CHAPTER 1

1.INTRODUCTION:

Welding is a process in which two or more parts are joined permanently at their
touching surfaces by a suitable application of heat and/or pressure. Often a filler
material is added to facilitate coalescence. The assembled parts that are joined by
welding are called a weldment. Welding is primarily used in metal parts and their
alloys. Welding processes are classified into two major groups:

1. Fusion welding: In this process, base metal is melted by means of heat. Often,
in fusion welding operations, a filler metal is added to the molten pool to
facilitate the process and provide bulk and strength to the joint. Commonly used
fusion welding processes are: arc welding, resistance welding, ox fuel welding,
electron beam welding and laser beam welding.

2. Solid-state welding: In this process, joining of parts takes place by application

of pressure alone or a combination of heat and pressure. No filler metal is used.
Commonly used solid-state welding processes are: diffusion welding, friction
welding, ultrasonic welding.

1.1 Types of welding processes:

1.1.1.Arc welding and similar processes:

Arc welding is a method of permanently joining two or more metal parts. It

consists of combination of different welding processes wherein coalescence is

1
produced by heating with an electric arc)

and with or without the use of filler metals depending upon the base plate
thickness. A homogeneous joint is achieved by melting and fusing the adjacent
portions of the separate parts. The final welded joint has unit strength
approximately equal to that of the base material. The arc temperature is
maintained approximately 4400°C. A flux material is used to prevent oxidation,
which decomposes under the heat of welding and releases a gas that shields the
arc and the hot metal.The second basic method employs an inert or nearly inert
gas to form a protective envelope around the arc and the weld. Helium, argon,
and carbon dioxide are the most commonly used gases.

1.1.2. Shielded-metalarc welding(SMAW) or stick welding:

This is an arc welding process wherein coalescence is produced by heating the

work piece with an electric arc setup between a flux-coated electrode and the
work piece. The electrode is in a rod form coated with flux.

1.1.3. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW):

This is another type of arc welding process, in which coalescence is produced by

heating the work piece with an electric arc setup between the bare electrode and
the work piece. Molten pool remains completely hidden under a blanket of
granular material called flux. The electrode is in a wire form and is continuously
fed from a reel. Movement of the weld gun, dispensing of the flux and picking up
of surplus flux granules behind the gun are usually automatic.

2
1.1.4. Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW):

This process is similar to the shielded-arc stick welding process with the main
difference being the flux is inside the welding rod. Tubular, coiled and
continuously fed electrode containing flux inside the electrode is used, thereby,
saving the cost of changing the welding. Sometimes, externally supplied gas is
used to assist in shielding the arc.

1.1.5. Gas-Metal Arc Welding (GMAW):

In this process an inert gas such as argon, helium, carbon dioxide or a mixture of
them are used to prevent atmospheric contamination of the weld. The shielding
gas is allowed to flow through the weld gun. The electrode used here is in a wire
form, fed continuously at a fixed rate. The wire is consumed during the process
and thereby provides filler metal.

1.1.6. Gas-Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW):

This process is also known as tungsten–inert gas (TIG) welding. This is similar to
the Gas Metal Arc Welding process. Difference being the electrode is non
consumable and does not provide filler metal in this case. A gas shield (usually
inert gas) is used as in the GMAW process. If the filler metal is required, an
auxiliary rod is used.

1.1.7. Plasma Arc Welding (PAW):

This process is similar to TIG. A non-consumable electrode is used in this process.

Arc plasma is a temporary state of gas.

3
The plasma consists of free electrons, positive ions, and neutral particles. Plasma
arc welding differs from GTAW welding in the amount of ionized gas which is
greatly increased in plasma arc welding, and it is this ionized gas that provides the
heat of welding

1.1.8. Oxyfuel Gas Welding (OFW) :

This process is also known as oxy-acetylene welding. Heat is supplied by the

combustion of acetylene in a stream of oxygen. Both gases are supplied to the
torch through flexible hoses. Heat from this torch is lower and far less
concentrated than that from an electric arc.

1.1.9. Resistance welding:

Resistance welding is a group of welding process in which coalescence is

produced by the heat obtained from the resistance of the work to the flow of
electric current in a circuit of which the work is a part and by the application of
pressure. No filler metal is needed in this process.

1.1.10. Electron-Beam Welding (EBW):

Electron beam welding is defined as a fusion welding process wherein

coalescence is produced by the heat obtained from a concentrated beam of high
velocity electron. When high velocity electrons strike the workpiece, kinetic
energy is transformed into thermal energy causing localized heating and melting
of the weld metal.

4
The electron beam generation takes place in a vacuum, and the process works
best when the entire operation and the workpiece are also in a high vacuum of
10-4torr or lower

1.1.11. Laser Beam Welding (LBW):

Laser beam welding is defined as a fusion welding process and coalescence is

achieved by utilizing the heat obtained from a concentrated coherent light beam
and impinging upon the surface to be joined. This process uses the energy in an
extremely concentrated beam of coherent, mono-chromatic light to melt the
weld metal.

1.1.12. Friction Welding (FRW):

In friction welding (solid state welding process) coalescence is produced by

utilizing the heat obtained from the mechanically induced rotating motion
between the rubbing surfaces. When the temperature at the interface of the two
parts is sufficiently high, the rotation is stopped and increased axial force is
applied. This fuses the two parts together. The rotational force is provided
through a strong motor or a flywheel. In the latter case the process may be called
inertia welding.

