Chapter 1: What is Research

Through partnering with a business research company, ESPN was able to understand what its
consumers wanted (that was the fans experience). Business research can be directed towards
improving service/product/experience or to improve internal operations in different functions.

Business research: The application of the scientific method in searching for the truth about
business phenomena. These activities include defining business opportunities and problems,
generating and evaluating alternative courses of action, and monitoring employee and
organizational performance.

Basic Business Research: Research that’s generally done to gain a deeper understanding but
without a specific decision in mind.

Applied Business Research: Applied Business Research is done for a specific purpose and
decision is in mind.

Both types of research require the scientific method: The scientific method is the way
researchers go about using knowledge and evidence to reach objective conclusions about the
real world.

Research can also be formal/informal which means whether research is done in a structured
way or quickly done due to lesser time at hand.

Prior Knowlegde+Observation—- Hypothesis—- Hypothesis Testing—-Conclusion (New

Knowledge).

Product Oriented: Inward out approach focused on the product.

Production Oriented: Inward out approach focused on efficiency.
Market Oriented: Outward in approach focused on the consumer.

*In all 3 of these orientations, co-creation is crucial.

5 Step Decision Process:
● Identifying problems or opportunities.
● Diagnosing and assessing problems or opportunities
● Selecting and implementing a course of action.
● Evaluating the course of action

Determinants of whether research is to be conducted:

● Time constraints
● Availability of data
● Nature of decision
● Benefits vs Cost

Research Agencies: These can be distinguished on the basis of local/international or full

service/limited service. Full service research agencies mean that they do digital, creative, media
planning, qualitative and quantitative whereas limited service would involve doing one of these
functions.

Steps of the Researching Process (Through Agency):

1) Choosing an Agency: All agencies are sent an RFP and then different proposals are
evaluated and one agency is chosen.
2) After Agency is Chosen: A research brief is sent to the agency which is a document that
tells the business challenge, so the research objective would be to “understand the
consumer perception of our brand vs competitor”.
Research Brief- Company Context, Dilemma, Purpose of Study, Business Challenge,
Research Objective, Possible Methodologies (suggestions for research agency), scope
(geographical/target audience/domains to cover), Deliverables, and Timelines &
Budgets.
3) After Research Brief is Sent: A briefing session is conducted where the agency gives
input on the brief (methodologies, scope, budget, timeline,etc)- the goal of this back &
forth is to gain clarity.

Difference between Research Methdology v.s Research Methods: Research Methodology is a

broader term that encompasses research design, philosophies, and approach whereas research
methods are techniques like interview, focus groups, surveys, etc.
*Note: Focus groups &interviews are most common in exploratory research, but surveys might
be used. Likewise, experimental design is common in causal research, but interviews could be
used. Essentially there is no association between the research techniques and research types.
Chapter 4: The Business Research Process

This chapter focuses on the relationship between business research and managerial decision
making, introducing the types of research that allow researchers to provide input to key decision
makers.

Decision Making Process: There might be a business opportunity (possibly resulting in a

competitive advantage) or a business problem (revealed through symptoms like declining sales).
Then through developing and deciding among alternative ways to resolve the problem or
choose from among alternative opportunities.

Ambiguity vs Uncertainty: *If the manager has complete certainty about the problem or
opportunity- then no research is needed (this is rare). This means the manager fully
understands what the relevant IVs are and what their affect is on the DVs and they just want to
see by how much should the IVs be changed to result in the desired impact on the DVs.
However, in reality managers might be uncertain (understand the problem but lack info about
alternatives) and ambiguous (know the symptoms but don’t understand the nature of the
problem i.e the IVs and DVs) in which case business research is needed.

