TABLE OF CONTENT

Title page

Content

WEEK ONE

1. Sketch of site layout showing how to set out a simple residential building foundation

and superstructure

1.1 Site plan

1.2 Example: practical to set out site

FIG: 1.1: Site plan showing boundaries and adjacent roads

FIG: 1.2: Site plan with landscaping

WEEK TWO

2. Execution of foundation trench and casting concrete

2.1 Trench excavation

2.2 Timbering of trench excavation

2.3 Trench preparation for concrete foundation

FIG: 2.1: Timbering in trench excavation

WEEK THREE

3. Mixing of concrete

3.1 Batching

3.2 Mixing

3.3Handling

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3.4 Placing

3.5 Specifying concrete

3.6 Example:

FIG: 3.1. concrete mixer

FIG: 3.2. placing of concrete

FIG: 3.3. a model mobile concrete mixer

FIG: 3.4. a wheelbarrow

WEEK FOUR

4. Setting out of a simple resdential building block wall super structure

FIG: 4.1. Setting out of block wall superstructure

WEEK FIVE

5. Plumbing of pipes for waste water as drainage

5.1 System of drainage

5.2 Choice of pipes

5.3 Setting out of drainage system

5.4 Laying of pipes

5.5 Jointing of pipes

5.6 Drainage test

FIG: 5.1. Couplings and vents

FIG: 5.2. Drainage system

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WEEK SIX

6. Laying of blocks/bricks in different bonds

6.1 Purpose of bonding

6.2 Choice of brick bond

6.3 Choice of mortar.

6.4 Principles of bonding of brickwork

6.5Types of bond

6.6 Setting out bonds

FIG: 6.1. Stretcher bond

FIG: 6.2. English bond

FIG: 6.3. Flemish bond

FIG: 6.4. Header bond

FIG: 6.5. Brick bonds

FIG: 6.5. A brick wall

WEEK SEVEN

7. Identification of construction wood types and their sizes

7.1 Construction wood types:

7.2 common sizes of timber

FIG: 7.1. Internal structure of wood

FIG: 7.2. Sawn wood

WEEK EIGHT

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8. Preparation of piece of wood by hand and machine

8.1 Hand preparation of member

8/12/2019 Cec 103.- Workshop Technology 1

8.2 Machine preparation

WEEK NINE

9. LAYOUT OF A STANDARD CARPENTRY AND JOINERY WORKSHOP

9.1 standard carpentry and joinery workshop

9.2 example: 1

FIG: 9.1: Standard carpentry and joinery workshop

FIG: 9.2: Standard carpentry and joinery workshop

FIG: 9.3: Standard carpentry and joinery workshop

FIG: 9.4: Standard carpentry and joinery workshop

WEEK TEN

10. Preparation for joints in wood work

10.1 Types of joints

10.2 Example: 1

FIG: 10.1.Halved joint

FIG: 10.2.Halved joints

FIG: 10.3. Bridle joint

FIG:10.4. Mortice and tenon joint

FIG: 14.5. Dowelled mortice and tenon joints

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FIG: 14.6. The secret haunch mortice and tenon

FIG: 14.6. The secret haunch mortice and tenon

FIG: 14.7. Wedged mortice and tenon

8/12/2019 Cec 103.- Workshop Technology 1

WEEK ELEVEN

11. Making use of metal dogs/fastening and gusset plate

11.1 Gusset plate

Fig: 11.1. 25mm gusset plate

Fig: 11.2. Timber girder truss with gusset plate

Fig: 11.3. Gusset plate in truss roof

Fig: 11.4. Timber king post trusses with gusset

Fig: 11.5. Gusset plate

Fig: 11.6. Gusset plate

Fig: 11.7. Gusset assembly for trusses

11.1.0 Metal dogs

FIG: 11.8. Iron dogs

WEEK TWELVE

12. Construction of wooden floor

12.1 Types of wooden floor

12.2 Method of construction:

12.3 Floor joists suitable for domestic floor loadings

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FIG: 12.1: Double floor

FIG: 12.2: Framed floor

WEEK THIRTEEN

13.0.0 Nails, screws and bolts

13.0.1Nnails

13.0.2 Screws

13.0.3 Raw bolt

FIG: 13.1. Different types of nails

13.1.0 Construction of wooden sills

13.1.1 Window sills

FIG: 13. 2. Construction of window sill

WEEK FOURTEEN

14.0.0 construction of centres for arches

14.0.1 construction

figure: 14.1. segmental arch centre

FIG: 14.2.Costruction of semicircular arch centre

FIG: 14.3. Construction of turning piece

14.1.0 Construction of timber shores

14.1.1 Method of construction

FIG: 14.5. Raking shore

FIG: 14.6. Dead

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14.2.0 construction of panel doors

14.2.1 Manufacture of paneled doors

FIG: 14.7. Four panel door

FIG: 14.8. Three panel door FIG: 14.9. Panel doors

FIG: 14.10. Panel doors

14.4.0 Construction of door and window frame

14.4.1 Door frames

14.4.2 Window frames.

WEEK FIFTEEN

15.0.0 Construction of simple and built-up roofs

15.0.1 Design of roof

15.0.2 Construction method

FIG: 15.1. Untrussed roofs

FIG: 15.2. Trussed roof

15.1.0 Construction of straight flight of stairs

15.1.1 Setting out one paper

15.1.2 Setting out and construction in workshop

15.1.3 Assembling the parts of stair

FIG: 15.4. Straight flight stair plan

FIG: 15.5. Wooden straight flight stair

FIG: 15.6. Wooden straight flight stair 15.2.0 Construction of door casing

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15.2.1 Door casing or lining

15.2.2 Example: assembling and installation of door casing

FIG: 15.7-15.15: Construction of window sill

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 WEEK ONE

1. A SKETCH OF SITE LAYOUT SHOWING HOW TO SET OUT A SIMPLE

RESIDENTIAL BUILDING FOUNDATION AND SUPERSTRUCTURE

1.1 SITE PLAN

A site plan is a drawing of your property showing the property lines and any structures that
currently exist on that land (house, garage, fence, etc) and where your proposed addition,deck,
porch, garage, fence, etc is to be located.

Contents of a site plan

A site plan should include:

 An arrow indicating north

 The scale of the drawing

Draw the site plan to the most appropriate scale, for example, 1” = 10’, 1” = 20’, 1/4” 1’.

 Property lines – For most additions, property lines will need to be physically located.
Additionally, a certificate of survey, signed by a licensed surveyor, will be required in
some cases.
 Adjacent streets and any easements.
 The distance between buildings and between buildings and property lines.
 The dimensions of the existing buildings.
 A clear indication of the proposed addition or alteration.
 Other appropriate items for your project.

For additions, two copies of the site plan must be submitted. An architectural plan and/or a
structural plan may also be required.

Site plan review

A site plan review determines compliance with local ordinances and applicable state building
and mechanical codes. This review is done by a city planner. When the planner gives approval,
the next step is to apply for permits.

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Projects that usually do not require a site plan review:

Siding, roofs, window replacement, and miscellaneous repairs do not require a site plan review.
Most electrical, plumbing, and mechanical permits also do not require a site plan review.

Changes to the site plan

After your site plan has been approved, any changes to it must also be approved.

A SITE PLAN is a map of your site. It is drawn "to scale" which means that all of the real life
dimensions are reduced to the same degree. Scales can vary, depending on the size of your site
and the size of your paper. A typical scale for a small site might be 1 inch equals 1 foot. The
larger the site, the smaller the scale you would use, such as ¼ inch equals 1 foot

Why draw a site plan?

A SITE PLAN is a very helpful planning tool. When you are able to see the dimensions and
layout of your site on paper it is much easier to calculate the materials you will need and to see
where different activities can occur. The site plan makes your project portable; you can carry it
in your pocket or mail it. You can make copies. Your planning group can sit around a table and
discuss the project over a copy of the plan.

1.2 EXAMPLE: Practical to set out site

Tools:

To measure the site: Tape measure, or measuring "wheel" and a compass to find north.To draw
the plan: Graph paper, pencils or pens, ruler (or scale.)

HINT: If you don't have a tape measure you can "pace off" the site. This means that you walk the
places you want to measure with even strides, counting how many strides you took. Then you
measure your stride. If your stride is 3 feet long, and you paced twenty strides along the front of
a building, the building is 60 feet long. You can also use your feet and hands as measuring tools.
For example, if you know your feet are ten inches long you can measure the width of a sidewalk
by placing one foot after the other, counting and multiplying.

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When you go out to a site to take measurements and notes, do a "rough draft." You don't need to
draw straight lines or make it neat, just get the information you need. Measuring

 Measure the length and width of the lot, or the portion of the lot you want to work on.
 Locate important built features such as buildings, sidewalks, streets, fences, etc. and mark
them on your plan.
 Locate natural features, such as trees, large rocks and water and mark them on your plan.
 Find north. Knowing where north is will be helpful when you want to know howmuch
sun your site gets. Make a "north arrow" on your plan.
Drawing
Later sit down with your notes and graph paper and draw your site plan. First draw the outside
edges, or boundaries, of the site. Then put in the other features you noticed, such as buildings,
sidewalks, trees and fences. This is a site plan.
Copying
Make some Xerox copies of your plan so you can draw directly on it and try out a few different
ideas. Pass copies around to get feedback on your ideas and to let others

FIG.1.1: SITE
PLAN SHOWING BOUNDARIES AND ADJACENT ROADS

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FIG.1.2 : SITE PLAN WITH LANDSCAPING

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WEEK TWO

EXECUTION OF FOUNDATION TRENCH AND CASTING CONCRETE

2.1 TRENCH EXCAVATION

After setting out of building and fixing the profile board, the next operation will be to excavate
the foundations of the building. For large scale excavation mechanical means are used for
digging trenches. Trenches are the holes dug to receive concrete foundation of building. When
the building is medium size, manual method is employed and the common tools required here
will be diggers and shovels. Excavation should always start from the lowest side of a site to
enable steps be formed incase the site is sloping. Steps enable any volume of earth removed from
a high point of site to be greatly reduced. Minimum depth of trench should be about 750mm. All
earth removed must be packed to the side. Ensure profile boards are not fully covered up. The
level of the bottom of the trench can be easily checked using spirit level and straight edge.
Ensure that the trench is truly level. Compact hard to ensure that no loose soil is at the bottom.

 Excavation takes various forms depending upon the type of foundation to be laid.
 Strip foundation requires the excavation of strip trenches. Pad or isolated foundations
requires holes to be dug where the foundation are to come only, unless connected by
ground beams, while raft and basements needs the excavation of the whole area of the
building, referred to as bulk excavation.

Excavation in clay, soft chalk or other soils likely to be affected by exposure to the atmosphere
should, whenever practicable, be concreted as soon as they are dug. When this is not possible, it
is advisable to protect the bottom of the excavation with a 75mm layer of lean concrete blinding,
or to leave the last 50 to 75mm of excavation until the commencement of concreting.

2.2 TIMBERING OF TRENCH EXCAVATION

When trenches are being excavated to a depth likely to cause the caving in of the sides, they
must either be given some form of temporary support or the sides sloped to provide self support.
The support given to the sides of the trench depends upon the depth of the trench and the soil
conditions. Vibration and loads from traffic or other causes, position of water table, and climatic
conditions and the time for which the excavation is to remain open also affect the decision. Weak

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soil requires more elaborate temporary supports. Most temporary support takes the form of
timbering the sides. As timbering is only meant to support the sides of the trench until all
foundation work is complete. Over timbering should always be avoided so that progress of the
work is not hampered in any way. In relatively shallow trenches in firm soil it may be possible to
dispense with timbering or, as it is sometimes termed, planking and strutting. The most that
would be required, are pairs of 175×38mm poling boards, spaced at about 1.8m centres, and
strutting with a single 100×100mm strut. Alternatively adjustable steel strut may be used. Most
of the timber used for timbering is soft wood, often red or yellow. The various members required
are.

Poling boards. These are boards 1.00 to 1.50m in length (depending on the depth of excavation)
and they vary in cross-section from 175×38 to225×50mm.The boards are placed vertically and
abut the soil at the sides of the excavation.

Walings. These are longitudinal members running the length of trench other excavation and they
support poling boards. They vary in size from 175×50 to 225×75mm.

Struts. These are usually square timbers, either 100×100 or 150×150mm in size. They are
generally used to support the waling which, in turn, hold the poling boards in position. Struts are
usually spaced at about 1.8m centres to allow adequate working space between them.

Sheeting. This consists of horizontal boards abutting one another to provide a continuous barrier
when excavating in loose soils. A common size for the sheeting is 175×50mm.