1.1.13. Other Welding Processes:

Other processes used in the industry are following:

1. Diffusion bonding (DB): Parts are pressed together at an elevated temperature

below the melting point for a period of time.

5
2. Explosion welding (EXW): The parts to be welded are driven together at an
angle by means of an explosive charge and fuse together from the friction of the
impact.

3. Ultrasonic welding (USW) for metals: This process utilizes transverse oscillation
of one part against the other to develop sufficient frictional heat for fusion to
occur.

4. Electro slag (ESW) and Electro gas (EGW) processes: In these processes a
molten pool of weld metal contained by copper “shoes” is used to make vertical
butt welds in heavy plate.

1.2. Advantages & disadvantages of welding processes:

Advantages:

1. The welded structures are usually light in weight compared to riveted

structures. This is due to the reason, that in welding, gussets or other
connecting components are not used.
2. The welded joints provide high efficiency, which is not possible in the
case of riveted joints.
3. Alterations and additions can be made easily in the existing structures.
4. Welded structures are smooth in appearance, therefore it looks pleasing.
5. A welded joint has a great strength. Often a welded joint has the
strength of the parent metal itself.
6. It is easily possible to weld any part of a structure at any point. But
riveting requires enough clearance.

6
7.The process of making welding joints takes less time than the riveted joints.
8.Shape like cylindrical steel pipes can be easily welded. But they are
difficulty for riveting.
9. The welding provides very strong joints. which can’t be bended easily. This
is in line with the modern trend of providing rigid frames.
10. In welded connections, the tension members are not weakened as in the
case of riveted joints.

Disadvantages:

1. For making weld joints using weld symbols requires a highly skilled
labour and supervision.
2. Since there is an uneven heating and cooling in welding process during
fabrication, therefore the members may get distorted or additional
stresses may develop.
3. Since no provision is kept for expansion and contraction in the frame,
therefore there is a possibility of cracks developing in it.
4. The inspection of defects in welding work is more difficult than riveting
work.

7
1.3. Applications of welding:

Welding is a key process that is an important aspect of manufacturing and

fabrication. It is probably the most efficient method by which two or more pieces
of metal can be joined together to produce a single piece. The welding process
produces joints that are permanent and much stronger than any other method of
bonding metals.

Welding is a process that has widespread applications across several industrial

sectors and production units across the globe. Some industrial applications of
welding include:

 Aerospace engineering
 Train and rail carriages
 Automotive industry and auto suppliers
 Electricals and electronics
 Domestic hardware
 Radiators and containers
 Medical instruments and supplies
 Nuclear equipment
 Food and beverage industry
 Other miscellaneous metal processing industries

8
1.4. Classifications of welding:

9
 CHAPTER 2

2. LITERATURE:

A.G. Olabi, ... K.Y. Benyounis, in Comprehensive Materials Processing,

6.10.2.7 Plasma Arc Welding
Plasma arc welding (PAW) is an arc welding process quite similar to gas TIG. In
this case, the electric arc is formed between an electrode and the pieces to be
welded. This process uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode, and can be used to
join metals like low alloy steels, martensitic and ferritic chromium stainless steels,
and austenitic stainless steels.

J.M. Antonini, in Comprehensive Materials Processing,

8.04.1.1.6 Plasma Arc Welding
Plasma arc welding (PAW) is an extension of GTAW in which coalescence is
obtained by heating with a plasma or constricted arc established between a
nonconsumable electrode and the base metal. The heat in PAW originates in the
arc, but this arc is not diffused as in an ordinary welding arc (1). Instead, it is
constricted by being forced through a relatively small orifice. The orifice or plasma
gas may be supplemented by an auxiliary source of shielding gas. This process is
often used as a substitute for GTAW and, in some applications, offers greater
welding speeds and better weld quality.

10
Klas Weman, in Welding Processes Handbook (Second Edition),
Welding torch
The same basic requirements apply here as for TIG welding. Plasma
welding torches are generally water-cooled.
Power source
Plasma welding employs DC, and for aluminium and aluminium alloys also AC,
with a drooping characteristic as for TIG welding. Open circuit voltage should be
at least 80 V.

The high frequency generator

In principle, the purpose of the HF generator is the same as in TIG welding.
However, when used in plasma welding, the HF generator does not normally strike
the main arc. Instead, it strikes a pilot arc as a non-transferred arc, with the current
flowing between the electrode and the plasma nozzle. The pilot arc, in other words,
can be maintained in air. As the torch approaches the workpiece, the main arc
strikes and the pilot arc is extinguished.
Gunaraj and Murgan [56], developed analytical models to establish a relationship
between process parameters and weld bead volume in SAW of pipes. They also
carried out the optimization of weld bead volume using the optimization module
available in the MATLAB (ver: 4.2b) software. The following conclusions were
drawn from the above investigation:

1) The five-level factorial technique can be employed easily for developing

mathematical models for predicting weld bead geometry within the workable
range of process parameters for SAW of pipes. This is in agreement with the
findings of Gupta and Parmar [51].