Types of Business Research: Determined by degree of uncertainty

1) Exploratory: Conducted to clarify ambiguous situations or discover potential business
opportunities (it's the first and not intended to provide conclusive evidence). Generally,
if we don’t even know the category drivers then we’ll go for exploratory research.
2) Descriptive: Describes characteristics of objects, people, groups, organizations, or
environments; tries to “paint a picture” of a given situation (after a basic understanding
has already been achieved). Haleeb wanted to know the different consumers in the
bottled water market which already existed- this is an example of descriptive research.
An example of descriptive is a diagnostic analysis as it seeks to assess attitudes of
consumers towards the brand.
3) Casual: Allows causal inferences to be made; seeks to identify cause and-effect
relationships. In causal research, we need to identify and control for experimental
variables which could possibly result in a false relationship- these are usually done in a
lab or field setting i.e experimental research or test marketing. There are 3 critical pieces
of causal evidence which is necessary to conclude that there is a cause-effect
relationship.
a) Temporal Sequence (Timing is logical in terms of the two variables)
b) Concomitant Variation (Change occurs simultaneously in the two variables)
c) Nonspurious Variation (Change isn’t due to change in some other variable)
Causality has 3 degrees: absolute (A is needed and enough to bring about B), conditional (A is
needed but not enough to bring about B), and contributory (A isn’t needed nor is enough to
bring about B).

Dialogue on Research Objective (with respect to types of research): The research objective
initially might be too boad (lots of uncertainty), so first exploratory research must be conducted.
On the contrary, there is some knowledge where a recent campaign was run but more info
could be gathered to better understand how people felt, so hence we conduct descriptive
research. Finally, research objectives might have complete clarity- the impact of celebrity has an
emotional response in a certain part of the problem. This shows that the situation is completely
understood (we know the variables at hand), so we might conduct causal research.

Stages in the Research Process:

1) Defining the research objectives
2) Planning a research design
3) Planning a sample
4) Collecting the data
5) Analyzing the data
6) Formulating the conclusions and preparing the report

Road Map for Research Stages:

Sampling: This is the process of actually gathering data where we can have probability or non
probability sampling. There are several probability sampling methods like random sampling,
cluster sampling, systematic sampling, and stratified sampling. Likewise, there are some non
probability sampling like quota or convenience sampling. However, first it's crucial to identify
the sampling frame that is a document which highlights the group based on which the
population is chosen (a possible sampling frame could be a telephone directory).
*Probability sampling is better because its results are unbiased and hence generalizable, but the
generalizbility of the sample is compromised

Research Project v.s Research Program: A research project addresses one of a small number of
research objectives that can be included in a single study. In contrast, a research program
represents a series of studies addressing multiple research objectives. Many business activities
require an ongoing research task of some type.
Chapter 3: Theory of Building

Theory: A formal, logical explanation of some events that includes predictions of how things
relate to one another. A theory can be built through a process of reviewing previous findings of
similar studies, simple logical deduction, and/or knowledge of applicable theoretical areas.

Goals of Theory: The goal of theory revolves around 2 aspects: understanding the environment
and predicting behaviour.

Concepts
Research Concept: A concept or construct is a generalized idea about a class of objects,
attributes, occurrences, or processes that has been given a name- concepts are the building
blocks of theory. In organizational theory, leadership, productivity, and morale are concepts. In
the theory of finance, gross national product, risk aversion, and inflation are frequently used
concepts. Accounting concepts include assets, liabilities, and depreciation.
*Construct is a concept that can be more easily measured- the construct might initially have an
abstract definition, so to make it measurable we need an operational definition for which we
either must develop a scale or come up with proxy measures.

Ladder of Abstraction: Organization of concepts in sequence from the most concrete and
individual to the most general.

The basic or scientific business researcher operates at two levels: on the abstract level of
concepts (and propositions) and on the empirical level of variables (and hypotheses). At the
empirical level, we “experience” reality—that is, we observe, measure, or manipulate objects or
events.
Hypothesis
Theories require an understanding of the relationship among concepts. Thus, once the concepts
of interest have been identified, a researcher is interested in the relationship among these
concepts.

