The method produces higher noise on the
order of about 100dB.
• The higher the heat concentration and
plasma jet allow faster travel speeds. • The torch is bulky and hence manual
welding is a bit difficult and requires
• The high temperature and high heat training as mentioned.
concentration of plasma allow keyhole
effect. Application of Plasma Arc Welding:
• This provides complete penetration with • This welding is used in marine and
single pass welding of many joints. aerospace industries.
• Heat affected zone is smaller compared to • This is used to weld pipes and tubes of
GTAW (Gas tungsten arc welding). stainless steel or titanium.
• It uses less current input as compared to • It is mostly used in electronic industries.
another welding process.
• Also, this is used to repair tools, die, and
Disadvantages of Plasma Arc Welding: mould.
• It produces wider welds and heat affected • This is used for welding or coating
zones compare to LBW and EBW. on a turbine blade
• Plasma welding equipment is very costly.
Hence it will have a higher start-up cost.
Laser Beam Welding

Laser is an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation. Laser Beam
Welding (LBW) is a fusion joining process that produces coalescence of materials with the
heat obtained from a concentrated beam of coherent, monochromatic light impinging on the
joint to be welded. In the LBM process, the laser beam is directed by flat optical elements,
such as mirrors and then focused to a small spot (for high power density) at the workpiece
using either reflective focusing elements or lenses. It is a non-contact process, requiring no
pressure to be applied. Inert gas shielding is generally employed to prevent oxidation of the
molten puddle and filler metals may be occasionally used. The Lasers which are
predominantly being used for industrial material processing and welding tasks are the Nd-
YAG laser and 1.06 μm wavelength CO2 laser, with the active elements most commonly
employed in these two varieties of lasers being the neodymium (Nd) ion and the CO2
molecules respectively.

LBW Process Advantages:

1) Heat input is close to the minimum required to fuse the weld metal, thus heat affected zones
are reduced and workpiece distortions are minimized.

2) Time for welding thick sections is reduced and the need for filler wires and elaborate joint
preparations is eliminated by employing the single pass laser welding procedures.

3) No electrodes are required; welding is performed with freedom from electrode

contamination, indentation or damage from high resistance welding currents.

4) LBM being a non-contact process, distortions are minimized and tool wears are eliminated.

5) Welding in areas that are not easily accessible with other means of welding can be done
by
LBM, since the beams can be focused, aligned and directed by optical elements.

6) Laser beam can be focused on a small area, permitting the joining of small, closely spaced
components with tiny welds.

Limitations of the LBM Process:

1) Joints must be accurately positioned laterally under the beam and at a controlled position
with respect to the beam focal point.

2) In case of mechanical clamping of the weld joints, it must be ensured that the final position
of the joint is accurately aligned with the beam impingement point.

3) The maximum joint thickness that can be welded by laser beam is somewhat limited. Thus
weld penetrations of larger than 19 mms are difficult to weld.

4) High reflectivity and high thermal conductivity of materials like Al and Cu alloys can affect
the weldability with lasers.

5) An appropriate plasma control device must be employed to ensure the weld reproducibility
while performing moderate to high power laser welding.

6) Lasers tend to have fairly low energy conversion efficiency, generally less than 10 percent.
Different Types of Gas Welding Flames: Neutral, Carburizing, and Oxidizing

The flames generated during the process of gas welding are known as welding flames. Filler
metal may or may not be used in the process of gas welding. Gas welding is an economical
and effective welding method that is used widely.

There are the following three types of Gas Welding Flames:

1. Neutral or balanced flame

2. Reducing or carburizing flame and

3. Oxidizing flame.

All three flames consist of 3 zones.

a) The inner luminous zone, where hot oxygen and acetylene mix physically.
b) The intermediate zone
c) The outer zone where the secondary combustion of the mixture takes place.