11
2) The models developed can be employed easily in the form of a program for
automatic and robotic welding for obtaining the desired high-quality welds with
the desired geometry. 3) The welding process variable wires feed rate has a
positive effect but welding speed has a negative effect on all the bead geometric
parameters. 4) Penetration reduces as welding voltage increases but bead width
and dilution increase considerably with the increase in voltage. 5) Reinforcement
is least when all the process variables are at their upper limit (+2). 6) Nozzle-to-
plate distance has a negative effect on all the bead parameters except bead width
and total volume of the weld deposit. 7) Most of the direct and interaction effects
of the process variables on the bead parameters show generally convincing trends
between cause and effect.

12
 Abstract

In this paper we discuss about the mechanical properties of stainless steel &
Aluminum for the process of TIG & Plasma arc welding

As with other welding process such a gas metal arc welding shielding
gases are necessary in gas tungsten arc welding is used to protect the welding area
from atmospheric gases such as oxygen, nitrogen which can cause fusion defects,
porosity and the welding metals. The gas also transfers heat from the tungsten
electrode to the metal and it helps start and maintain a stable arc.

We used the TIG& plasma arc welding process to find out the mechanical
characteristics of the metal after it is weld. The voltage is taken constant and
various characteristics such as strength, fatigue strength, hardness, modulus of
elasticity tensile strength. We are observed in this process and analyzed and finally
concluded.
 CHAPTER 3

3. WELDING PROCESS:

The type of joint to be created and the type of material to be used, among other
considerations, will determine the type of welding process that will be used to
complete the project. All welding processes can be broken down into the two
following categories

3.1 Tig welding procedure:

TIG (tungsten inert gas) welding, also known as gas tungsten arc welding
(GTAW), is an arc welding process that uses a non-consumable tungsten
electrode to produce the weld. TIG welding utilizes a constant current welding
power supply to generate an electric arc between the tungsten electrode and the
work piece, using the resultant heat to create the weld. The weld area is
generally protected from atmospheric contamination by use of an inert shielding
or cover gas (argon or helium).

3.1.1. Principles of tig welding process:

TIG welding works on same principle of arc welding. In a TIG welding process,
a high intense arc is produced between tungsten electrode and work piece. In this
welding mostly work piece is connected to the positive terminal and electrode is
connected to negative terminal. This arc produces heat energy which is further
used to join metal plate by fusion welding.
 A shielding gas is also used which protect the weld surface from
oxidization.Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG Welding), also known as Gas
Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW), is an are welding method that uses a non-
consumable tungsten electrode to weld two or more workpieces. It is very much
similar to Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding.
Diagram of Tungsten Inert Gas welding:

Components used in Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG Welding):

The following components are necessary to perform Tungsten Inert Gas Welding:

1. Power Supply (A.C or D.C)

2. Non-consumable Tungsten Electrode
3. Inert Gas Supply
4. Filler Rod (used depending on the nature of workpiece)
5. Welding Head
14
Working:
The workpiece to be welded is placed on the worktable. The non-
consumable tungsten electrode and the workpiece are connected to the power
supply (A.C or D.C). As the electrode is brought near the workpiece (leaving a
small air gap), an arc is produced. This arc is used for melting and welding the
workpiece. Tungsten has high melting point (3422 °C). Hence, tungsten electrode
does not melt during the welding process. In tungsten inert gas welding, filler rod
may or may not be used. The usage of filler rod depends on the nature of the
workpiece to be welded. If filler rod is used, it is continuously melted by the arc
and fed into the weld pool.

Inert gas supply is constantly provided around the electrode during the welding
process. The inert gas forms a gas shielding around the weld. It protects the weld
from the external atmosphere. (See diagram above for better understanding).

3.1.2. Advantages&disadvantages of Tungsten Inert Gas Welding

(TIG Welding):

Advantages:
1. Tungsten Inert Gas Welding produces high quality welds.
2. The weld is automatically protected by the inert gas during the welding
process.
3. No slag is produced.
4. TIG Welding can be done in any position.

15
Disadvantages:

Tungsten inert gas welding is a slow process.

1. Highly skilled labor is needed.

2. Welder is exposed to huge
3. Intensities of light.
4. TIG welding is more expensive when compared to MIG welding.

3.1.3. Applications of Tungsten Inert Gas Welding:

1. Stainless steel
2. Alloy steel
3. Aluminium
4. Titanium
5. copper
6. magnesium
7. nickel alloys

3.2. Plasma arc weldingprocess:

Basically, Plasma Arc Machining (PAM) is a metal cutting process where metals
are cut with plasma arc, tungsten-inert-gas arc or a torch. It is mostly used for the
metals that cannot be cut by an oxyacetylene torch. Do you know when the PAM
was introduced? Well, PAM was introduced in the industries in 1964 as a method
that would help in the arc welding and that would require less current supply.
Plasma Arc machining is also referred as PAM. In PAM, different gases are used
according to different material. Different material means a workpiece. Your
workpiece may be made up of aluminium, iron or steel
16
3.2.1. Principles of plasma arc welding:
The hot ionized gases are known as plasma. When a sufficient amount of energy
provided to any inert gas, some of its electrons breaks free from its nucleus but
travel with it.After the electrons leave, the atoms are converted into hot ionized
state. It is most common state of matter witch is known as fourth state of matter.
These ionized atoms have high heat contain which is further used to join two plates
This is basic principle of plasma arc welding. This welding is extended form
of TIG welding in which, a non-consumable tungsten electrode is used to produce
arc. This arc heats up the inert gases which are provided from inner orifice around
tungsten electrode.
The heating temperature is about 30000 degree centigrade at which the gas
converts into ionized form. This hot ionized gas further used to create a welding
joint by fusion.