Propositions: Propositions are statements concerned with the relationships among concepts. A
proposition explains the logical linkage among certain concepts by asserting a universal
connection between concepts. For example, we might propose that treating our employees
better will make them more loyal employees. This is certainly a logical link between managerial
actions and employee reactions, but is quite general and not really testable in its current form.
*Propositions are in qualitative research

Hypothesis: It is a formal statement explaining some outcome which can be tested. In its
simplest form, a hypothesis is an educated guess based on logic or prior findings. A sales
manager may hypothesize that the salespeople who are highest in product knowledge will be
the most productive.
*Hypothesis are in quantitative and qualitative research

In qualitative research, there is no hypothesis because it's not aout proving or disproving as it's
about the relation between things (not about the frequency of the relation). For eg. If one
person out of many has a different experience then that has a lot of value in qualitative due to a
nuanced analysis but it’s ultimately not going to matter in quantitative.
Variables: Anything that may assume different numerical values; the empirical assessment of a
concept (In the above picture, retirement benefits would be variables).

Where do Theories Come From

Deductive Reasoning: The logical process of deriving a conclusion about a specific instance
based on a known general premise or something known to be true (we have a theory and its
tested in our context).
Inductive Reasoning: The logical process of establishing a general proposition on the basis of
observation of particular facts (observing reality and theorizing).

The Scientfic Method

Scientific method: It is a set of prescribed procedures for establishing and connecting
theoretical statements about events, for analyzing empirical evidence, and for predicting events
yet unknown.
1) Assessment of relevant existing knowledge of a phenomenon
2) Formulation of concepts and propositions
3) Statement of hypotheses
4) Design of research to test the hypotheses
5) Acquisition of meaningful empirical data
6) Analysis and evaluation of data
7) Proposal of an explanation of the phenomenon and statement of new problems raised
by the research

The process is as follows: Initially hypotheses are developed and then tested through research
& scientific method, the resulting findings will result in a theory being developed (bringing
things from an empirical level to abstract level). Now once that theory is developed, someone
else might decide to test that theory (bringing things from an abstract level to empirical level).
If a theory is tested in all circumstances, then it becomes a law.
Descriptive v.s Normative Theory: Another way to look at theory building is that it is done in 2
stages where in the preliminary stages descriptive theories are developed and then later
normative theories are developed. In the descriptive theory building there are 3 aspects:
observe, classification, and associations. So essentially the phenemoneon is identified, then the
phenomenon is classified into categories based on the attributes of the phenomenon, and
finally associations are established between the attribute & the outcomes. Once a descriptive
theory is developed through this preliminary stage, then its to be further tested and verified in
different contexts. As part of further testing, anomalies/deviations will be identified which will
help improve the theory. Now, as we move to developing the descriptive theory into a
normative theory whereby we are testing for causality and not just correlation. Hence, we
would now be in a position for predicting based on certain circumstances (anamolies can again
be identified in normative).

*Note: It was mentioned at the start of the chapter that theory building has 2 purposes:
understanding and predicting. We can now identify that “Understanding” comes under
descriptive theory building (testing for correlation) and “Predicting” comes under normative
theory building (testing causality).
Chapter 7: Qualitative Research Tools

If the question on research approach is asked, it’s referring to Qualitative v.s Quantitative.

Qualitative Research: Qualitative business research is research that addresses business

objectives through techniques that allow the researcher to provide elaborate interpretations of
market phenomena without depending on numerical measurement (The purpose of qualitative
research is to gather textual data and the objective isn’t to quantify).

Note: Qualitative research is less structured than most quantitative approaches. It does not rely
on self-response questionnaires containing structured response formats. Instead, it is more
researcherdependent in that the researcher must extract meaning from unstructured
responses, such as text from a recorded interview or a collage representing the meaning of
some experience, such as skateboarding.

Uses of Qualitative Research:

1) Helps define unclear problem statements and research objectives.
2) Provides in-depth understanding of phenomena and human motivations.
3) Offers insights into natural settings and practical applications of concepts.
4) Useful for studying context-dependent behaviors and preferences.
5) Provides fresh approaches when quantitative research falls short.

Qualitative vs Quantitative: Qualitative research offers deep insights and problem exploration,
while quantitative research excels in measurement and statistical validation. Both approaches
complement each other, with qualitative methods framing issues and quantitative methods
measuring and validating them. The key is choosing the right method for the research context,
as both have unique strengths.