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 FIGURE.2.1. TMBERING IN TRENCH EXCAVATION

used to set all other pegs in the trench. Pegs are best set along the centre line of the trench. Iron
pegs are best used but wooden pegs can also be used. Wooden pegs must however be removed
after placing the concrete and before the concrete has hardened to prevent wood material rotting
in the concrete and creating weak points.

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WEEK THREE

3.0 MIXING OF CONCRETE

3.1 BATCHING

Concrete can be batched by volume or weight.

Batching by volume. This method is usually carried out using an open bottom box called a gauge
box. A 25-kg bag of cement has a volume of approximately 0.02m3.For a 1:2:4 mix a gauge box
is filled once with cement, twice with fine aggregate and four times with coarse aggregate, the
top of the gauge box being struck off level each time. If the fine aggregate is damp or wet its
volume will increase by up to 25% and therefore the amount of fine aggregate should be
increased by this amount. This increase in volume is called bulking.

Batching by weight. This method involves the use of a balance which is linked to a dial giving an
exact mass of the materials as they are placed in the scales. This is best method since it has a
greater accuracy and the balance can be attached to the mixing machine.

Tools required are gauge box, head pan/wheel barrow and shovel/mixer.

3.2 MIXING

 Hand Mixing. This should be carried out on a clean hard surface. The materials should be
thoroughly mixed in the dry state twice before the water is added. The water should be
added slowly and mixed at least three times.
 Machine mixing. The mix should be turned over in the mixer for at least two minutes
after adding the water. The first batch from the mixer tends to be harsh since some of the
mix will adhere to the sides of the drum. This batch should be used for some less
important work such as filling in weak pockets in the bottom of the excavation.

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FIGURE: 3.1. CONCRETE MIXER FIGURE: 3.2. PLACING OF

CONCRETE

 Ready mixed. This is used for large batches with lorry transporters up to 6m3 capacity. It
has the advantage of eliminating site storage of materials mixing plant, with the guarantee
of concrete manufactured to quality – controlled standards. Placement is usually direct
from the lorry, therefore site- handling facilities must be co-odinated with deliveries.

FIGURE: 3.3. A MODEL MOBILE CONCRETE MIXER

3.3 HANDLING

If concrete is to be transported for some distance over rough ground, the runs should be kept as
short as possible since vibration of this nature can cause segregation of the materials in the mix.
For the same reason concrete should not be dropped from a height of more than 1m. If this is
unavoidable a chute should be used.

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FIGURE: 3.4. A WHEELBARROW

3.4 PLACING

If the concrete is to be placed in a foundation trench, it will be levelled from peg to peg or if it is
to be used as an oversite bed, the external walls could act as a levelling guide. The levelling is
carried out by tamping with a straight edge board. This tamping serves the dual purpose of
compacting and bringing the excess water to the so that it can evaporate. Concrete must not be
over-tamped as this will not only bring the water to the surface but also the cement past which is
required to act as matrix. Concrete should be placed as soon as possible after mixing to ensure
that the setting action has not commenced. Concretewhich dries out too quickly will not develop
its full strength; therefore new concrete should be protected from the drying winds and sun by
being covered with canvas, straw, polythene sheeting or damp sawdust. This protection should
be continued for at least three days since concrete takes about twenty-eight days to obtain its
working strength.

3.5 SPECIFYING CONCRETE

Concrete can be specified by any of the four following methods.

 Designed mix. The mix is specified by a grade corresponding to required characteristic

compressive strength at 28days.There are 12 grades from C7.5 to C60, the C indicates the
compressive strength in N/mm2 or MPa. Flexural (F) strength grades may also be
specified as F3, F4 or F5 i.e. 3, 4 or 5 N/mm2. Also the requirement must specify the
cement and aggregate content and maximum free water/ cement ratio.
 Prescribed mix. This is a recipe of constituents with their properties and quantities used
to manufacture the concrete. The specification must be made for.
 The type of cement

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  Type of aggregates and their maximum size
 Mix proportions by weight
 Degree of workability
 Prescribed are based on established data indicating conformity to strength, durability and
other characteristics.

Example.

 1:3:6/40mm aggregate.
 1:2:4/20mm aggregate.
 Standard mix. Mixes are produced from one of five grades, ranging from ST1 to ST5,
with corresponding 28 days strength characteristics of 7.5 to a limit of only 25N/mm2.
Mix compositions are specified as in prescribed mix.
 These mixes are most suited to site production, where the scale of operations is relatively
small. Alternatively, they may be used where mix design procedures would be too time
consuming, inappropriate uneconomical.
 Design mix. This mixes are selected relative to particular applications and site conditions,
in place of generalizations or use of alternative design criteria that may not be entirely
appropriate. Grading and strength characteristics are extensive and vary with application.
 General (GEN), grade 0-4, ranging from 7.5 to 25N/mm2 characteristic strength. For
foundations, floors and external works.
 Foundations (FND), graded 2, 3, 4A and 4B with characteristic strength of 35N/mm2.
These are particularly appropriate for resisting the effects of sulphates in the ground.
 Paving (PAV), graded 1 or 2 in 35 or 45N/mm2 strengths, respectively. A strong concrete
for use in driveways and heavy duty pavings.
 Reinforced (RC) and prestressed concrete grade 30, 35, 40 and 50 corresponding with
characteristic strength and exposures ranging from mild to most severe.
 Quality control is of paramount importance in this mix. Therefore, producers are required
to have quality assurance product conforming to BS EN ISO 9001.

3.6 EXAMPLE:

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  Prepare mixing bay by mixing and spreading weak concrete to form mixing slab on
which the materials are mixed. Before this, the materials i.e river sand called fine
aggregate and gravels called coarse aggregates are stored on clean surface.
 The mixing slab is then set out and the concrete mixed, placed, properly compacted and
leveled. The materials are then carefully measured using gauge box, head pan or any
suitable container are placed on the slab. The cement is then mixed with the material
before adding water. Suitable mixes for different jobs are:
1: 3:6 - Mass concrete
1:2:4 - Reinforced concrete
 Reinforced concrete is any concrete with reinforcement for additional strength.
 For manual mixing, first measure the fine aggregate and mix dry with the cement
thoroughly according to the job. Spread the material and spread coarse aggregate all over.
Mix about two times dry. Then add water and start mixing thoroughly, at three times.
 For mechanical mixing, first measure and poor the fine aggregate into the mixer, add the
cement required and mix for about two minutes. Ensure thorough mixing. Add coarse
aggregate and thoroughly mix before adding water. Finally mix and serve. Clean all tools
and equipment at the end of work.

PLACING AND COMPACTING OF CONCRETE FOUNDATION

Concrete shall be thoroughly mixed on clean hard surface or using mechanical method before
placing.

The tools required when placing include shovels, trowels, wooden or iron rammer or mechanical
rammer, straight edge, wheel barrows, head-pans or mechanical dumpers.

 Concrete must be carefully transported from the mixing point to the trench to prevent
separation of the coarse aggregate, fine aggregate from the cement which is known as
segregation. Using two men for mixing, six labourers with head pans and either one or
two with wheel barrows, the foundation project for a simple building can be completed
within a short time.
 Place and spread the concrete. When it has reached or covered the required depth, the
rammer or poky vibrator is used to compact the concrete. The straight edge can also be

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used to ensure true surface. After twenty-four hours, the member should be cured by
wetting it with water to Ensure strength development. Students are required to write a
report on concrete mix, handling, placing and compacting.

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 WEEK FOUR

4.0 SETTING OUT OF A SIMPLE RESDENTIAL BUILDING BLOCK WALL

SUPER STRUCTURE

 After laying the foundation concrete, wall construction commences according to the
setting out plans. The common tools required for wall construction include:
 Trowel - Tape
 Spirit level - Straight edge
 Line - Head pan
 Batten - Shovels
 Steel square - Cutting axe
 The types of blocks used for wall construction are:
 225 x 225 x 450 = for erecting external walls
 150 x 225 x 450 = For erecting external walls and partitions
 100 x 225 x 450 = For erecting partition walls only
 102.5×215×60 brick = For erecting external and partition walls
 Other decorative blocks are required for fancy work only.
 The most important aspect of block-laying are:
 Lining = straightness of wall
 Level = true horizontal surface
 Plumbing = true vertical surface
 To set out the corner walls, - Set up lines, along the wall lines from the profile boards
either from the internal or external part.
 Spread mortar (mixture of cement and sand only) at the corner points.
 Use straight edge and spirit level to plumb down the line and mark on the
mortar.
 Place the block and check against the line using same tools.
 After ensuring proper setting of the blocks at the corners, level them and erect
two or three layers at each corner and partitions. Fill the joints properly.
 Stretch line in-between the corner blocks and set the straight line blocks to fill
the spaces. Ensure the blocks are truly straight and level. Lines can be used

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 both at the top and sides of the wall during the block-laying to ensure true
level and plumb of the block wall, The spirit level bubble must always be in
the centre of the glass and likewise bubble must also be at the centre for true
plumb line. i.e true vertical alignment of the blocks
 The walls should be properly set up and erected in the trench; this is erected
up until the building is out of the trench.
 The blocks should be taken out of the ground at least 150mm above the
ground level. This level represents the ground floor level.

FIGURE: 4.1. SETTING OUT OF BLOCK WALL SUPERSTRUTURE

Students are required to write a report on how to set out a block wall superstructure.

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 WEEK FIVE

5.0 PLUMBING OF PIPES FOR WASTE WATER AS DRAINAGE

5.1 SYSTEM OF DRAINAGE

SEPARATE SYSTEM:

In these systems, the rainwater is kept separate from the foul water from the house. The
rainwater is collected and either discharged into water tanks to be used later or discharged into
water course. The system can be of great benefits In areas where rainfall is scanty.

COMBINED SYSTEM

This is an alternative system whereby water from roofs and paved areas together with the
effluent of sanitary fittings are collected together and discharged into a sewer. The advantage of
this system is that, the storms water gives an effective flushing to the drain.

5.2 CHOICE OF PIPES

All the pipes are suitable for use below ground, but the strength of a pipeline may become a
limiting factor under loading conditions. In these situations rigid pipes with flexible joints should
be used, and short lengths pipe in ground subject to severe settlement. Where pipes are laid
above ground, special attention should be paid to structural support and protection against
mechanical damage, frost and corrosion. Rigid pipes.Vitrified clay pipes. Manufactured to Bs65
and 540 with nominal bores of 75 to 900mm and lengths of 300mm to 1.50m. Clay pipes are
resistant to attack by wide range of substances, both acid and alkaline. It is very popular although
the traditional joint made of two rings of tarred yarn and with socket and spigot filled with
cement mortar is increasingly displaced by mechanical or flexible joints. This is liable to damage
by settlement. Further more the short pipe lengths produce a larger number of joints.

Concrete pipes. These are suitable for use with normal effluents but may be attack acid or
sulphate in the effluent, or in the surrounding soil. Concrete pipes are used mainly for large pipes
of 225mm diameter and upwards, and with these sizes external wrappings of glass-fibre laminate
are available which reinforce the pipe and protect them from external attack. Concrete pipes to
BS 556 are supplied either reinforced or unreinforced in lengths of 900mm to 5m. Prestressed

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concrete pipes are also available complying with BS 5178. Asbestos cement pipes. These are
made to BS 3656. They are used for drainage purposes and have the same shortcoming as
concrete pipes. Cast iron pipes. These can be supplied with spigot and socket joints to BS 437 for
caulking with lead or a proprietary material, or as pressure pipes with flexible joints to BS1211,
which are more much more satisfactory for use in difficult or waterlogged conditions or ground
subject to large movement. The coating on these pipes gives good protection against corrosion
and a reasonable life with average ground conditions and normal effluents. They can be laid at
any depth on account of their great strength. Cast iron pipes are made in varying lengths, but the
most commonly used length is around 3.6m. Ductile iron pipes are covered by BS 4772. Flexible
pipes. Pitch-impregnated fibre pipes. Made to BS 2760, they are becoming increasingly popular
due to their suitability for use with normal domestic and most trade wastes. They are
manufactured in nominal bores of 50 to 225mm and standard lengths are 1.7, 2.5 and 3m. They
are more economical than clay pipes where long lengths are involved and in bad ground
conditions. Unplasticised PVC pipes. Manufactured to BS 4660, they are 110 and 160mm
nominal sizes and are golden brown in colour. They are suitable for domestic installations and
surface drainage. UPVC pipes are available in 1, 3, and 6m lengths. They should not be use for
effluent at high temperatures and they become brittle at low temperatures andtherefore handling
with care. They are light in weight. Reinforced plastic pipes. These are made of thermosetting
resin and have advantages of light weight and resistance to corrosion and effluents with high
temperature.