Construction:

Plasma arc machining consists of a Plasma gun. Plasma gun has an electrode
made up of tungsten situated in the chamber.

this tungsten electrode is connected to the negative terminal of DC power supply.

Thus, the tungsten acts as a cathode. While the positive terminal of DC .

17
 power
supply is connected to the nozzle. Thus, nozzle of the plasma gun acts as an anode.

Working:

As we give the power supply to the system, an electric arc develops between the
cathodic tungsten electrode and an anodic nozzle. As the gas comes in contact with
the plasma, there is a collision between the atoms of a gas and electrons of an
electric arc and as a result, we get an ionised gas. That, means we get the plasma
state that we wanted for Plasma Arc machining. Now, this plasma is targeted
towards the workpiece with a high velocity and the machining process starts. One
thing to note down is that a high potential difference is applied in order to get the
plasma state.

18
 Following are some of the parameters involved in PAM that you must
consider are:

 Current: Up to 500A
 Voltage: 30-250V
 Cutting speed: 0.1-7.5 m/min.
 Plate thickness: Up to 200mm
 Power require: 2 to 200 KW
 Material removal rate: 150 cm3/min
 Velocity of Plasma: 500m/sec
Material of workpiece: As previously stated, you can use any metal as material of
workpiece. For instance, aluminium and stainless steel are highly recommended
for this process

3.2.2. Advantages&disadvantages of plasma arc welding:

Advantages:

 In Plasma Arc Machining, hard as well as brittle metals can be easily machined.
 It can be applied to almost all types of metals.
 The best part of this process is that we get high cutting rate.
 We get a better dimensional accuracy in case of machining small cavities.
 It is a simple process to carry out and a very efficient process.
 It takes a big part in automatic repair of jet engine blades.

19
 Disadvantages:
Apart from the advantages of the Plasma Arc machining let us discuss some of the
disadvantages of it:

 PAM involves various equipment but the cost of this equipment is very high.
 This entire machining process consumes high amount of inert gases.
 Production of narrower surfaces takes place which is unnecessary.
 The most harmful part of PAM is that metallurgical changes takes place on the
surface.
 The operator or person handling whole process must take proper precautions. This
process can affect human eyes so a proper googles or helmet must be wear by an
operator.

3.2.3. Applications of plasma arc welding:

 It is mostly used for cryogenic, high temperature corrosion resistant alloys.
 It is also used in case of titanium plate up to 8mm thickness.
 PAM is used in nuclear submarine pipe system and for welding steel rocket motor
case.
 PAM is prominent for the applications related to stainless tube and tube mills.

20
 CHAPTER 4

4. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES:

4.1. Strength

4.2.Toughness

4.3.Hardness

4.4.Hardenability

4.5.Brittleness

4.6.Malleability

4.7.Ductility

4.8.Creep and Slip

4.9.Resilience

4.10.Fatigue

4.1. Strength:

It is the property of a material which opposes the deformation or breakdown of

material in presence of external forces or load. Materials which we finalize for our
engineering products, must have suitable mechanical strength to be capable to
work under different mechanical forces or loads.

21
4.2. Toughness:
It is the ability of a material to absorb the energy and gets plastically deformed
without fracturing. Its numerical value is determined by the amount of energy per
unit volume. Its unit is Joule/ m3. Value of toughness of a material can be
determined by stress-strain characteristics of a material. For good toughness,
materials should have good strength as well as ductility.
For example: brittle materials, having good strength but limited ductility are not
tough enough. Conversely, materials having good ductility but low strength are
also not tough enough. Therefore, to be tough, a material should be capable to
withstand both high stress and strain.

4.3. Hardness:

It is the ability of a material to resist to permanent shape change due to external

stress. There are various measure of hardness – Scratch Hardness, Indentation
Hardness and Rebound Hardness.

1. Scratch Hardness is the ability of materials to the oppose the scratches to

outer surface layer due to external force.
2. Indentation Hardness It is the ability of materials to oppose the dent due to
punch of external hard and sharp objects.
3. Rebound Hardness Rebound hardness is also called as dynamic hardness. It
is determined by the height of “bounce” of a diamond tipped hammer
dropped from a fixed height on the material.

22
4.4. Hardenability:

It is the ability of a material to attain the hardness by heat treatment

processing. It is determined by the depth up to which the material becomes hard.
The SI unit of hardenability is meter (similar to length). Hardenability of material
is inversely proportional to the weld-ability of material.

4.5. Brittleness:

Brittleness of a material indicates that how easily it gets fractured when it is

subjected to a force or load. When a brittle material is subjected to a stress it
observes very less energy and gets fractures without significant strain. Brittleness
is converse to ductility of material. Brittleness of material is temperature
dependent. Some metals which are ductile at normal temperature become brittle at
low temperature.

4.6. Malleability:

Malleability is a property of solid materials which indicates that how easily a

material gets deformed under compressive stress. Malleability is often categorized
by the ability of material to be formed in the form of a thin sheet by hammering or
rolling. This mechanical property is an aspect of plasticity of material. Malleability
of material is temperature dependent. With rise in temperature, the malleability of
material increases.