Qualitative research focuses on observing, listening, and interpreting, making it more subjective
and researcher-dependent, as conclusions can vary between researchers. It often uses small
samples and is suited for exploratory designs, allowing flexibility and deep insight. In contrast,
quantitative research uses numeric measurements, making it more objective and
intersubjectively certifiable (Different individuals following the same procedure), meaning
results are consistent across researchers. While qualitative research excels in discovering
potential explanations, it is less suited for drawing definitive conclusions like quantitative
methods. Hence, qualitative results aren’t generalizale as they don't give conclusive evidence
unlike quantitative results.
 Quantitative Qualitative Factors to ensure Qualitative
research is of high quality

Internal validity (cause & Credibility Prolonged engagement in

effect) field (multiple methods)

External Validity Transferability Thick description of setting

and participants (detailed)

Reliability Dependability Auditing (documentation at

each stage)

Objectivity Confirmability Audit and reflexive (disclose

the research biases)

Exploratory vs Confirmatory Research: Exploratory research is used to gain initial insights, often
employing qualitative methods like stories, interviews, and observations to understand a
phenomenon and develop hypotheses. It focuses on open-ended exploration rather than
numbers. In contrast, confirmatory research tests these hypotheses using quantitative data,
providing more structured and objective results that help guide decisions. While exploratory
research is flexible and suited for uncovering new ideas, confirmatory research focuses on
validating those ideas with measurable, statistical evidence. Together, they form a research
process where qualitative exploration often precedes quantitative confirmation.

Big Idea Link to Qualitative Research: The Big Idea is the key selling point that solves the
conflict and the tension in the consumers lives- this is the essence of each
communication/campaign. Qualitative research helps us identify this tension and conflict
through gathering data.

Qualitative Research Link to Management Hierarchy Dilemma: If there is a symptom like falling
sales, this is a management dilemma/problem. Through the exploratory qualitative research we
would try to understand possible factors (research question). Now we would put forth an
investigative question as we are narrowing down to understand a relationship through
descriptive research. Now as we use different tools for this investigative questions, the answer
of which can be gathered through qual and quant depending on how certain & clear the relation
is (the more unclear the situation, we will continue going for qual to enhance understanding).
Management Dilemma (Downward trend in customer satisfaction scores)
Management Question (How to improve our firms customer satisfaction scores)
Existing data showed that training, hiring, and motivation can improve customer satisfaction
Research Question (What kind of training, hiring, and motivation programs should be there)
Investigative Question (What type of rewards do employees value (motivation))
Measurement (Actual Survey statement) Question (I enjoyed the training session 1-5)

Orientations to Qualitative Research (Methods):

1) Phenomenology—originating in philosophy and psychology: Phenomenology is a
research method that explores how people experience and interpret their world, using
unstructured, conversational interviews to uncover deeper insights. Hermeneutics,
within this approach, focuses on actually understanding and interpreting the gathered
text; so interpreting stories by linking key themes in narratives, often using coding or
software tools to identify patterns and meanings.

2) Ethnography—having roots in anthropology: Ethnography is a qualitative research

method that involves studying cultures by immersing oneself in them. Researchers use
participant-observation, where they become active members of the culture they are
studying, whether it be a broad culture like American society or a niche group like
skateboarders. By becoming part of the environment, researchers observe natural
behaviors that may not be revealed in traditional interviews. Ethnography is particularly
useful in studying groups who may not verbalize their thoughts easily, such as children,
by observing their actions in their natural settings.

3) Grounded theory—originating in sociology: Grounded theory is a qualitative research

method where theories are developed inductively from data rather than starting with a
predefined theory. Researchers analyze data, often from interviews or historical records,
and ask themselves questions like "What is happening here?" and "How is it different?"
to uncover deeper insights. This approach is particularly useful in dynamic environments
where rapid change occurs. Grounded theory is commonly applied by repeatedly
analyzing events and differences to form a new theory. Visual representations, such as
collages, can also be used to aid in developing theories.
*In grounded theory, there is an idea of constant comparison b/w types of data that has
been gathered after observation. The grounded theory is formed when you reach a
saturation point (keep collecting data until that point is reached).