5.3 SETTING OUT OF DRAINAGE SYSTEM

The setting out of the trench is much simpler than setting out for building foundation, because
the drain line follows a straight course as much as possible. Sight rails pegs and travelers are
needed for the setting out operation. Travelers are T-shaped wooden tools used in a similar way
to boning rods. The centre line of the drain pipe is marked out by wooden pegs driven into the
ground starting from the building outlet. A rail, which is a horizontal piece nailed to two vertical
member, is erected across the trench at the position of the first manhole or inspection chamber
near the building. The height of the rail is fixed at a suitable known level above the invert level
of the pipe. The positions of inspection chambers are then marked out along the line by driving
four pegs into the ground.

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Excavation can commence after the setting out. Shallow trenches in firm soils up to 1.3m deep
do not need supports. The trench is excavated to constant fall from the building. To ensure that
this is done, a series of traveler are placed at the bottom of trench and the top sighted to the sight
rail. The length of the vertical piece of the traveler is the same as the height of the sight rail
measured from the invert level of the pipe.

The rails are erected at the inspection chamber positions or at changes of direction. This gives an
acceptable gradient. The sighting of the travelers is done from the lower rail through to the upper
one. The pipes are kept in a straight line by means of a line stretched from one inspection
chamber to the next.

5.4 LAYING OF PIPES

Rigid pipes must have an even bed laid to the required slope, this bed is usually 150mm thick
concrete. The bed is to prevent the pipes fracturing when the trench is backfilled and compacted.

In less important jobs, a concrete bed may not be necessary, especially if the ground is firm and
stable. A well consolidated earth bed is all that is required, but the back filling and compacting
should be done with a lot of care.

A concrete bed is not required by the regulations for cast iron pipes and where its provided, a
100mm thick is sufficient.

5.5 JOINTING OF PIPES

The jointing of pipes made with sockets and spigots is achieved by inserting the spigots into the
socket caulking with tarred hemp or yarn and then making the joint with 1:1 cement and sand
mortar.

Where this type of joint is used, the drain must not be tested until the cement has gained
sufficient strength. This period should be at least twelve hours after jointing. The purpose of
caulking the joint with yarn is to centre the spigot in the socket and to prevent mortar falling into
the bore of the pipe during the process of jointing.

Cast iron pipes are jointed by inserting a ring of yarn or lead wool into the jointing space and
then running in molten lead and caulking. A flexible joint can be obtained by using a rubber ring.

26
PVC jointing methods use pre-formed socket or loose couplings, and this is made by a rubber
ring or using a solvent and adhesive. Pitch fibres pipes are jointed by means of external
couplings in polypropylene. Asbestos cement pipes also have tapered ends which are joined
using coupling and rubber rings.

5.6 DRAINAGE TEST

 Drains can be tested in three ways. These include: Hydraulic Test

This is the most reliable method of testing drains. The test is performed by blocking the lower
end of the section of drain to be tested by inserting an expanding plug or air flatted bag and then
filling the portion of the system with water up to the level of the gullies which should also be
plugged or stopped with one of the devices made specially for this purpose. The filling of water
is carried out by attaching one end of a length of rubber tubing to the nipple of the drain stopper
or plug at the upper end and connecting the other end to a container holding water at the required
head. 600mm head of water should be removed when applying this test.

27
A leakage is indicated by a drop in the leveled water in the container, and the drain pipes are
covered. The points of leakage are easily noticeable.

Fifteen minutes should elapse before the water level is observed to allow for any absorption that
might take place.

Smoke Test

This test is performed by forcing air- laden smoke into the section of the system under test from
a special smoke box, the smoke is produced by burning oily waste in the smoke box. The smoke
is forced through the lower end of the drain and vent pipes. Soil pipes as well as traps should be
left unsealed until the smoke emerged from them, this ensured that the drain under examination
is full of air – laden smoke.

A few strokes of the bellows of the smoke machines will set up a slight pressure in the system
and the dome over-the smoke box should rise and remain in the position if there are no leakages
The advantage in this system is that any smoke escaping through a leakage is easily visible.

Air test

This test is particularly suitable for soil pipes. Plug all soil and vent pipes and gullies. The air is
then pumped into the drain through a T-piece air pipe and one arm is attached to one of the
stoppers as in water test. The other arm is connected to u gauge containing water. The rubber
tubing may be made to pass under a water seal instead of connecting to a stopper. When the
pressure is applied, the water in one arm of the gauge will be depressed and the other elevated.
The difference in level of the water will register the head pressure and if the water in the gauge
remains still, the drain is satisfactory. A fall indicates leakage. The disadvantage of the air test is
that the point of leakage is not easily detected as in the two previous tests

28
FIGURE: 5.2. DRAINAGE SYSTEM

29
 WEEK SIX

6.0 LAYING OF BLOCKS/BRICKS IN DIFFERENT BONDS

To build or construct a wall of brick or blocks, it usually follows the pattern of laying the bricks
or blocks In some regulation arrangement. The brick /blocks courses or rows in a wall are
arranged to ensure that each brick/block overlaps or bear upon two or morebricks / immediately
below it. The process of laying the bricks across each other and binding them together is called
bonding. The amount of overlap and the part of the brick used determine the pattern or bond of
brick work.

6.1 PURPOSE OF BONDING

The main purpose of bonding is to provide maximum strength, lateral stability and resistance to
side thrust, and it distributes vertical and horizontal load over a large area of the wall. A
secondary purpose of bonding is to provide appearance (decoration).

6.2 CHOICE OF BRICK BOND

The choice of any brick bond defends on the following factors.

1. Prevailing environmental or site conditions.

2. Thickness of the wall.
3. The purpose for the wall construction i.e either strength or decoration

6.3 CHOICE OF MORTAR.

1. Cement and sand mortar (1:4). This is use for load bearing wall and water works
2. Lime, cement and sand mortar (1:1:4, 1:1:6). This use for building construction work.

6.4 PRINCIPLES OF BONDING OF BRICKWORK

1. The correct lap should be set out and maintained by introduction of:
(a) A closer next to the quoin header.
(b) A three-quarter bat starting the stretcher course.
2. There should be no straight joints in a wall.
3. The perpends or cross-joints in alter courses should be kept vertical.

30
 4. Closer should never be built in the face of the wall except next to the quoin header.
5. The tie bricks at junctions or quoins should be well-bonded to secure the walls together.
6. The bricks which are laid in the interior of thick walls should be laid header wise as far as
possible.
7. Sectional bond should be maintained across the wall, that is, the bond on the back should
be in line with the bond on the face side of the wall.
8. To achieve the maximum strength in a wall, all the joints in the interior of thewall should
be kept filled or flushed in with mortar in every course. This can be done by mixing a
quantity of mortar to a grout or slurry and running it into the joints between the bricks
which have been laid in the wall.

6.5 TYPES OF BOND STRETCHER BOND:

This consists of all bricks laid as stretchers on every course with the courses laid half-bond to
each other; this is affected in a plain wall with stopped ends by introducing a half-bat as the
starting brick to alternate courses. Usually only used in walls of a half-brick in thickness.

FIGURE: 6.I. STRETCHER BOND

ENGLISH BOND: This consists of alternate courses of headers and stretchers with a closer
placed next to the quoin header to form the lap. There is, however, a variation where a closer is
not used in the header course, and the lap is formed by starting each stretcher course with a

31
three-quarter bat. Such variation is not very common. It is considered one of the strongest bonds.
It is suitable for the construction of load-baring walls and for places where strength is of utmost
importance.

FLEMISH BOND: This consists of alternate headers and stretchers, with the headers in one
course being placed centrally over the stretcher in the course below. A closer is placed next to
the quoin header to form the lap. Flemish bond is said to give a more attractive face appearance
than English bond as it appears less monotonous. It affords a saving in facing bricks because of
the header.

English bond requires approximately eighty-nine facing bricks per square metre, while Flemish
bond requires only seventy –eight facings. The header face of many bricks is dark, and they are
separated in this bond as against the English where they are continuous.

FIGURE: 6.2. ENGLISH BOND

FIGURE: 6.3. FLEMISH BOND

HEADER BOND: In this bond the arrangement shows the header face of every brick, with 215
mm thickness. The bond is formed by three-quarter bats at the quoin. It is rarely in use, because
it has now attractive finish (too many joints). It is used in footing courses or walling curved on
plan.

32
 FIGURE: 6.4. HEADER
BOND

GARDEN WALL BOND: This is designed to reduce the number of header faces to facilitate a
fair finish both sides in walls where appearance is important. There is one course of header
bricks to every three courses of stretchers in English garden wall bond, and one header to every
three stretchers in each course of Flemish garden wall bond.

IGURE: 6.5. BRICK BONDS

33
6.6 SETTING OUT BONDS

In some cases it may be difficult to apply the standard patterns to the quoin, junction walls and
stopped ends. The reason is that consistency of bonding is impossible to maintain. For example
when setting out English and Dutch bonds for walls of 1 and 2 bricks in thickness, the pattern is
the same on both faces, whereas on one 1 1 / 2 and 2 1 / 2 – brick walls the pattern is different.
That is headers on one face and stretchers on the other. Any rules concerning bonding can be
applied as far as practicable. A general rule for quoins, stopped ends and junction walls in
English and Dutch bonds is that where a wall changes direction, so the bond will also change,
that is if there are stretchers on one face then the adjoining face will be headers. This is
however , cannot be applied in every case, as in a 1 1 / 2 -brick junction wall adjoining a 2-
brick such as 1 ½ and 2 bricks in thickness. There must be two adjoining faces having similar
bonds. One rule, however, should always be applied. When setting out quoins or junction walls,
care should be taking to ensure correct trying in the walls at the internal angles to achieve the
maximum resistance against cracking due to shrinkage or uneven settlement.

Quoins

The bonding arrangements to quoin vary according to the bonds which are used and the sizes of
the walls comprising the corners.

34
FIGURE: 6.5. A BRICK WALL

35
 WEEK SEVEN

7.0 IDENTIFICATION OF CONSTRUCTION WOOD TYPES AND THEIR SIZES

7.1 CONSTRUCTION WOOD TYPES:

Timber is divided into two classes: The coniferous trees, known as softwoods, and the deciduous
trees, known as hardwoods. A tree consists of three main parts: the stem, and the crown. The root
fixes the tree in the ground and takes in moisture form the soil. The stem or trunk stores food-
stuffs, conducts these to the leaves and provides strength and rigidly to the tree. The timber
which man has used since the earliest ages is, of curse, cut form the trunk. The crown consists of
branches, twigs and leaves in which the chemical process essential t growth takes place.

Softwoods: These are usually evergreen with needle-pointed leaves and are cone-bearing.

Hardness trees have board leaves, which in most cases are shed at the end of the growing
seasons. There are certain exceptions, one example being the holly tree which is evergreen
throughout the year.

A tree consists of three main parts: the stem, and the crown. The root fixes the tree in the ground
and takes in moisture form the soil. The stem or trunk stores food-stuffs, conducts these to the
leaves and provides strength and rigidly to the tree. The timber which man has used since the
earliest ages is, of curse, cut form the trunk. The crown consists of branches, twigs and leaves in
which the chemical process essential t growth takes place.

Hardwoods: These bear fruit in which the seeds are to be found, the chestnut of the horse-
chestnut, the acorn of the oak, and the berries of the holly tree are examples.

The terms “softwood” and ‘hardwood’ are by no means accurate in every case; they are however,
generally descriptive and established terms in the trade. Some hardwoods are as soft as, or even
softer than, the nominally softwood, whilst some softwoods are harder than many hardwoods.

Most of the timber used by the carpenters and joiners in the construction of building is softwood.
This is mainly of the pine and fir class, and through they are to be found in many parts of the
world, the chief sources of pine are the forest of Canada, North America, Scandinavia, and
Russia. The forest belts providing the hardwoods are to be found in the tropical zones, namely:

36
central and south America, West Africa, regions of India, Burma, and Malaya and Eastern
Australia.

Advantage of Wood

Wood has the following advantage:

i. Very high strength compared to its weight

ii. Easily worked and shaped
iii. Easily erected, dismantled, and modified to suit changing conditions
iv. Warmth to the touch and richness and variety in natural colour an texture
v. Wide variety of species to suit differing requirements
vi. Good thermal insulation
vii. High fire endurance-does not suddenly lose its strength, distort, or expand and thus
increases the time for escape, salvage, and fire-fighting.

The timber expert has to know many more than those given, and he h as to be able to identify the
family, group, species, and variety. General appearance, texture, colour, smell, weight, etc, are
useful I distinguishing different kinds of timber, but identification is more reliable if it is based
on the structural features of the timber. For this purpose a hand magnifying glass or microscope
is necessary to examine samples of the timber, specially cut with a sharp knife as shown in or by
a machine called a microtome.