23
4.7. Ductility:

Ductility is a property of a solid material which indicates that how easily a material
gets deformed under tensile stress. Ductility is often categorized by the ability of
material to get stretched into a wire by pulling or drawing. This mechanical
property is also an aspect of plasticity of material and is temperature dependent.
With rise in temperature, the ductility of material increases.

4.8. Creep and Slip:

Creep is the property of a material which indicates the tendency of material to

move slowly and deform permanently under the influence of external mechanical
stress. It results due to long time exposure to large external mechanical stress with
in limit of yielding. Creep is more severe in material that are subjected to heat for
long time. Slip in material is a plane with high density of atoms.

4.9. Resilience:

Resilience is the ability of material to absorb the energy when it is deformed

elastically by applying stress and release the energy when stress is removed. Proof
resilience is defined as the maximum energy that can be absorbed without
permanent deformation. The modulus of resilience is defined as the maximum
energy that can be absorbed per unit volume without permanent deformation. It can
be determined by integrating the stress-strain cure from zero to elastic limit. Its
unit is joule/m3.

24
4.10. Fatigue:

Fatigue is the weakening of material caused by the repeated loading of the

material. When a material is subjected to cyclic loading, and loading greater than
certain threshold value but much below the strength of material (ultimate tensile
strength limit or yield stress limit), microscopic cracks begin to form at grain
boundaries and interfaces. Eventually the crack reaches to a critical size. This crack
propagates suddenly and the structure gets fractured. The shape of structure affects
the fatigue very much. Square holes and sharp corners lead to elevated stresses
where the fatigue crack initiates.

25
 CHAPTER 5

5.MATERIALS:

5.1 Aluminium:

Aluminum is a silvery-white metal, the 13 element in the periodic table. One

surprising fact about Aluminum is that it's the most widespread metal on Earth,
making up more than 8% of the Earth's core mass. It's also the third most common
chemical element on our planet after oxygen and silicon.

At the same time, because it easily binds with other elements, pure Aluminum does
not occur in nature. This is the reason that people learned about it relatively
recently. Formally Aluminum was produced for the first time in 1824 and it took
people another fifty years to learn to produce it on an industrial scale.

The most common form of Aluminum found in nature is Aluminum Sulphates.

These are minerals that combine two sulphuric acids: one based on an alkaline
metal (lithium, sodium, potassium rubidium or caesium) and one based on a metal
from the third group of the periodic table, primarily Aluminum.

Aluminum sulphates are used to this day to clean water, for cooking, in medicine,
in cosmetology, in the chemical industry and in other sectors. By the way,
Aluminium got its name from Aluminum sulphates which in Latin were called
alumen.

26
5.1.1. Properties of aluminium:

1.Light Weight
2.Corrosion Resistance
3.Electrical and Thermal Conductivity
4.Reflectivity
5.Ductility

5.1.2. Advantages & disadvantages of aluminium :

Advantages:

 Aluminum oxidizes quickly, and the resulting surface coat of aluminum

oxide resists further corrosion, by air, water, and chemicals. This protective
coating is clear, colorless, and non-staining.
 Aluminum can be easily colored by anodization, and holds paint extremely
well. Aluminum can be finished in various ways.
 Aluminum conducts electricity even better than copper.
 Aluminum is 100% recyclable without losing any of its natural
characteristics.
 Aluminium has the highest strength-to-weight ratio of any metal.
 For applications where magnetism needs to be avoided, aluminum is an
excellent choice.

27
Disadvantages :

1. Aluminum requires special processes to be welded.

2. It is abrasive to tooling, or more accurately, the aluminum oxide coating
that forms upon it is.
3. It is more expensive than steel.

5.1.3. Applications of aluminium::

1. Aluminium alloys are widely used for aeronautical applications because

of their high strength to weight ratio.
2. It is used in automobile for reducing the weight of the vehicle which
decreases the fuel consumption.
3. House hold items such as utensils are made from aluminium.
4. It is used to make Windows, roofs , and doors.
5. It is also used to make sports equipments.
6. For the fabrication of electrical conductors it is used.
7. It is used as sacrificial anode.
8. Storage tanks, beverage cans, pressure vessels, variety of castings,
are also made from aluminium alloys.

28
5.2 Stainless steel :
 The addition of chromium to the steel results in the formation of a
passivating oxide film with a high content of chromium oxides. This
oxide film protects the surface of the steel against oxygen in air and
water. An outstanding property of stainless steel is that the chromium
oxide film automatically regenerates if the surface of the steel is
exposed.
 This restitution of the oxide film can only occur if the surface of the
steel is completely clean and free of tempering agents and slag from
welding processes and residues from tools made from ordinary carbon
steel.
 If this surface contamination is not removed, the steel may ultimately
corrode. To prevent this, the steel surfaces should be cleaned after
welding and processing, e.g. by means of so-called acid pickling of the
stainless steel.
 The pickling effectively removes all impurities from the surface of the
steel and permits the reestablishment of a strong, uniform chromium
oxide film. The pickling bath normally consists of 0.5-5% v/v HF
(hydrofluoric acid) and 8-20% v/v HNO3 (nitric acid) at a temperature
of 25-60°C. This acid bath removes residues, the existing chromium
oxide film and traces of iron, leaving the clean steel surface. The
restitution of a strong chromium oxide film starts in the subsequent
rinsing in water.