4) Case studies—originating in psychology and in business research: Case studies involve

documenting the history of a person, group, organization, or event to deeply analyze it.
They are often used to explore specific situations, like a company introducing a product
or managing a crisis. Case studies can include clinical interviews with stakeholders and
are analyzed for key themes that arise frequently in the data. In business, case studies
are used to understand complex issues, such as what creates brand prestige in luxury
products. A key advantage is the in-depth focus, allowing researchers to carefully
examine events, relationships, and functions within an organization. Success in case
studies depends on the researcher's ability to creatively and attentively gather and
analyze data.
Common Qualitative Research Techniques
Exploratory Research in Science and in Practice: This section discusses the role and limitations
of exploratory research, particularly qualitative research, in scientific inquiry and
decision-making. Key points include:

1. Exploratory vs. Confirmatory Research: Exploratory research is valuable for generating

ideas and insights, but it cannot replace confirmatory research, which tests hypotheses
and provides conclusive results. Qualitative methods, such as interviews and focus
groups, are prone to subjectivity and interpretation.
2. Misuses of Qualitative Research: There are risks in relying too heavily on qualitative
findings, especially when interpretations are drawn from limited data. Historical
examples illustrate how poor interpretations can lead to misguided business decisions.
3. Scientific Decision Processes: Objectivity and replicability are crucial in scientific
research. While qualitative methods can inform hypotheses, they should be
complemented by confirmatory studies using quantitative methods for valid
decision-making.
4. Practical Constraints: In real-world scenarios, decisions may be made based on
exploratory findings due to time, cost, and emotional factors. Companies often prioritize
speed and cost over thorough research, which can lead to suboptimal outcomes.
5. Conclusion: Both exploratory and confirmatory research have their places in the
research process. Exploratory research is essential for developing ideas, while
confirmatory research is critical for testing and validating those ideas.

Research Philosophies: The broad ideology that guides a research; there are 3 research
philosophies: positivism, interpretivism, and pragmatism. There are different elements that
differentiate one research philosophy from another.
1) Ontology: Nature of reality (understanding reality)
2) Epistemology: Nature of knowledge (how do we know what we know)
3) Axiology: Role of values in research (should values be considered)
4) Methodology: The process itself (how is knowledge acquired)

Positivism: Positivists on ontology believe that reality is black/white and it's easily observable
and testable, on epistemology believe that empirical objective data is needed, on axiology
believe that all biases and perspectives should be put aside, and on methodology believe that a
structured quantitative approach ought to be used.

Interpretivism: Interpretivst on ontology believe that reality is grey as its socially constructed &
contextual, on epistemology believe that subjective data is needed, on axiology believe that
individual’s values & perspectives should be considered, and on methodology believe that an
unstructured qualitative approach ought to be used

Pragmatism: Pragmatists on ontology believe that reality is flexible, on epistemology believe in

a blend of objective and subjective data depending on which leads to the most successful
outcome, on axiology believe that values are inherently part of research, and on methodology
believe in not selecting b/w qualitative or quantitative approach but rather the using whichever
approach works to answer the research question most effectively. Pragmatism is a research
philosophy that strikes a middle-ground without being at the extreme ends of the philosophical
spectrum; it rejects the concept of a fixated ideology and urges to adapt based on the context
of the research.

Note:
Positivism—Induction
Interpretivism—Deduction
Pragmatism—Abduction
Guest Speaker Session:
● NielsonIQ is a consumer insight company.
● They conduct research and predict trends for clients.
● The mindset of a market researcher should be: Curious by nature, Good at observation,
and Part time storytellers (always question things- 5 whys)

●
● Research Case Study: What's the key outcome of the study, what's the target segment,
and what are the different attributes to test (smaller sample size).
● Through qualitative reseach like case studies, a clear understanding of the factors and
attributes can be achieved.
● Rotation order in focus groups helps eliminate bias.
● Quantitative research (likeability scores) is gathered to support the qualitative research
as it helps understand what attributes do they like.
● Penalty Map: Asks what attributes require change and what kind of change and how
important is it to be changed? It maps the likeability of the people who vote extreme on
an attribute. In the penalty map, there are different quadrants.
● Hierarchy Accessor: Ranks the importance of each attribute, for eg if taste is at the top
and it comes under “need to improve” quadrant then that’s very worrying.
● Brand Archetypes is when a personality is assigned to a brand to create deeper
emotional connections with their target audience, influence consumer perceptions, and
differentiate themselves from competitors.
Chapter 9: Survey Research Introduction