Structure

Softwood timber is composed of many tubular cells cemented together called tracheids, these
have wall of wood substance and the rising sap passed from one tracheid to anther thought the
softer texture within the cell walls, known as pits, A parts from transporting the moisture drawn
up from the roots, the trachelds in the structure of softwoods give strength to the tree.

A further series of cells, termed parenchyma rays, pass from the outside of the tree towards the
pith and are formed of a pity substance. These cells, which are shorter than the tracheids store
reserves of food which can be passed to any part of the tree which requires them. The rays are
often used as a means of identifying timbers. Resin canals sometimes occur in softwoods. These
are placed in a horizontal ad vertical direction.

37
The structure of hardwoods is more complicated than that of softwoods. The main feature of the
structure is the presence of large cells or vessels which pass the moisture up the tree from the
roots to the leaves. Along with the large vessels are rays parenchyma cells and fibres. The latter
serve to give strength to the tree.

There are two types of hardwoods: Ring-porous, and diffuse-porous, In ring-porous timbers large
cells are produced during the early part of the growth ring and these become smaller in size as
the season progresses. In diffuse-porous timbers the cells are generally the same size within the
growth ring.

Annual or growth rings

These are formed by the early spring-wood and are arranged in roughly concentric formation
round the pith, as each growing season an additional sheath of tissue is produced around the tree,
increasing the diameter and pushing the bark outwards. In softwoods which have been grown
slowly, the timber will have more growth rings than one which as been grown quickly, resulting
in much stronger timber, the age of a tree can be determined by counting these rings of annual
growth.

There are many more large cells and fewer fibres in a slow-grown ring-porous hardwood. This
means that a weaker timber is produced than is the case with hardwood which is fast-grown.

Medullary raysThese exist in all woods. They are seen as lines or the transverse section,
radiating form the pith to the bark and running with the grain of the tree. Generally, these rays
are not easy to see without the use of a lens or microscope, except in certain hardwoods,
particularly oak. It is these rays which give many hardwoods their rich decorative figuring.

Sapwood and heartwood

New wood formed on the outside, next to the bark, is called sapwood. Every part of wood in any
tree has, therefore, been sapwood at some time. As this contains all the food-stuffs, it is liable to
attack from fungi or insect for this reason. Sapwood, properly treated, can be made immune from
such attack, and should not be discarded on this account.

38
Heartwood, is the growth of earlier years and is the inner portion of the tree trunk. It is darker in
colour and the more mature wood. It serves mainly to give strength to the tree trunk.

FIGURE: 7.1. INTRENAL STRUCTURE OF WOOD

Pitch

This is centre of the tree and represents the fist growth Bark

This outer covering of corky tissue serves to protect tree against external injury and extremes of
temperature. The outside of the bark is termed the cortex and that between the cambium layer
and the cortex, the bast.

It is not proposed to consider the chemical component of tree in detail here. It may be sufficient
to indicate that cellulose is the chef structural component contained in the cell walls, while
resins, colouring matter, alkaloids, tannins, etc. are other substance to be found.

Grain

This term is very loosely when applied to timber and should not be confused with its texture.
Grain refers to the direction of the fibres and other woody elements, while texture refers to the
arrangement, fineness or coarseness, and distribution of these elements.

39
Thus, fine textured timber has element which are small and close together. When they are larger
an spaced wider apart the term coarse in applied.

Straight grain refers in timber where the fibres are parallel with the surface; such timber is
relatively strong and easy to work. Cross grain is a deviation of the fibres of hot timber from a
line parallel to the edges of the wood. Diagonal-grained timber is a result of improper conversion
so that fibres are inclining to the edges of the timber; this reduces strength and is sometimes
referred to as oblique grain. Spiral-grained timber has fibres which take a more or less spiral
course in a particular direction. Interlocking grains as fibres partly-spiraling which are in-clined
in opposite directions and are often known as wild grain. Curly grain and wavy grain indicates
wave-like stripes on the surface of the timber due to the fibres changing direction, and is valued
because of it highly decorative appearance. Short grain indicates that the timber may fracture due
to fibres lying in a certain direction. End grain refers to the section of a cross-cut surface,
showing the arrangement of the exposed fibres.

Figure is the pattern on the surface of the timber and is due entirely to the structure of the wood.
Straight-grained timber has only a plain figure whereas wavy or interlocked grained timber
produces a finely marked and attractive figure.

The method of conversion affects the nature of the figure. Quarter sawing in the case of oak used
for such purpose as paneling and furniture, where appearance is most important, discloses on the
surface the medullary rays which gives the silver grain or rich figure.

A compete list of commercially used timbers is outsider the scope this book, but the following
short descriptions are of varieties in extensive use. The standard name of the timber is given first,
followed by alternatives.

FIGURE: 7.2. SAWN WOOD

Softwoods

40
Douglas fir (British Columbian pine, Oregon pine) average weight 528.66kg/m3. available I
logon lengths and large sections; straight-grained and resilient: easy to work by hand or machine.
Reddish brown to pinkish brown in colour. Being one of the hardest softwood it can take heavy,
continuous wear. The strongest, for its weight, of any softwood in the world, with a high
resistance to acids and decay, has good gluing an high insulation qualities. Used of first-class
joinery. Large quantities of plywood are made from Douglas fir.

Hemlock, western (pacific hemlock, British Columbian hemlock) average weight 480-60kg. It
ranks high in strength and durability and has a fine uniform texture. Straight-grained, stiff yet
easily worked, and light brown in colour. Easy to work by hand or machine and good for gluing.
Its smooth clear surface takes stain, paint, and varnish without difficulty used for interior journey
work, built-in furniture, agricultural and timber buildings. Larch, European average weight
592.74kg/m3. one of the most valuable and most used home grown timber reddish brown in
colour, very strong and durable; resinous; straight grained. The larch grown to a height of 30-
48m or more, with a girth of 4-570m in some trees. Used for all kinds of carpentry work, fencing
gates, posts, garden furniture, flooring, and railway sleepers. Parana pine average weight 544-
68kg/ 3. This South America softwood had an even texture and is straight-grained. It is
unsuitable for exterior work, being brittle and mot durable. The colour is from light to darkish
brown with some reddishness. Suitable for all classes of interior joinery but is inclined to split on
nailing. Takes screw, glue, and paint well.

Hardwoods

Afrormosia (kokrodua) average weight 688-86kg/m3 . This wood resembles teak in appearance,
but has a finer grain. It is very durable and well. it is suitable for high-class joinery, ship and
carriage work. Care should be taken when use on outside work in direct contact with ironwork to
avoid staining. Agba (Nigeria cedor, pink mahogany) average weight 480-60kg/m3. this West
African timber grow up to 60-960m in height. American whitewood (canary whitewood, yellow
poplar) average weight 528-66kg/m3 . Essentially a wood for interior work to be painted. It takes
glue, nails an screws well and is easy to work. There tree grow to a height of 45.700-60.960m
and up to 3.048m in diameter. The colour varies according to the age of the wood, between quite
yellow and grey, it is not particularly strong and will deteriorate quickly in damp situations.

41
Botanically whitewood is a hardwood, but in workability it is to all intents and purpose a
softwood. Beech, European average weight 720-kg/m3. This is one of the most used hardwood
in this country, large quantities being imported form central and southern Europe. The timber is
hard, close-grained and durable, with a fine texture. It is used extensively for furniture.
Particularly chair-making wooden planes, handles of the woodworker saw other tools, block and
parquets flooring. It shows silver grain and is used for veneers on this account. Colour reddish
yellow or light brown.

Birch average weighty 672-90kg/m3. From Europe generally, also Canada and other regions of
North America. European birch is used principally of plywood. Large quantities form Finland
and Sweden are imported into this country. Colour white to light brown. Straight-grained and
medium texture. Similar to beech in many ways but is more inclined to warp. Black bean average
weight 720-90kg/m3. chocolate brown with greyish brown streaks giving an attractive rich
appearance to the wood. Similar to French walnut in colour, hard to work. For new south Wales
and queensland, the timber is excellent for veneers high class joinery, paneling and furniture.

7.2 COMMON SIZES OF TIMBER

 25×300×3600
 50×300×3600
 50×50×3600
 50×75×3600
 50×150×3600
 100×100×3600
10. Drilling machine (Table and pillar).
11. Sanding machine.
12. Spraying machines.
13. Grinding machine.
14. Router machine.
15. The lathe machine
16. Blower.
17. Bracing machine
18. Presser.

42
It is very difficult is get a perfect layout for the machines and benches in a workshop because of
the varying nature of the work they are used for. It is a good plan, however, to arrange the
machine in the following groups: first, the cutting-off machines (cross-cut and rip saws), next the
planning machines (surface planers, thickeners, and four sides), then the jointing and finishing
machines (mortising, tenoning, and moulding machines, belt, drum and disc sanders). The
joiner’s shop should be near the finishing machines so that there is no unnecessary waste of time
when work is carried operations.

Small workshop layout

Two typical layouts for a small workshop employing about eight men are given. The first
example show the machines shop equipped with one general woodworking machine, one mortise
machine, and one band saw. The joiner’s shop contains three double benches, with assembly and
storage space provided at the end of each bench. The foreman the bench nearest to the office.

It the second example the machine shop contains six machines a cross-cut saw, a rip saw, a
planer and thicknesser, a mortise machine, a spindle moulder, and a band saw. The oiner’s shop
has two double benches and a single setting-out bench which is placed near the office. The single
bench would again probably be occupied by the foremen.

43
 WEEK NINE

FIGURE: 9.1: STARNDARD

CAPENTRY AND JOINERY WORKSHOP

44
FIGURE: 9.2: STARNDARD CAPENTRY AND JOINERY WORKSHOP

9.2 EXAMPLE: 1

An example is the layout of medium-sized joinery workshop employing about thirty-six men and
housing sixteen woodworking machines and eight double benches.

FIGURE: 9.3: STANDARD CAPENTRY AND JOINERY WORKSHOP

45
FIGURE: 9.4: STANDARD CAPENTRY AND JOINERY WORKSHOP

46
 WEEK TEN

10.0 PREPARATION FOR JOINTS IN WOOD WORK

There are many different joints that the carpenter and joiner may use. Joints generally fall into
three categories and carry out the following functions:

CATEGORY JOINT FUNCTION

 Lengthening End To increase the effective length of timber

 Widening Edge To increase the width of wood or Manufactured boards
 Framing Angle To terminate or to change direction

10.1 TYPES OF JOINTS

An example of timber Joints are; Halved joints, bridle joints, mortice and tenon, dowelled and
wedged mortice and tenon joints. Halved Joints: In this type of joint one piece crosses over the
other.

FIGURE: 10.1.HALVED JOINT

47
 FIGURE: 10.2.HALVED JOINTS

BRIDLE:

These two ‘bridle joints’ are used when a light frame is needed. for example, a picture frame.
One part of the joint fits into the other part and is glued permanently in position.

FIGURE: 10.3. BRIDLE JOINT

48
MORTICE AND TENON JOINTS:

Below are two examples of ‘mortice and tenon joints: These are used when making tables or
cabinets and they are very strong when glued together. There are many different types and a
larger feature on this type of joint appears below.

FIGURE:10.4. MORTICE AND TENON JOINT

when it is under great pressure. This is used as a joint on chairs and other pieces of furniture so
that the joints do not break apart when extra weight is applied. This is another way in which
dowels can be used to form a joint. Modern pieces of furniture are often jointed in this way. It is
a permanent method but it is not the strongest joint as the parts can eventually pull apart,
especially as the joint becomes old. Modern glues that are very strong have meant that this joint
is often used to quickly fix parts together.

49
FIGURE: 14.6. THE SECRET HAUNCH MORTICE AND TENON

THE SECRET HAUNCH MORTICE AND TENON:

If the mortice and tenon joint is to used as part of a frame, a secret or sloping haunch is used. The
tenon does not show on the outer side of the joint and it gives greater gluing area, adding to the
overall strength of the joint.

FIGURE: 14.7. WEDGED MORTICE AND TENON

WEDGED MORTICE AND TENON:

This is a very strong and attractive joint. The tenon has two slots and when it is pushed into the
mortice wedges are tapped into position. The wedges hold the joint together firmly and they also
give the joint an interesting look.

10.2 EXAMPLE: 1

MAKING A MORTICE AND TENON JOINT - THE MORTICE

The construction of a plain mortice and tenon joint

is shown. This type of joint has a wide range of uses and is particularly useful when

50
manufacturing furniture. Several types of mortice and tenon joint exist. The marking out and
cutting of all the mortice and tenon joints are based in this simple joint. Below is a stage by stage
account of the marking and cutting of the mortice part of the joint. The mortice gauge is a special
type of marking gauge and it is used to mark wood so that a mortice can be cut into it. The
diagram to the above represents a typical mortice and tenon joint. The mortice is marked out
using the mortice gauge although it must be set to the correct size of mortice chisel very
carefully. A mortice chisel is then used to remove the waste wood.