29
5.2.1. Properties of Stainless Steels:

 Higher corrosion resistance

 Higher cryogenic toughness
 Higher work hardening rate
 Higher hot strength
 Higher ductility
 Higher strength and hardness
 A more attractive appearance
 Lower maintenance

30
5.2.2. Advantages & disadvantages of satinless steel:

Advantages:

1. Stainless steel with excellent corrosion resistance and good resistance to

intergranular corrosion. Of oxidizing acids, such as concentration ≤ 65% below the
boiling temperature of nitric acid, with strong corrosion resistance. Most of the
alkali solution and organic acids and inorganic acids also has good corrosion
resistance.

2. Excellent hot and cold forming process and performance. Can processing board,
tube, wire, tape, type of product, for the manufacture of cold heading, deep
drawing, deep drawing forming parts.

3. Better low temperature performance. At -180 ℃ condition, strength, elongation,

area reduction rate is very good. In the absence of brittle transition temperature,
often used at low temperatures..

4. Has good walkability. Welding method can be used often, both before welding
without heat treatment after welding.

Disadvantage:

1. Large section size steel intergranular corrosion after welding sensitive;

2. C1-containing water (including wet air) is very sensitive to stress corrosion;

3. Low mechanical strength, such as poor cutting performance.

31
5.2.3. Stainless Steel Applications:

1. Aerospace
2. Marine Ship Building
3. Nuclear power plants
4. Automotive
5. Stainless steel is a versatile material. First used for cutlery it soon found its
way into the chemical industry because of its corrosion resistant
characteristics.
6. Today corrosion resistance is still of great importance and slowly bust
steadily the mechanical characteristics of the material are being recognised.
7. It is material that keeps on finding its way into new applications on a close
to daily bases
8. Below you will find a number of applications where stainless steel has
proven itself through many years of reliable service .

32
 Chapter 6

6. TESTING METHODS:

6.1Tensile strength:
 A structural beam to the point where it breaks. The tensile strength of a
material is the it is a measurement of the force required to pull something
such as rope, wire, or maximum amount of tensile stress that it can take
before failure, for example breaking. There are three typical definitions of
tensile strength:
 Yield strength - The stress a material can withstand without permanent
deformation. This is not a sharply defined point. Yield strength is the stress
which will cause a permanent deformation of 0.2% of the original
dimension.
 Ultimate strength - The maximum stress a material can withstand
 . Breaking strength - The stress coordinate on the stress-strain curve at the
point of rupture.
 Stainless steels are rolled into sheets, plates, bars, wire, and tubing to be
used in: cookware, cutlery, surgical instruments, major appliances;
construction material in large buildings, such as the Chrysler Building;
industrial equipment (for example, in paper mills, chemical plants, water
treatment); and storage tanks and tankers for chemicals and food products
(for example, chemical tankers and road tankers). Stainless steel's corrosion
resistance, the ease with which it can be steam cleaned and sterilized, and no
need for surface coatings has also influenced its use in commercial kitchens
and food processing plants.
33
Tensile strength is a measurement of the force required to pull something such
as rope, wire, or a structural beam to the point where it breaks.

The tensile strength of a material is the maximum amount of tensile stress that it
can take before failure, for example breaking.

There are three typical definitions of tensile strength:

 Yield strength - The stress a material can withstand without

permanent deformation. This is not a sharply defined point. Yield strength is
the stress which will cause a permanent deformation of 0.2% of the original
dimension.

 Ultimate strength - The maximum stress a material can withstand.

 Breaking strength - The stress coordinate on the stress-strain curve at the point
of rupture.
Tensile strength is the ability of a material to withstand a pulling (tensile) force. It
is customarily measured in units of force per cross-sectional area. This is an
important concept in engineering, especially in the fields of material science,
mechanical engineering and structural engineering.

34
6.2 Micro structure:

Microstructure is the very small scale structure of a material, defined as the

structure of a prepared surface of material as revealed by a microscope above 25×
magnification. [1] The microstructure of a material (such as metals, polymers,
ceramics or composites) can strongly influence physical properties such as
strength, toughness, ductility, hardness, corrosion resistance, high/low temperature
behaviour or wear resistance. These properties in turn govern the application of
these materials in industrial practice. Microstructure at scales smaller than can be
viewed with optical microscopes is often called nanostructure, while the structure
in which individual atoms are arranged is known as crystal structure. The
nanostructure of biological specimens is referred to as ultrastructure. A
microstructure’s influence on the mechanical and physical properties of a material
is primarily governed by the different defects present or absent of the structure.
These defects can take many forms but the primary ones are the pores. Even if
those pores play a very important role in the definition of the characteristics of a
material, so does its composition. In fact, for many materials, different phases can
exist at the same time. These phases have different properties and if managed
correctly, can prevent the fracture of the material.

35
Microstructure is the very small scale structure of a material, defined as the
structure of a prepared surface of material as revealed by a microscope above 25×
magnification.[1] The microstructure of a material (such
as metals, polymers, ceramics or composites) can strongly influence physical
properties such as strength, toughness, ductility, hardness, corrosion resistance,
high/low temperature behaviour or wear resistance. These properties in turn govern
the application of these materials in industrial practice.