Introduction to Survey Research: Survey research is primarily conducted to gather primary

data—information specifically collected and organized for a particular project. This chapter
serves as the first of two on survey research and covers the topic's definition, common
objectives achievable through surveys, advantages of the survey method, potential errors
researchers should avoid, and various survey research methods.

Survey Objectives: Survey objectives vary but often aim to describe current situations or
understand reasons behind business actions. Common objectives include identifying target
market traits, gauging customer attitudes, and analyzing purchase behaviors. For example,
In-Stat’s survey on product features supported product development and advertising, while
eBay’s survey revealed online reselling trends, especially among 25-34-year-olds, highlighting
demand for auction services.

Surveys aren’t limited to consumer feedback; they also target wholesalers, retailers, and
internal employees to assess topics like job satisfaction or environmental commitment.
Although surveys are typically quantitative, they can serve qualitative objectives as well—such
as refining product concepts based on respondent feedback or assessing environmental
attitudes.

Survey research also measures advertising effectiveness, as seen in a humorous AT&T ad test
where respondents misidentified “trout” instead of hamburgers. This misinterpretation led the
advertisers to revise the ad, highlighting the importance of clear survey communication.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Surveys:

Surveys offer a quick, cost-effective, efficient, and accurate way to gather information about a
population. Their flexibility makes them highly valuable for managers, as they can be adapted to
diverse research objectives. Survey research has expanded significantly in recent decades,
reflecting the simple principle that understanding opinions often requires directly asking
people.

Over the last 50 years—especially in the past two decades—survey techniques and standards
have grown increasingly scientific and accurate. Properly designed surveys, with well-defined
sampling and question structures, provide significant advantages. However, poorly designed
surveys or delays in reporting can undermine their usefulness, particularly when results arrive
too late to impact decisions.
Summary of Biases & Errors in Survey Research
Survey errors, essential for managers to consider in evaluating survey accuracy, are categorized
primarily into random sampling errors and systematic errors:

❖ Random Sampling Error: Even with well-structured, representative samples, random

sampling error occurs due to the inherent chance variability in the sample selection.
Larger sample sizes reduce this error, which is statistically quantifiable.
❖ Systematic Error: Also known as nonsampling errors, these errors stem from flaws in the
research design or execution and lead to sample biases—persistent deviations from the
true population values. Systematic errors are divided into:
➢ Administrative Errors: Mistakes in data handling or interviewer behavior also
contribute to survey inaccuracies, affecting overall data quality.
Data-Processing Error: Errors that occur during the editing, coding, and
entry of data into a computer, often due to incorrect data entry or
programming.
Sample Selection Error: Systematic errors that result in an
unrepresentative sample due to improper sample design or execution of
the sampling procedure.
Interviewer Error: Mistakes made by interviewers in recording survey
responses, such as misrecording answers or being unable to write quickly
enough.
Interviewer Cheating: Occurs when an interviewer falsifies responses or
fills in answers for questions that were skipped, often motivated by the
desire to complete surveys quickly.

➢ Respondent Error: Occurs due to nonresponse or response bias:

■ Nonresponse Error: When segments of the population do not participate
(often in mail/online surveys), the results may skew towards the views of
those who responded, leading to nonresponse bias.
➢ Noncontacts and Refusals: Nonresponse error can occur not only
from refusals to participate but also from noncontacts, meaning
individuals who were not reached even after multiple attempts.
The text specifically highlights that the rise of answering machines
and caller ID has increased the likelihood of noncontacts in phone
surveys.
➢ Self-Selection Bias: Nonresponse can also lead to self-selection
bias. For example, people with extreme opinions (either positive
or negative) are more likely to respond to surveys, while those
 who feel indifferent may not. This distorts results, often
overrepresenting those with strong opinions.
■ Response Bias: Arises when respondents consciously or unconsciously
misrepresent answers. It includes:
● Deliberate Falsification: Respondents might alter responses to
appear intelligent or socially acceptable.
● Unconscious Misrepresentation: Errors can emerge due to
misunderstandings, situational influences, or unintentional
memory lapses.
● Types of Response Bias:
Acquiescence Bias: Tendency to agree with most
questions.
Extremity Bias: Preference for choosing extreme responses
on scales.
Interviewer Bias: Influence of interviewer’s demeanor,
leading to adjusted responses.
Social Desirability Bias: Respondents modify answers to
appear favorable or respectable.