The mortice gauge is normally made from a hardwood such as rose wood with brass being used
for the parts that slide along the stem.

Animated Mortice Gauge

MARKING OUT A MORTICE

STEP ONE: 1

The distance between the fixed spur and the adjustable spur is set so that it matches the width of
the mortice chisel. The width of the mortice chisel should match the width of the mortice to be
cut in the wood.

51
STEP TWO:

A try square and a marking knife are used mark the lines at the top and bottom of the mortice.

STEP THREE:

The stock of the mortice gauge is pressed against the side of the wood. It is then pushed along
the wood until the mortice is marked out correctly.

STEP FOUR:

The mortice chisel is then used to break the surface of the waste wood by gently tapping the
handle with a mallet.

STEP FIVE:

The waste wood is then slowly removed, this time, by applying more force to the handle of the
chisel with the mallet. The waste is removed until the entire mortice hole has been cut.

 Remove waste wood with a chisel

 Level the bottom of the trench with router.
 Test for fitness by putting the pieces together and removed.
 Prepare final fixing and dress up using slicing or smoothing tools.

Students are required to write a report on joints in woodwork.

52
 WEEK ELEVEN

11.0 MAKING USE OF METAL DOGS/FASTENING AND GUSSET PLATE

11.1 GUSSET PLATE

FIGURE: 11.1. 25MM GUSSET PLATE FIGURE: 11.2. TIMBER GIRDER TRUSS WITH
GUSSET PLATE

FIGURE: 11.3. GUSSET PLATE IN TRUSS ROOF

53
FIGURE: 11.4. TIMBER KING POST TRUSSES WITH GUSSET

FIGURE: 11.6. GUSSET PLATE

54
FIGURE: 11.7. GUSSET ASSEMBLY FOR TRUSSES

11.1.0 METAL DOGS

There are many metal dogs in carpentry and joinery work. an example is;

Iron dogs: This the strip of iron bent to formm hppks, they are genenrally use for temporary work
e.g shores

FIGURE 11.8 IRON DOGS

55
 WEEK TWELVE

12.0 CONSTRUCTION OF WOODEN FLOOR

12.1 TYPES OF WOODEN FLOOR

SINGLE FLOOR: When bridging joists are used to support floor board and the joist in one
continuous length that span from wall to wall is known as single floors. These types of floors are
generally use in domestic buildings and offices of supervisors in manufacturing companies. The
maximum economic span should be about 4.5m long.

Two members are used in constructing the floor:

i. Joist 150mm by 50mm thick or 75mm thick

ii. Floor board 25mm thick

DOUBLE FLOORS: Double floors are rarely used in modern building practice. The maximum
clear span for softwood bridging joists can be considered as 4.8m, and when the smallest plan
dimension of a room exceeds this length it is necessary to construct a double floor. Here
relatively large members, called binders, are introduced to given intermediate support to the
joists. Frame floors. When the shortest span of the room exceeds 7.2m it is necessary to
constructs a framed floor. This consists of bridging joists, binders, and girders. It is now common
practice to use rolled-steel joist sections for both girders, but in older buildings the main
supporting units were of solid timber or flitched timber members. The bridging joists are placed
the short way of the room that is, parallel to the main girders. The binders which give support to
the bridging joist are themselves supported by the main girders.

12.2 METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION:

The floor is divided into three bays by two 375x175mm solid timber binders. These support
150x50 mm bridging joists spaced at 375mm centres. The binders may be solid timber beams,
flitched beams, or rolled=steel joists put in position at 2.4 to 3.6m centres across the shortest way
of the room. They are supported at each end on 225 x 162x600 mm stone pads, with an
allowance for a free passage of air round the ends of each binder. Where the ceiling below needs
an unbroken surface, ceiling joists are also needed. For the outer bays, these joists may be

56
supported at one end by fillets nailed firmly to the sides of the binders, and at the other end by
fillets securely fixed to the wall. The joists for the middle bay are supported on fillets nailed to
the binders. The method of supporting the bridging joists and the ceiling joists are also shown.
The method of supporting the binder, the free passage of air round the beam, and a section view
of the stone pad are also shown here.

At the top are the plan and section of a floor 5.4m wide and 9m long, set out in three 3m bays.
The details show a section through the floor with the bridging joist notched up to and over the
steel binders, and supported by steel angles. Also shown is a second method where wood bearers
are fixed to the steel binder by bolts, to receive the ends of the joist which are notched up to the
binder. The bridging joists are lathed and plastered. Cradling for the steel binder consists of
firings which are halved at the joints to form frames, fixed to the side of each bridging joists, and
arranged around the binder to receive the lath and plaster. A side view of the steel binder and the
cradling are also illustrated.

57
FIGURE: 12.I: DOUBLE FLOOR FIGURE: 12.2: FRAMED FLOOR

The plan and sectional view of a traditional framed floor is given. This example has 150x75 mm
bridging joists, 275x 150mm binders, The sectional views of the flitched girder and the bridging
joists. Also shown is a sectional view of the binder and the method of supporting the flitched
girder. The framed floor illustrated has a 375 x 125 mm steel girder, 275 x 150 mm solid wood
binders, 150 x 75mm bridging joists, and 100 x 50 mm ceiling joist. The details show the method
of supporting the binders and the fixing of the casing. Control BCG006 Guidance Note Issued
01/01/2001 Rev B Page 1 of 2 The following table gives details of allowable spans and spacing
between joists for the most common timber sizes used in floor construction. All the figures are
based on normal floor loadings in dwellings where the floor construction is typically 18-25mm
floor boards/sheets with up to 12.5mm thick plaster board and skim underneath. For any other

58
situation these tables may not be appropriate and you should refer to the Approved Document to
Part A of the Building

Regulations or ask your Building Control Officer for advice.

When choosing a joist spacing you should also check that your floorboards (or sheets) are
themselves strong enough to span over the width chosen.

12.3 FLOOR JOISTS SUITABLE FOR DOMESTIC FLOOR LOADINGS

Size of joists Maximum clear span in metres for joist spacing of in mm400mm 450mm 600mm

97 x 50 1.98 1.87 1.54

122 x 50 2.60 2.50 2.19

147 x 50 3.13 3.01 2.69

170 x 50 3.61 3.47 3.08

195 x 50 4.13 3.97 3.50

220 x 50 4.64 4.47 3.91

147 x 75 3.56 3.43 3.13

170 x 75 4.15 3.96 3.61

195 x 75 4.68 4.52 4.13

220 x 75 5.11 4.97 4.64

Timber sizes and construction details

Building Control BCG006

Guidance Note Issued 01/01/2001 Revision B Page 2 of 2

When constructing timber floors, you should also bear in mind the following points:-

59
1. Floors are used to give lateral restraint to walls, and where the joists run parallel to the wall,
straps need to be installed as shown in the details below. Normally these straps need to be
positioned every 2m along the wall, but up to 3m is acceptable where this is to allow the
formation of a stairwell or similar opening in the floor. The galvanized mildsteel straps must
have a minimum cross sectional area of 30 x 5mm.

2. Around stairwells and similar openings it is often necessary to use trimmer beams to support
the ends of joists. These details are dealt with separately on guidance note number 009.

3. Where joists support a partition wall or under baths they usually need to be doubled up' to
support the increased localised loading.

4. On joist spans over 2.5m, strutting is required to prevent joists twisting when loaded. For
spans of between 2.5 and 4.5 m only one row of strutting is needed, at the mid span position. For
spans over 4.5 m two rows of strutting will be required, positioned at the one third and two third
span positions. Solid strutting should be at least 38 mm thick timber extending to at least three
quarters the depth of the joist. For example, 200 x 50mm joists would need at least 150 x 38mm
timber used as strutting. Herringbone strutting should be at least 38 x 38mm timber but can only
be used where the spacing between the joists is less than three times the depth of the joist. Hence

for a 150 x 50 joist, herring bone strutting can only be used up to a spacing of 450mm but for a
200 x 50 joist, a spacing of up to 600mm would be satisfactory.

60
 WEEK THIRTEEN

13.0 NAILS, SCREWS AND BOLTS

The commonest fixing carried out by the carpenter and and joiner in building is nailing. This
type of connection may give a joint efficiency as low as 15 percent as a joint efficiency of the
order of 100 percent in the case of adhesives. This is due to the difficulty of placing A sufficient
number of units in the contact area of the member to be joined. The main reasons for the low
efficiency of the rigid bar type of connection, such as the nailed or bolted joint, are:

 The low shear strength of timber parallel to the grain.

 The non- uniform distribution of bearing stress along the shank of the nail or bolt, e.t.c.

In steel work it is assumed that the bearing stress is uniformly distributed over an area equal to
the plate thickness multiplied by the bolt diameter. Members joined by together using screws
provide a more scientifically designed joint fastening than that of nailing, but it is more costly.
Screws may be position more accurately, and have a much higher resistance to withdrawal, than
nails, and serve as a much better clamping device. In jointing, where nails or screws would not
provide sufficient strength bolts are employed. These serve mainly as a clamping device.

13.0.1 NAILS

 Oval wire nails are used for carpentry and joinery work, and have less tendency to split
the timber because of their section when driven with the widest dimension in the same
direction as the grain of timber. Their sizes vary from 1”-6” (25mm-150mm).
 Circular nails are used for temporary work.
 Cut clasp nails are used for general purpose.
 Floor brands are used for nailing floor boards and the length varies from 1.5”to 3” (35
75mm).
 Spikes are wire nails used for securing large members, their length exceed 6” (150mm).
 Joiners brands or springs are used by joiners and their length varies from 1”to 2” (25
50mm).
 Panel pins are used generally for fine work, the fixing of mouldings, thin panel and
hardboard. Ring shank nails are used for heavy work (carpentry work).

61
  Clout nails are used in fixing the ceiling board and laths to the joist.

FIGURE: 13.1. DIFFERENT TYPES OF NAILS

Holding power of nails

A useful guide in obtaining the maximum holding power of nails in use is that the nail should
penetrate the timber into which it is driven by the distance equal to the thickness of timber it is
driven through.

13.0.2 SCREWS

Like nails, screws are made in variety of metals. The mild steel type is the most common;
copper, brass, stainless steel, and aluminium are others. They have also a number of different
finishes, such as galvanized, sheradized, nickel-plate, brassed, chromed, and black japanned.

The sizes of wood screws vary between gauge NO. 0, having a shank diameter of 1.56mm, and
gauge NO. 32 with a diameter of 12mm. And the length vary from 3.17mm for the smaller
gauges length to 152mm for the thicker screws.

62
Iron screws are the strongest and cheapest screws and used for ordinary purposes. But they
corrode easily especially in hard wood particularly oak. Screws are available in various sizes
from 1”to 6” (25mm-150mm).

 Flat or countersunk head screws

 Round head screws used for fixing metal to wood.
 Raised head screws also used for fixing metal to wood.
 Coach screws with square or hexagonal head, used for heavy construction job.

Holding power of screws

Screws develop a greater resistance to withdrawal during the seasoning process of the timber.
This is the case with screws used in doors and windows which have been fixed in position on the
site for some time.

13.0.3 RAW BOLT

These are metal bolt-fixings designed for use in masonry. There are two types to meet different
method of fixing. The bolt and shell and the loose bolt type.

13.1.0 CONSTRUCTION OF WOODEN SILLS

13.1.1 WINDOW SILLS

A window frame is usually less thick than the wall in which it is built, unless the frame is set
flush with the outside face of the wall. Most of the area of a window is glass which does absorb
water and rain runs off it on to the external surface below. To prevent this rain saturating the
brickwork below the window, a sill is constructed. The sill may be of wood, stone, tiles, brick,
sheet metal, e.t.c. which will not absorb moisture. Internal surface at the bottom of a window will
collect dust and may become damp from moisture which condenses on the inside face of the
glass and runs down.

It is usually to construct an internal sill of some materials which is hard and that can be cleaned.
A timber board, called a window board, is commonly used. Clay or concrete tiles may also be
used.

63
INTERNAL SILLS OF WOOD WINDOW BOARD: The usual way of finishing the internal
sill of windows is to fix a timber a timber window board. A softwood board is prepared with one
edge rounded and it is fixed to grounds, plugs or fixing blocks in the brickwork below the
window.