Microstructure at scales smaller than can be viewed with optical microscopes is

often called nanostructure, while the structure in which individual atoms are
arranged is known as crystal structure. The nanostructure of biological specimens
is referred to as ultrastructure. A microstructure’s influence on the mechanical and
physical properties of a material is primarily governed by the different defects
present or absent of the structure. These defects can take many forms but the
primary ones are the pores. Even if those pores play a very important role in the
definition of the characteristics of a material, so does its composition. In fact, for
many materials, different phases can exist at the same time. These phases have
different properties and if managed correctly, can prevent the fracture of the
material.

Microstructure refers to the surface structure of materials such as thin foil that can
be revealed under magnification higher than 25×. A material’s microstructure can
be classified into the following:

36
6.3 Grain structure:

Grain is a small region of a metal, having a given and continuous crystal lattice
orientation. Each grain represents small single crystal.

Grains form as a result of solidification or other phase transformation processes.

Grains shape and size change in course of thermal treatmentprocesses (for example
recrystallization annealing). The normal grain size varies between 1µm to 1000
µm.

Grain structure of a solid is an arrangement of differently oriented grains,

surrounded by grain boundaries. Formation of a boundary between two grains may
be imagined as a result of rotation of crystal lattice of one of them about a specific
axis. Depending on the rotation axis direction, two ideal types of a grain boundary
are possible

Metals have a crystalline structure - this is not usually visible but can be seen on
galvanized lamp posts for example.
When a metal solidifies from the molten state, millions of tiny crystals start .

37
The longer the metal takes to cool the larger the crystals grow.

These crystals form the grains in the solid metal.

Each grain is a distinct crystal with its own orientation.

Within each grain, the individual atoms form a crystalline lattice. Each atom will
have a certain number of close neighbors with which it shares loose bonds. (The
number of neighboring atoms depends upon the structure of the lattice.) When
stress is applied to the metal, the atoms will start to spread apart.

The atomic bonds stretch, and the attractive forces between the atoms will oppose
the applied stress, like millions of tiny springs. If the metal has not yielded, the
interatomic forces will pull the metal back into its original shape when the stress is
removed.

When the metal is cold worked by forging, stamping or rolling its shape is
permanently changed (DEFORMED) this is only possible because of defects
(DISLOCATIONS) in the grain structure which move through the crystal structure.

These dislocations or slips in the grain structure allow the overall change in shape
of the metal. Each grain can have a very large number of dislocations (only visible
under a powerful microscope).

38
 CHAPTER 7
7. TYPES OF JOINTS:
7.1. lap joints:
• It needs special cuts in the timber.
• The joint is fixed with nails or screws.
The two pieces of timber are cut so that they fi t together at different angles.
Usually half the timber thickness is cut away. That is why it can be called a
ʻhalvingʼ joint.

● Joins two members having overlapping surfaces.

● Good mechanical properties, especially when welded from both sides.
● Usually fillet welded.
● Thicker material requires more overlap.

Fig 7.1 Lap joint

39
7.1.1 Advantages & disadvantages of lap joints :
Advantages:
 Allows bolts to be used where a temporary fixing may be required
 Can be used in plastic and metal
 Can be used to restore damaged threads
 Allows for nuts to be used as a temporary fixing if required
 Thread size can be varied by adjusting pinch bolts on the die stock

Disadvantages:
 If dies are not set square you will get a drunken thread
 Smaller sizes break easily if not used correctly
 Clogs up easily due to swarf build up
 Can be difficult to start

7.1.2.Applications of lap joints:

• simplification of preparations in plasma butt-joint welding
• very substantial reduction, or even elimination, of finishing
• speed increase in multi-process.
The excellent quality level obtained in TIG and plasma welding enables very
sizeable productivity gains.

40
What is a lap joint used for?
It is used for such things as
 joining long lengths of timber in a frame
 corner joints
 crossing one length of timber over another.

How do I make a lap joint?

 You need these tools:
 measuring and marking tools
 saw, chisel
 hammer for nails
 drill and screwdriver for screws
 Fixings (nails, screws)

Safety
Make sure you follow the safety tips for Sawing, Chiseling and Hammering that
are at the end of those worksheets.

S no Properties Plasma Tig Result

1
2
3

41
7.2. Butt joints:
Butt welding is a commonly used technique in welding that can either be
automated or done by hand on steel pieces. Butt welding can also be done with
brazing for copper pieces. It is used to attach two pieces of metal together such as
pipe, framework in factories, and also flanges.

 Joins two members that meet at their edges on the same plane.
 Used in applications where a smooth weld face is required.
 Fillet or groove welded; groove welding requires added expertise and
expense.
 Improper design/welding risks distortion and residual stresses.

Fig 7.2 Butt joint

7.2.1. Advantages & disadvantages of butt joints:

 If dies are not set square you will get a drunken thread
 Smaller sizes break easily if not used correctly
 Clogs up easily due to swarf build up
 Can be difficult to star

42
Disadvantages:
 If dies are not set square you will get a drunken thread
 Smaller sizes break easily if not used correctly
 Clogs up easily due to swarf build up
 Can be difficult to start

7.2.2. Applications of butt joints:

• simplification of preparations in plasma butt-joint welding
• very substantial reduction, or even elimination, of finishing
• speed increase in multi-process.
The excellent quality level obtained in TIG and plasma welding enables very
sizeable productivity gains.
Different types of welding used
* TIG Welding. ...
* Plasma Arc Welding. ...