Figure: Neutral Flame

 Figure: Reducing Flame

Figure: Oxidizing Flame

Table of comparison:

Characteristics Neutral flame Reducing flame Oxidizing flame

Inner temp in oC 3250 approx 2900 approx 3500 approx

Intermediate temp oC 2100 approx 2500 approx 2100 approx

Outermost temp in oC 1300 approx 1275 approx 1275 approx

Noise Hissing noise No noise Very noisy

Flame size Medium High Low

Welding Defects: Causes & Remedies
Welding defects generally occur in a welding process due to the inexperienced or unskilled
welder or due to fundamental difficulties in the welding operation like arc welding, gas welding,
etc.
Types of Welding Defects
There are following types of welding defects are found:
• Undercut
• Porosity
• Slag Inclusion
• Cracks
• Lack of fusion
• Misalignment
• Spatter
• Lack of penetration
• Excessive penetration
Undercut
In this defect, some portion remains unfilled near the toe side of the weld metal which is called
an undercut.
Causes of Undercut
1. Too much current over-heats the parent metal.
2. Not keeping the electrode at the edges for a sufficient time during weaving.
3. 'V' being wider.
4. Shifted of welding centreline.
Remedies of Undercut
1. Always use low current.
2. Change the welding technique and stop for some time at the undercut edge.
3. Decrease the welding speed.
4. Cleaning the plate before welding.
Porosity
If small pores of gas are formed and are spread in the weld metal, then this defect is called
'porosity'.
Causes of Porosity
1. An overheated electrode.
2. The wrong electrode for the metal to be welded has excess moisture.
Remedies of Porosity
1. Use low current.
2. To avoid porosity always use the correct electrode like weld bright steels, medium
carbon steels, and alloy steels with low hydrogen electrodes.
3. The electrode should be dry, for this; they are kept in a warm and dry place.
Slag Inclusion
The molten flux adsorbs the oxide from the parent metal surface and floats on the molten
weld metal. Some of the flux (slag) goes into the molten metal due to which slag is
incorporated.
Causes of Slag Inclusion
1. If the weld pool is not hot enough, the slag solidifies inside the weld.
2. This may be due to low current, insufficient heat input, or excessive weaving.
3. An undercut in the preceding run or too little space between the plates.
Remedies of Slag Inclusion
1. Increase the current or use narrower weaving.
2. Repairs by the grinding and weld again.
3. Prepare the plates in such a way that there is no blockage in them and the slag can
float.
Cracks
This is a dislocation in the weld metal. This may be due to the effect of cooling or stress.
Causes of Cracks
1. The high strength of joint.
2. High rate of cooling.
3. Use of wrong electrodes.
4. Use of improper welding technique.
Remedies of Cracks
1. Use joint key pre-heating and/or post heating if necessary.
2. Cool the welded joint slowly.
3. Use the correct type of electrodes for the type of parent metal to be welded.
Spatter
These are small metal particles that are released during arc welding and settle on the parent
metal and the weld surface.
Causes of Spatter
1. Current being too high.
2. Longer arc.
3. Wetting of the electrodes.
Remedies of Spatter
1. Use low current.
2. Use a small arc.
3. Use dry electrodes.
Lack of Fusion
Weld joints where the deposited weld metal does not form a cohesive bond with the parent
metal are known as lack of fusion.
Causes of Lack of Fusion
1. No mixing of oxides or any other foreign material on the surface of the plates.
2. The temperature of the parent metal or the preceding run does not rise high enough.
Remedies of Lack of Fusion
1. Clean the surface thoroughly before welding.
2. Adjust the welding parameters to the correct values and use the appropriate
welding techniques.
Misalignment
These defects occurred during welding when the weld joint shifted by some distance.
Causes of Misalignment
1. Due to careless welding fit-up.
2. Uneven plate thickness welding.
Remedies of Misalignment
1. Checking straightness of the joint at the time of fit-up or tacking.
2. Repair through using grinding, and match their nominal thickness to maintain better
visually.