It is not generally possible to drive nails through timber and in to brickwork. Most bricks are too
hard to be penetrated by nails, hence the use of grounds, plugs or blocks. Timber grounds consist
of lengths of small section sawn softwood. These grounds are either nailed to wood plugs driven
into brickwork joint or directly into mortar joints, to provide a level surface to which the window
board can be nailed. Plugs are wedge shaped piece of timber driven into joints between bricks
and to which the window board is nailed. Fixing blocks offcuts of lightweight aggregate concrete
blocks which are built at intervals into brickwork and into which nails can readily be driven.

FIGURE: 13. 2. CONSTRUCTION OF WINDOW SILL

64
 WEEK FOURTEEN

14.0 CONSTRUCTION OF CENTRES FOR ARCHES

 Centres are wood structures which are used as temporary supports for arches during
construction. Arches are constructed mainly of brick work masonry or concrete and they
may be flat, sequential or semi-circular in shape.
 Centers consist of one or more rib which supports laggings. Laggings are cast to length
equal to the thickness of the wall. They are battens or plywood, nailed on the ribs to form
a platform for the walling.
 Two types of lagging are common i.e. open lagging. The centers are supported or vertical
props.
 Folding wedges are necessary to permit a slight vertical adjustment of levels. The wedge
also allows the center to be ease or lowered and then revolved (easing and striking).
 Ribs form the profile of the arch and are made from sheet materials (plywood) or solid
section joined with metal plates or are built- up of two thicknesses of timber with their
joint s lapping. Ribs provide support and fixing for lagging.
 Struts stabilise the framework by helping to redistribute some of the load placed on the
ribs.
 Ties prevent built-up ribs from spreading and provide affixing for bearers. •Bearers tie
the base of the centre and provide a sole, under which the centre is wedge and propped.

14.0.1 CONSTRUCTION

Start by drawing a full-size outline of half the centre. Remember to deduct the thickness of the
lagging (except for centres for segmental arches)

Segmental arch of 50mm rise may need only a turning piece but most will requires a centre
consisting of two curved ribs to span the width of the opening and to which laggings are nailed.

Semi-circular arch is supported on a centre consisting of two built-up ribs which are prevented
from spreading by the introduction of a tie. The laggings are 25x25 or plywood. The centre is
supported on 50x175 props.

65
FIGURE: 14.1. SEGMENTAL ARCH CENTRE

FIGURE: 14.2. COSTRUCTION OF SEMICIRCULARARCH CENTRE

66
FIGURE: 14.3. COSTRUCTION OF TURNING PIECE

Centres for large arches: Regulations provide that for arches greater them 1.2m span, braced or
trussed centers should be used.

The centring systems described were mainly for supporting arches in buildings. Arches which
have a span more than 3m are required mainly in large structures as religious buildings and
arched bridges over rivers or roads.

Large centring systems are generally constructed by much the same methods as are used for
smaller units. Two way of forming large centers are:(a) Built-up from two, three or more
laminations.

(b) Solid timber framed together with mortise and tenon joints which are secured with metal
fasteners (straps or bolts).

It is important that large span centring systems should be adequately supported, either by stout
timber shores or by a sufficient number of steel props

67
 FIGURE: 14.4. SEMICIRCULAR ARCH

CENTRE FOR DOMES

Domes constructed of concrete are usually hemispherical in shape. The centering for those with
span of 6m and over would be supported on a platform of steel scaffolding, or some other steel
props systems, and it is general practice for such structures to be properly supported during
construction. Centre for small domes may be built in two ways i.e. they may either consist of
vertical ribs radiating from the centre of the dome with the curved surface covered by horizontal
boarding or it may be built on circular ribs. The circular ribs would vary in sizes and would be
placed horizontally and covered with vertical boarding.

14.1.0 CONSTRUCTION OF TIMBER SHORES

A shore is a member, generally of timber used temporarily to prop a wall which is either.

(a) Defective and likely to collapse

(b) Liable to collapse when alterations are made to adjacent property.

(c) Liable to collapse when being altered by the removal of its lower portion for reconstruction.

68
Shores are the supports or props used in shoring.

14.1.1 METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION

Raking shores:- This is an inclined struts used to support a wall which shows signs of failure
such as cracks or bulge. The defects may be due to thrusts from one or more upper floors, or
from the roof or because of unequal settlement of its foundation. In its simplest form the shore
consist of struts, together with a suitable support at the foot and fixing at the head. It consist of
an inclined member supported at ground level on a piece of wood called sole plate and secured at
the top by wood needle inserted in the wall. The angle between the shore and the sole plate must
be slightly less than 90o or 87o. The wall pieces provide a suitable abutment for the shore and
fixing for the lower end of the strut or brace. The wall piece is hold for the needle. The wall
pieces are attach to the wall by metal wall hooks which are driven into the joints of the brick
work, one pair being placed wear the top and bottom and at approximately 2.75m centers. The
needle is strengthened to resist the upward thrust from the shore and by the provision of a
wooden cleat nailed to the wall piece. The head of the shore is notched to fit the underside of the
needle, to facilitate erection and prevents the shore from being blown down in the event of it
becoming loose. A shore would be required at each end of the wall and at 3.0 to 4.5m centers and
can be of single, double or multiple rakers.

FIGURE: 14.5. RAKING SHORE

Dead shores:- These show are used primarily to carry vertical loading of wall, roof and floor of
a building. The shore should be placed at 2.0m c / c. When these shores are to be used, holes
are made through the wall to be supported and the needles inserted. The dead shores are then
positioned and the folding wedges tightened to take up the loads. When the shoring is secure, the
wall below the needles can be removed and the work of fixing the new beam carried out. The
needles support the wall by the arching effect of masonry. The weights of various materials to be
supported must be decided upon by measurement and calculation from first principle, adding any

69
superimposed load that may be applied during the work. A survey should be carried out to
establish the location of any underground services so that they can be protected as necessary.

FIGURE: 14.6. DEAD

Horizontal or flying shores:- These are commonly used as temporary supports to either;

Two gable walls adjacent to a building which is to be removed and re-built.

A dilapidated wall fronting a relatively narrow street and opposite which a building is available
as an abutment.

The flying shores are placed at 3 to 4.5m c/c and can be of single or double format. They are
designed, detailed and constructed to the same basic principle as that of raking shores.

Unsymmetrical arrangements are possible provided the basic principle for flying shores is
applied.

Unsymmetrical flying shores- arrangements of flying shores for unsymmetrical situations can be
devised if the basic principles for symmetrical shores are applied. In some cases the arrangement
will consist of a combination of both raking and flying shores principles.

70
Temporary support determination- the basic sizing of most temporary support follows the
principle of elementary structure design. Reader with this basic knowledge should be able to
calculate such support members which are required particularly those used in context of the
maintenance and adaptation of building such as a dead shoring system

Weight of roof per meter run of wall = 84 x 4 .52 = 3.79.68

Weight of ceiling per meter of wall = 23 x 3.70 = 85.10

Weight of roof per meter of wall = 500 x 3.00 = 1500.0

Total weight supported by needle = 1964.78 x shore centre = 1964.78 x 2.000 = 3929.56 kg say
= 3930 kg

Needle design:

w = 3930 kg RA =RB =

14.2.0 CONSTRUCTION OF PANEL DOORS

14.2.1 MANUFACTURE OF PANELED DOORS

Panel doors are usually (a) manufactured by machinery or (b) very occasionally prepared
principally by hand.

(a)Machine-Made Doors: As implied on most doors are made by machinery. Mass production
method have been responsible for a large reduction in the cost of such doors, and this is the chief
reason for the large demand for them. Alterations are constantly being made to the machines
with a view to reducing still further the machine operations and a corresponding reduction in
cost.

The following steps are followed in manufacturing the paneled doors. A cutting list, In duplicate,
is prepared by the “setter-out” (the joiner who doe the setting out). If, for example, two doors (as
numbered on the setting out rod at A,) are to be made of the type illustrated, the sizes and the
amount of timber, etc, will be as stated in the specimen cutting list (or materials sheet). A copy
of this list is sent to the machine shop. The timber required for this job is sent into the shop and
deposited near the circular sawing machine. This operator or sawyer who will do the cutting out

71
will then examine the timber and cut out the members to the sizes shown on the sheet in columns
“L” “W” and “I” t (third fourth and fifth column), taking care to select the pieces so that they
will be used to the best advantage. After being sawn to length on the cross –cut-saw, and sawn to
width and thickness n the ordinary circular saw, the pieces are faced and edged on the hand –fed
planning machine, in order to ensure that the are not in twist or winding. Next, the pieces are
planed to the required width and thickness on a thicknessing machine. They are then marked out
for further machine operations consisting of mort icing on the mortising machine, tenoning on
the tenoning machine, and grooving on the vertical spindle moulding machine. The tenons are
cut to form the haunches either on the bandsawing machine, or a small type circular sawing
machine. The panels, after being dealt with on the panel planning and thickening machines, and
cut accurately to the finished sizes (with at least 2mm clearance all-round) may be finished on
the sand papering machine. The materials are then ready to be sent, along with the cutting list, to
the joiners shop for assembly.

FIGURE: 14.7. FOUR PANEL DOOR

(a)Hand –Made Doors- Whilst machinery has eliminated most of the operations which were
formerly performed by hand, there is still a demand for doors and similar framework which
require a certain amount of hand preparation. This applies particularly to the highest quality

72
framed and paneled doors and those which are not of standard size. The operations involved are
(1) Setting out, (2) forming mort ices and tenons, (3) assembling gluing and wedging up, and (4)
cleaning off.

(1) Setting Out: This is the reproduction on a board (called a setting out rod) of the full size
details of the door, such as may have been prepared by the architect. This rod is usually of
plywood and is from 2.5 to 3mm long, 175 to 280mm wide and 6 to 19 mm thick. Both edges are
planned straight and parallel, and both sides, after being planned and smooth finishes with fine
glass paper, are either chalked or brushed over with a mixture of whiting and thin glue. For
framed pieces, such as a door, the rod would be set out as shown, which indicates full size
vertical and horizontal sections of the four paneled door, casing etc, illustrated. Alternatively, the
vertical section called the height rod is set out on one face of the boards, and the horizontal
section, called the width rod, is detailed on the reverse. The reference number of the contract,
number of doors required, etc are indicated on the rod.

The pieces of timber used for the various members should be carefully selected to obviate waste
during conversion. If machinery is not available, each piece is cut down by means of a rip saw
and across the grain by a panel saw (described in carpentry). The stuff is then trued up. This is
done by first testing for “winding” or “twist”, a pair of winding strips (Pieces of carefully
dressed mahogany, 350mm by 50mm by 12mm, with parallel edges) is used for this purpose, one
being placed at each end on top and at right angles to the length of the timber when lying flat on
the joiners bench. If these strips are not parallel when sighting along their upper edge, a jack
plane is applied to the stuff until the highest parts are removed and the surface is perfectly true,
as proved by the strips and a straightedge. A trying plane, is then used to give a smooth finish.
The joiner or setter-out pencils his characteristic mark, called face side mark, on the face, and
this should always point towards the best edge (door stiles being an exception, when the “best
edge” is the outer edge). This edge, called the face edge, is then dressed by a jack plane, and
subsequently by a trying plane, until it is straight, smooth and at right angles to the dressed face,
a try square, being used to test for squareness. He pencils his face edge mark on the edge, and
this may be a single stroke as a continuation of the face marks. Both face side and face edge must
be perfectly true, as all subsequent gauging and setting out operations are referred to them. A
marking gauge is now used to mark off the width of the members, this mark being continuous

73
from end to end and parallel to the face edge. A plane is applied to dress down to the gauge mark
to form the back edge; smoothing it is necessary to saw down the gauge mark, followed by the
plane. The piece is gauged to the required thickness, and the back face is then planed to remove
any excess of wood down to the gauge mark

FIGURE: 14.8. THREE PANEL DOOR

The whole of the members, having been dressed in this manner, are marked, the position of the
orals, depth of grooves, etc, being transferred to them from the setting our rod. A. Thus,
commencing with the stiles, one is placed on the height rod and the positions of the rails and
12mm depth of panel grooves are pricked on its face edge. The mort ices for the rail tenon are
then set out on the face edge of the stile. The mort ices for the rail tenons are then set our on the
face edge of the stile. This and the second stile, together with the muntins, are placed as shown at
E. and aided by the try square, the shoulders are squared down. The muntins are removed and
squared all round for the shoulders which are to fit against the edges of the rails. The mort ice
lines are set out on the face edge of the second stile as shown at F, and as there indicated, tome
joiners emphasize the mort ices by drawing blue pencil lines between the mort ice lines. The
mort ice lines are squared over to the back edge of each stile (see broken lines at F) and the

74
positions of the 9mm thick edges are marked on the back edge. Note that the length of the stiles
exceed slightly that shown on the rod.

The settings out of the rails from the width rod are similar to that described for stiles. The setting
out for muntins, shoulder and haunches (or haunchings) on the top rail is shown t K, and the
middle rail is shown set out at I, the latter indicating the names applied to the various lines.