S no Properties Plasma Tig Result

1

43
7.3.V-joints:
Single butt welds are similar to a bevel joint, but instead of only one side having
the beveled edge, both sides of the weld joint are beveled. In thick metals, and
when welding can be performed from both sides of the work piece, a double-V
joint is used. When welding thicker metals, a double-V joint requires less filler
material because there are two narrower V-joints compared to a wider single-V
joint. Also the double-V joint helps compensate for warping forces. With a single-
V joint, stress tends to warp the piece in one direction when the V-joint is filled,
but with a double-V-joint, there are welds on both sides of the material, having
opposing stresses, straightening the material

S no Properties Plasma Tig Result

1
2
3

7.3.1. Advantages & disadvantages of v-joints:

Advantages:
 Allows bolts to be used where a temporary fixing may be required
 Can be used in plastic and metal
 Can be used to restore damaged threads
 Allows for nuts to be used as a temporary fixing if required
 Thread size can be varied by adjusting pinch bolts on the die stock

44
Disadvantages:
 If dies are not set square you will get a drunken thread
 Smaller sizes break easily if not used correctly
 Clogs up easily due to swarf build up
 Can be difficult to start

7.3.2. Applications of v-joints:

 simplification of preparations in plasma butt-joint welding
 very substantial reduction, or even elimination, of finishing
 speed increase in multi-process.
 The excellent quality level obtained in TIG and plasma welding enables very
sizeable productivity gain

45
 CHAPTER 8

8. CONCIUSION:

Conclusion From the experiment of TIG welding of Aluminum plate following

conclusion can be made  With the automated welding system uniform welding of
Aluminum plate can be possible.  Welding strength or tensile strength of the weld
joint depends on the welding parameters like welding speed and welding current. 
With the increase in current, tensile strength of the weld joint increases. 
Hardness value of the weld zone change with the distance from weld centre due to
change of microstructure.  At lower welding speeds strength is more due to more
intensity of current.  For both side welding tensile strength is found almost
equivalent to the strength of base material.  For both sided welding performed
with high current (180 A), welding speed have no specific effect on tensile strength
of the weld joint.

46
 CHAPTER 9

9. BIBILIO GRAPHY:

Oberg, Erik; Jones, Franklin D.; Horton Holbrook L.; Ryffel, Henry H.
(2000), Machinery's Handbook (26th ed.), New York: Industrial Press Inc.,

Plasma arc welding is a constricted arc process. The arc is constricted with the help
of a water-cooled small diameter nozzle which squeezes the arc, increases its
pressure, temperature and heat intensely and thus improves arc stability, arc shape
and heat transfer characteristics. Plasma arc welding processes can be divided into
two basic types:

Non-transferred arc process:

The arc is formed between the electrode(-) and the water cooled constricting
nozzle(+). Arc plasma comes out of the nozzle as a flame. The arc is independent
of the work piece and the work piece does not form a part of the electrical circuit.
Just like an arc flame (as in atomic hydrogen welding), it can be moved from one
place to another and can be better controlled. The non transferred plasma arc
possesses comparatively less energy density as compared to a transferred arc
plasma and it is employed for welding and in applications involving ceramics or
metal plating (spraying). High density metal coatings can be produced by this
process. A non-transferred arc is initiated by using a high frequency unit in the
circuit.

47
Transferred arc process:
The arc is formed between the electrode(-) and the work piece(+). In other words,
arc is transferred from the electrode to the work piece. A transferred arc possesses
high energy density and plasma jet velocity. For this reason it is employed to cut
and melt metals. Besides carbon steels this process can cut stainless steel and
nonferrous metals where an oxyacetylene torch does not succeed. Transferred arc can
also be used for welding at high arc travel speeds. For initiating a transferred arc, a
current limiting resistor is put in the circuit, which permits a flow of about 50
amps, between the nozzle and electrode and a pilot arc is established between the
electrode and the nozzle. As the pilot arc touches the job main current starts
flowing between electrode and job, thus igniting the transferred arc. The pilot arc
initiating unit gets disconnected and pilot arc extinguishes as soon as the arc
between the electrode and the job is started. The temperature of a constricted
plasma arc may be of the order of 8000 - 25000 °C.
The plasma arc welding and cutting process was invented by Robert M. Gage in
1953 and patented in 1957. The process was unique in that it could achieve
precision cutting and welding on both thin and thick metals. It was also capable of
spray coating hardening metals onto other metals. One example was the spray
coating of the turbine blades of the moon bound Saturn rocket.[1]

Voltage control is required in contour welding. In normal key hole welding a

variation in arc length up to 1.5 mm does not affect weld bead penetration or bead
shape to any significant extent and thus a voltage control is not considered
essential.

Should the electrode accidentally touch the metal or the filler, the electrode often
becomes contaminated — meaningsome of the rod or base metal gets stuck to it.

48
Once the electrode is contaminated, the arc cone becomes misshapen, making it
difficult or impossible to aim the arc with precision, and the boiling contaminants
on the electrode may spit out impurities, further compounding your problems.

49
50
 CHAPTER 10

10. REFERENCE

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