(2) Forming Mort ices and Tenons: The stiles are now mort iced. If a mortising machine, not
available, the mortices are made with a mortise chisel (see Carpentry) and mallet (4, fig 160,
Carpentry). A mortise gauge is used to scribe or mark the mortices on each edge of the stile, the
points of the gauge being set to stuff. These mortices are always gauge from the face side of each
stile. Each mortice is cut half-way through, commencing at the centre of the back edge and
removing the core by small cuts, and the mortice is completed from the face edge in a similar
manner. A core from the face edge of the back edge to “clean” each mrotice, and a paring chisel
is used to finish off. The 50mm deep stub mortices are formed on the rails to receive the tenons
at the ends of the muntins.

To form the tenons, the ends of the rails are gauged from the face side as shown at B,. The
“mortice lines” are ripping sawn down to the “haunch lines”, the “wastes” is removed, and the
“gauge lines” are awn down to the “shoulder lines”. Both ends of each rail are treated in this
manner. The panel groove is then formed, by means of a plough plane, on the face edge from end
to end of each stile, the top or face edge of the bottom rail, both edges of the middle rail, the
bottom or face edge of the top rail, and both edges of each muntin; the plough iron must be of the
proper size, be set at the worked from the face side of each member. The tenon checks (outer
portions) are now removed by using the tenon saw, to carefully cast down the outside of the
shoulder lines (leaving the lines in) to complete the end, as shown at D,. The tenons on the
muntins are formed in a similar manner.

After the corners of the tenons have been chiseled off, so that they may readily engage in the
mortice, the whole of the members if assembled temporarily to see, if the joints fir accurately,
any necessary adjustments are made, and the framing is put aide pending the preparation of the
panels.

75
The panels are then made, the dimensions are taken from the rod or framing one face and edge
are planed with the trying plane, and the face and edge marks are put on these. A panel gauge
(see carpentry) is used to mark the required width, the panel is cut along this line, and the ends
are squared and cut off to the exact size. The panel is now mulleted or gauged; the mullet –a
piece of wood grooved to the required size is a slipped along the edges of the panel to indicate
any excessively thick places which are eased by planning. The four panels are made in this
manner, the sides are smoothed by a smoothing plane glass paper is rubbed across the grains, and
the panels are inserted temporarily in the framing by removing one stile at a time.

(1) Assembling, Gluing and Wedging: Two pieces of scantling or skids are placed on the bench
must be of equal thickness and level. A cramp is necessary to ensure that the shoulders of the
various members fit tightly. One form of cramp called a T-cramp.

(2) A joiner and an apprentice generally work together when gluing up a door. The door is taken
to pieces and both sides of the tenons and the insides of the mortices are glued; it is at one
assembled, the cramp is then used. Commencing at the middle rail, the cramp is fixed in the
position as shown at J; the shoe is slid along to the required position, the peg is inserted in the
appropriate hole, small protecting blocks of wood are placed between the stiles and the shoe and
screw checks, and the cramp is then screwed up tightly to bring the shoulders right up. The
wedges are dipped in glue and tightly driven in at each end. The cramp is moved to the bottom
above, the bottom wedge at each end being driven first so as to bring the shoulders of the bottom
muntin right up against the rails. The cramp is finally moved to the third position along the top
rail, glued, wedges as inserted and driven home, the top wedge at each end being fixed first so as
to moved the top rail to close the joints between the top muntin and rails. The camp is removed
and the projecting ends of the rails are sawn off are assembled. The moulded edges of the stiles
will be continuous, those on the rails will be scribed to them and those on them units will be
scribed to the rail mouldings. IF planted moulding is required, they are formed by moulding
planes to the required section on the rod. Moulding are planted in the following manner; The
ends of each pieces are cut to a 45o mitre a mitre block being used for this purpose; the two short
lengths for each panel are placed in position on the door and the two longer pieces are “sprung”
into place; the moulding are nailed to the framing and the nail heads are punched. Each panel is
treated in this manner. The extensive use of woodworking machinery has eliminated most of the

76
labours formerly done by hand, and required, many of the operations detailed. Thus, the stiles,
rails and muntins would be cut into lengths and widths by the circular saw; they would be faced
and edged on a surface planer, the tenons would be formed by a tenoning machine and the
mortices by mortising machine. If many of these operations can be done by a general joiner,
there could be prepared on the spindle moulder. After being assembled and cramped, the door
would be given a smooth finish by a sand papering machine Whilst some of these large and more
expensive machines may not be available in the smaller shops there are comparatively few firm
who have not a circular saw and mortising and tenoning machines, and are thereby enabled to
reduce some of the relatively costly hand labour.

The operation involved in framing casings will understand from the foregoing description. The
manufacture of windows is described on.

CUTTING LISTS OF MATERIAL SHEETS: A cutting list of materials required for each job
gives (1) the reference number of the job, (2) the number, lengths and nominal and fished sizes
of the various members, (3) the kind of timber to be employed and (4) any special instructions.
The various dimensions are taken from the height and width rods. The list is prepared, in
duplicate, by the foreman or setter out, one copy being filed and the other used by the workmen
engaged in preparing the work.

(4) A typical cutting list or material sheet is given below. It include the particular as the would be
filled in for the two doors (the number indicated on the bottom of the setting out rod, at,, the
preparation of which has just been described, the setting out rods (height and width) would be
prepared from the door shown. The letters “L”, “w” and “T” stand for length, width and
thickness respectively.

No of Description Finished Sizes Timber Remarks

Pieces
L W T W T
4 Stiles 2100 100 38 35 35 Redwood To be hand
2 Top rails 840 100 38 35 35 Redwood immediately
4 M. & rails 840 175 38 172 35 Redwood
2 Muntins 1120 100 38 97 35 Redwood

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 2 Muntins 770 100 38 97 35 Redwood
4 Panels 1020 280 12 - 9 Yellow
4 670 280 12 - 9 Pine
Yellow
Pine

FIGURE: 14.10. PANEL DOORS

14.4.0 CONSTRUCTION OF DOOR AND WINDOW FRAME

14.4.1 DOOR FRAMES

A door frame consist of three or four timber members rebated for the door or with planted stops,
and joined with mortice and tenon or slot mortice and tenon joists. Door frames are use for
external and internal doors and are built into brick or block walls and secured with ‘’L’’ shaped
building-in lugs. The lugs are of galvanized or wrought iron and are screwed to back of frame
through the arm, with the arm built in to horizontal joints. Doors are hinged on and closed in to
the frames.

14.4.2 WINDOW FRAMES.

These are the frames into which the window sashes are fitted and hung. They are set into the
rough opening in the wall and are intended to hold the sashes in place. The members of the frame
are joined with wedged mortice and tenon joints. The post of the frame is tenon to the head and
sill so their ends may project each side of the frame as horns. These horns can be built into the
brickwork in the jambs of the opening as a means of securing the frame, or they may be cut off
on site if the frame is built in flush with the outside face of brickwork. When there is a transom
in the frame it is joined to the post by means of tenon fitted and wedged to mortices. Mullions
are joined to head and sill with tenons wedged to a mortice and to transom. Window frames are
usually built in and secured with ‘’L’’ shaped galvanized steel lugs. The arm is screwed to the
back of the frame and the other one built into the jambs.

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15.0 CONSTRUCTION OF SIMPLE AND BUILT-UP ROOFS

These can be classified as either;

Flat- pitch from 00-100

Pitched- pitch over 100

Timber roofs may be classified according to their shape. The four most common types are flat
roof, lean-to or pent roof. Span, couple or gable roof and hipped ridge roof.

15.0 DESIGN OF ROOF

It is essential that a roof structure should remain rigid. To ensure this a triangular shaped
construction must be used. A triangular shape can not be distorted.

Structural Members: The roof structure must be strong enough to support the weight of the roof
covering with an allowance for snow and wind pressure.

Rafters. In some cases the rafters give direct support to the roof covering while in some cases
purlins give the supports.

The size of rafters varies according to the weight of the roof covering i.e (1) 50 x 75 and 40 x
100 for light covering (2) 50 x 100 and 50 x 150 for heavy covering.

The standard spacing for rafters depends on the weight of the roof covering and should be at
least 375 or 450mm centres.

Wall Plate: Should be bedded in to the wall. The wall plates give support to the feet of the
rafters. Alternatively concrete head course or ring beam could be used to support the rafters feet.
Size rangers from 50 x 100 to 15 x 150 and 225x 225 when concrete is used.

The purlins:- Provide intermediate support for the rafter and in some cases the rafters provide.
Support for purlins. The length of the purlin depend upon the spacing of the rafters. Size rangers
form 50 x 75, 75x 150, 75 x 175.

Roofs are classified according to their construction i.e trussed roofs and unstrussed roofs.

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 WEEK FIFTEEN

UNTRUSSED:- Roofs include those small span roofs on buildings with party walls, couple
roofs, lean –to-roofs and coler roofs. The trussed roofs consist of independent frames or trusses
supporting the roofs members.

FIGURE: 15.1. UNTRUSSED ROOFS

TRUSSED ROOFS:- The type of truss used depends on the span of roof and class of building.
Trusses are necessary on all roofs with clear span of over 7 metres.

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 FIGURE: 15.3. BUILT-UP-TRUSS

15.0 CONSTRUCTION METHOD

Sequence of operation:- Preparing members

1. Measure direct from the building

2. Mark out the length of the rafter

3. Cut all rafter

4. Make joints in the wall plates if timber wall plates are used.

5. Where concrete wall plate is in position, make sure provision is made for enchoring the
rafters. This is best achieved by setting hooks of 5mm and rods in the concrete (formwork)
before casting. Another method is to provided bolts and not.

After cutting all members to size and are arranged and are persevered by using or coating all
members. With solarium or other preservative 100 fix the wall plates, erect three or four piers of
rafters, followed by the ridge if any and erect temporary support of rakers to support the
members. Next place the purlins in position and fix the remaining rafters.

Prepare the eaves required and fix on the covering.

Wall plates are halved together and nailed using 100mm nails.

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Ridge board, rafters and purlins are connected or lengthened by scarf joints and straps.75mm and
100mm, nails are required to fasten rafters to ridges. 125 and 150 nails are used for rafters to
purlins and rafters to wall plates.

Galvanized round wire nails are used for roof covering.

A simple ridged roof consist of inclined rafters that must on horizontal wall-plates on top each
wall. The top ends of the rafters meet at the horizontal ridges plate or beam. Horizontal purcline
and fixed to the rafters t support roof covering. Heaver under purline and used to support longer
rafters span. Bran or ceiling joists are connected between the lower ends of opposite rafters to
prevent them from spreading and forcing the walls apart. Collar beans or collar ties may be fixed
higher up between opposite rafters for extra strength.

The rafter tie beans and joist serve to transmit the weight of the roof to the walls building. There
are a number of structural systems employed to facilitate thus, including the use of wall-plate set
at the top of the wall hamone beams, which spreads the weight down the wall.

Roof trusses for large span structure:

(1) Belfast truss: Is suitable for roofing of factory and storage buildings with large roof spans. It
is cheap and needs less timber than the framed truss. The curved truss:- Which is sequential in
shape consists of a string built up from 2/25 x 150mm members a circular box of 2/25 x 100mm
members, and 25/75 struts sandwiched in between bow and beam. When the trusses are set at
intervals of 3.7m along the length of the buildings the purlins are spaced at 600 to 750 c/c and
held in position by the projected strust both sides. Methods of setting out Belfast truss:a. Set out
the sequential shape to span and rise.

b. Extend the two ends downward vertical with a lines equal to half span of the roof.

c. Mark out the position of the purlins 600 or 750 c/c.

d. From left, connect all purlin points to the bottom point of the ended line at the right side.

e. Repeat for right hand side.

f. The crossings within the elevation of the sequent, indicate the struts.

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g. The setting out can then be used to prepare and frame the required number of trusses.

15.1.0 CONSTRUCTION OF STRAIGHT FLIGHT OF STAIRS

15.1.1 SETTING OUT ONE PAPER

In setting out the stair on paper the student should drawn the plan, the nosing (or faces of risers)
being accurately spaced by the accurate application of the scale. The longitudinal section is then
developed from the plan. The height shown in this section can be expeditiously divided into the
requisite the landing levels at 2,600 mm above the ground floor. Using any convenient scale,
place it at an angle on the paper with the zero division coinciding with the ground floor level (or
landing, depending upon the end from which the scale reads), and carefully tick off the
intermediate division 1 to 12 inclusive. Horizontal lines lightly drawn through these points given
the treads, and when connected with the vertical lines developed form the divisions on the plan
the required thirteen steps are set out. It is advisable to number on the plan the required thirteen
steps are set out. It is advisable to number each step on plan, as shown, and also on the section
during its development. The direction “up” should be indicated on the plan at the foot of the
stairs; this removes ambiguity and facilitates the reading of a drawing, especially, when a stair
consists of several, fights. The rest of the details can be completed without much difficulty, an
adjustable set square being useful for drawing the string, line of noising (to check for accuracy)
and hand rail. The importance of ensuring adequate headroom is again emphasized board in this
position, the riser temple is placed against it with the corner of end b coinciding with b’ marked
on the board, and the back or wedge-line is marked; the tread templet is then placed as shown
against the board with its mark a at the a point of the pitch-board, and the nosing and underside
or tread wedge-line marked. The pitch-board is then slid along the string and the housing for the
next step is marked off in a similar manner.Three or four holes are sunk with a brace and bit near
the noising of each step and tangential to the outer faces, and the wood between is chiseled out;
this permits of the use of the tenon saw for forming cuts along the marked lines, after which the
remaining core is removed by a chisel and the bottom of the trenching finally leveled with a
router plane (see carpentry) to give a 12mm sinking. The second string is then set out and the
housing formed as described. (b) Machines Trenching – Simple appliances are now available for
the rapid setting out and complete trenching of straight strings. Machines, called stair trenchers,
are also obtainable, the latest types of which will cut the tenches of two strings in less time than

83
it normally takes a man to set out one. A simple device consists of a metal grooved templet
which is graduated to permit of its adjustment to the required rise and going. The only setting out
line required is that shown at M, which is pencil marked at the required distance from the lower
or back edge of the string. The templet is clamped to the string in the desired position, and the
trenches for the first riser and tread are routed out by means of a cutter which is easily
manipulated between the slotted or grooved guides. A pencil mark is then made at the
intersection between the gauge line M and the to of the tread cut, the templet is slid along until
the outside of the riser guide intersects this mark, the appliance is again clamped and the trenches
for the riser and tread of the second step are routed. This is repeated until the trenching of the
string is completed. A similar device can be attached to a spindle moulder and the trenching of a
string can be automatically completed at one setting. The stair trencher referred to on consists,
briefly, of a vertical cutter spindle, the cutter of which travels within guides (adjusted to the
required going and rise) as it forms the trenches in both strings during a continuous operation.

15.1.3 ASSEMBLING THE PARTS OF STAIR

There are several methods employed in assembling the various parts of a stair, depending upon
local practice, if mass –produced, etc. In one method all the treads are first fixed to the strings,
followed by the risers is framed together; the steps are then fitted in the trenches of one string,
after which the second string is fitted and cramped. The sequence of operations in the first
method are: After the strings have been trenched and the treads and risers have been prepared
(i.e. tongued, grooved, nosed, cut square to correct length and dressed), the first and last treads
are housed into the corresponding trenches of both strings, cramped after being tested for
sequence nailed and wedged. The strings are now placed with their front or upper edges resting
on the bench and the remaining treads are inserted between the trenches, each being tested,
cramped and glue wedged in turn. After the outer ends wedged. The treads and risers are then
screwed (in best work) or nailed and glue blocks are fitted of the inner angels. The treads may
also be skew screwed or nailed of the string Scotia moulding, if required are glued and sprigged
to the trenches.

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 FIGURE: 15.6. WOODEN STRAIGHT

FLIGHT STAIR

In the second method the steps are made separately before being fixed to the string. One simple
appliance, called a cradle, which is employed to ensure that the riser is fitted at right angles to the
read, is illustrated in; as shown, its consist of two angle brackets each comprising a bearer to
which a leg is firmly fixed, Each upright or leg is notched on its inner edge where it joins the
horizontal bearer, the size and shape of the notch being similar to the noising of the tread (and
Scotia, if needed). The brackets are screwed to the top of the bench, at about 600mm apart, the
horizontal members being parallel to each other and at right angles to the base of a try square
used for ensuring squareness. The tread, outer face downwards, is placed on the bearers with the
noising engaged in the notches of the upright. The upper tongued edge of the riser is glued and
fitted into the groove of the tread as the riser is held against the uprights. The blocks are then
glued and fitted to the inner angle. If required, the Scotia is glued and inserted before the riser is
fitted. The sketch shows the tread, riser and Scotia in position. The Scotia and the nosing of the

85
tread are subsequently worked to the desired mouldings. When the glue is sufficiently dry, the
step is carefully removed and allowed to set. After all the steps have been formed in this manner,
and the noising and sections have been moulded, the next operations is to fix them to the strings.
A string with its trenched face uppermost is placed on the bench and each step is placed
vertically witch its lower end fitted into the trench. When all the trench. When all the steps have
been housed, the second string is placed in position with the upper ends of the steps.

15.2 CONSRUCTION OF DOOR CASING

15.2.1 DOOR CASING OR LINING

Whilst external doors are hung to solid frames, it is customary to fix internal doors to casings or
linings which provide a suitable finish to the opening, Casings are fixed to either (a) pallets, (b)
Plugs or (c) grounds.

(a) Pallet pieces or slips 9mm thick, are built into the bed joist at the jambs of the openings
shown and at intervals as describes. This method of fixing is very general.

(b) A cheaper and less satisfactory method is to plug the jambs. Wood plugs (which should be of
hardwood but are driven into holes formed in the mortar joints by means of the plugging chisel
and hammer. The plugs are driven tightly up to their shoulders and would take the place of the
pallets shown at D. those indicated at D would be used for the fixing of architraves.

(c) Grounds- As implied, the purpose of these is to provides ground work for the casings and
architraves. The method of fixing is only adopted in the best practice. The simplest form consists
of 19mm thick (or thickness or plaster) pieces of undressed timbers, called rough ground, (as
distinct from wrought grounds) and usually 75mm wide, although this depends upon the thickens
of the architraves. They provide a continuous means of fixing for the casings such as is not
afforded by plugs or pallets. One edge is sometimes splayed to afford key for the plaster. The
jamb grounds are fixed in true alignment on each face of the walls to plugs at intervals, and the
head or soffit grounds are nailed to the lintel. They project about 19mm beyond the of the floor.
In good work the head grinds are haunched tenoned and wedged to the jamb grounds. The above
preparation is all that is necessary for ½ brick thick walls. For thicker walls, however, 50mm
wide by 19mm or 25mm thick short horizontal hacking piece are fixed to the edges of the

86
grounds. These cross pieces provides extra means of fixing the wider casing and, if the ends are
dovetailed and fitted into the notches formed in the grounds they are effective in preventing the
grounds from expanding and twisting when the absorb moisture from the plaster which is applied
subsequently to the walls. The backings are fixed near to the top and bottom of the jambs, and at
about 300mm intervals; they are also nailed to wood lintels.

(1) Plan Casing: These are usually prepared from 32mm thick boards, and are suitable for
openings in walls which do not exceed 1-brick thick. They may be either single rebated. Or
double rebated, Alternatively, in cheap works, a 12 to 16mm thick stop is nailed to the casing,
when the thickness of the latter may be reduced to 25mm. Double rebating a wide casing gives it
a balanced appearance which is noticeable when the door is open. The soffit casing is grooved or
trenched to receive the tongues formed on the jamb lining. This groove extends to the outer edge
when softwood and subsequently polished, the groove in the soffit does not extend right across
but is stopped to house the abbreviated tongue, as shown by thick broken lines.

(2) Skeleton Casing: This type consists of a Skelton jamb and soffit framing comprising 75mm
by 32mm stuff to which 12 or 16mm thick boards or stops are nailed to give the appearance of a
double rebated lining. The short rails of the framing are tenoned to the long members, and the
latter of the soffit framing are tenoned to the jam framing. The short rails should coincide with
the backing and be nailed to them after the long members have been secured to the rough
ground; the stops are then nailed to the framing. An alternative detail is shown at M. to introduce
a dressed or wrought ground which requires only a small architrave. Skeleton linings for thick
walls are cheap and effective, although there is a danger of the wide stops splitting if the shrink
excessively, as movement is restricted when they are securely fixed at their edges.

(3) Framed Casing, This is the best form of lining for openings in thick walls. It consists of
paneled jamb and soffit frames, and the construction conforms to the principles of paneled door
construction. The treatment of the panels should be in keeping with the design of the door. This
casing is fixed to the grounds and backings, as described for a skeleton lining. Casing secured to
grounds are less liable to damage during the subsequent building operations than those fixed to
plugs or pallets, as they are not fixed to the grounds until after the plastering has been completed.
Although internal doors to casings, there are certain exceptions. Thus heavy internal doors (such
as the framed ledged breced and battened type), as used for warehouses, etc, are sometimes hung

87
with traps and gudgeon hooks fixed in jam stones, and the casings are then dispensed with.
Another exception is shown where a frame and not a casing is used. Internal coal-house, etc,
doors are often fixed to frames instead of ceasing.

15.2.2 EXAMPLE: ASSEMBLING AND INSTALLATION OF DOOR CASING

The key to a great looking door casing, and a great looking door, is perfectly mitered corners. If
a new door is installed that needs a casing around it or to replace the casing around an existing
door, completely assemble the casing before installing it. This technique can also be used on
window casings.

The first thing to do is to make sure that doorjamb is square by holding a carpenter's square in
the 2 upper corners. If the corners are perfect right angles (90 degrees), you will be able to cut
even 45-degree miters to assemble the casing. If they are not right angles, cut miters slightly
more or slightly less than 45 degrees to make them fit the doorjamb.

FIGURE.15.7. CONSTRUCTION OF WINDOW SILL

Measure the height from the floor to the lower edge of the top piece of the jamb on both the left
and right sides to make sure the height is uniform. If one side is higher than the other, cut that
side longer than the other. Make note of the measurements. Now measure the width of the
doorjamb from the inner edges. Make note of the width measurement.

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 FIGURE.15.8. CONSTRUCTION OF WINDOW SILL

Next, determine how much of the edge of the doorjamb is required to show (or reveal). Usually
about ¼" of the doorjamb is exposed all the way around. The other ½" of the jamb is covered by
the door casing. If it is decided to reveal ¼" all the way around, add ½" to the width
measurement and ¼" to the height measurement of each side.

FIGURE.15.9. CONSTRUCTION OF WINDOW SILL

The miter cuts are trickier than the straight cuts. Using a miter saw, cut the top piece first using
the calculated dimensions from step 3. Then cut the corresponding miters on the side pieces.
Remember, if you do not have 90 degree corners, you will need to cut themiters slightly greater
or less than 45 degrees. Make sure the mitered corners fit together tightly.

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FIGURE.15.10. CONSTRUCTION OF WINDOW SILL

Measure and mark the left and right pieces to length. Use the measurements that were calculated
in step 3. Make the straight cuts.

FIGURE.15.11. CONSTRUCTION OF WINDOW SILL

To confirm the measurements and miter cuts, hold the casing pieces in position. Make sure the
amount of door jamb that is visible is uniform all the way around and the corners are tight.

Now the corners need to be assembled before the final installation. Lay the pieces flat on ground.
Glue both mitered surfaces on one of corners. Use a corner clamp to hold the 2 pieces together,
making sure your miters are lined up correctly and front surfaces of both pieces are flush. Let the
glue set before proceeding.

From the top casing piece, drill 2 pilot holes through the top edge and into the side piece. Be
careful that you do not drill through the face of the casing. Use long (3-1/2" x 6), flathead wood
screws to hold the 2 pieces tightly together. Remove the clamp. Repeatthis process on the other
corner.

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FIGURE.15.12. CONSTRUCTION OF WINDOW SILL

Take the assembled casing and position it over the doorjamb. Make sure that reveal is even all
the way around the doorjamb. Using finishing nails, tack the upper corners to the doorjamb. Do
not drive the nails all the way in, just in case you need to reposition the casing. Nail the top
casing piece to the doorjamb. Starting in the upper corners and working the way down, nail the
side pieces of the casing to the doorjamb.

FIGURE.15.13. CONSTRUCTION OF WINDOW SILL

To hold the outer part of the new casing in place, nail the outer edge to the surrounding stud
frame (through the drywall). Now retrace the steps and use a nail set to sink each nail about
1/16" below the casing surface. Use wood filler to fill in the nail head holes.

FIGURE.15.14. CONSTRUCTION OF WINDOW SILL

Once the casing is installed, you may find that irregularities in the doorjamb or walls have
prevented the casing from sitting tightly against these surfaces. You can remedythis by applying

91
a thin bead of latex caulk to fill in the gaps. Dip your finger in warm soapy water and run it over
the caulk to smooth it out.

FIGURE.15.5. CONSTRUCTION OF WINDOW SILL

Once the caulk and wood filler have dried, you can paint and finish your new casing.

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