Rule-of-Thumb Estimates for Systematic Error

Researchers estimate systematic errors using conservative rules of thumb, recognizing that
some respondents who express intent to buy a product may not actually do so. The
"mere-measurement effect" suggests respondents may overstate their buying intentions. For
example, a pay-per-view TV company may reduce estimated subscriptions by 10% based on past
upward bias.

What Can Be Done to Reduce Survey Error?

While surveys have potential errors, strategies exist to reduce them. Techniques to minimize
response bias and sampling errors are discussed in later chapters, focusing on improving survey
design and ensuring more accurate business research outcomes.
Classification of Survey Research Methods

1. Classification by Communication Method:

Surveys can be categorized based on how data is collected, including:

● Personal Interviews: Face-to-face interaction with respondents.

● Telephone Interviews: Conducted over the phone.
● Mail Surveys: Questionnaires sent through postal service.
● Internet Surveys: Conducted via online platforms.

2. Structured vs. Unstructured Questionnaires:

● Structured Questionnaires: Limit responses (e.g., multiple-choice questions).

● Unstructured Questionnaires: Allow open-ended responses (e.g., "Why do you shop at
Walmart?").
● Disguised vs. Undisguised Questions:
○ Undisguised Questions: Directly ask for information (e.g., "Do you have dandruff
problems?").
○ Disguised Questions: Use indirect techniques to reduce response bias.

3. Temporal Classification:
Surveys can be categorized based on when data is collected:

● Cross-Sectional Studies: Data collected at a single point in time (e.g., surveys on New
Year’s resolutions).
● Longitudinal Studies: Data collected from the same respondents over multiple points in
time to observe changes (e.g., National Longitudinal Survey of Youth).
○ Tracking Studies: Longitudinal studies using different samples to avoid bias.
○ Consumer Panels: Gather data from the same sample over time, tracking
purchasing behaviors and attitudes.

These classifications help researchers design effective surveys that meet specific objectives,
balancing structure, disguise, and timing to enhance data quality and reduce bias.
1. Total Quality Management (TQM) Overview

● Definition: TQM is a business strategy prioritizing market-driven quality to ensure

customer satisfaction with goods and services.
● Historical Context: Gained prominence in the U.S. during the 1980s due to rising
competition from high-quality foreign products.
● Importance: Companies recognize the necessity of TQM to bridge gaps between
executives, production workers, and customers through feedback.

2. Defining Quality

● Shift in Perspective: Quality is no longer solely defined by engineering standards; it is

now seen as meeting consumer requirements and expectations.
● Beyond Acceptability: Quality should exceed basic standards, providing customers with
delightful surprises and unexpected benefits.

3. Internal and External Customers

● Customer Focus: TQM emphasizes the importance of both internal (employees) and
external (consumers) customers.
● Understanding Needs: Effective TQM requires understanding both internal and external
customer expectations and perceptions of service.

4. Implementing TQM

● Research Necessity: Implementing TQM involves extensive survey research to assess

customer ratings, employee attitudes, and company performance against benchmarks.
● Stages of TQM:
○ Commitment and Exploration: Management's commitment to quality assurance
and understanding customer needs.
○ Benchmarking: Establishing quantitative measures for evaluating performance
and setting initial quality standards.
○ Quality Improvement Process: Translating quality issues into actionable
standards and expectations.
○ Continuous Quality Improvement: Ongoing cycles of improvement based on
previous performance, allowing employees to solve problems proactively.

5. Measuring Quality
 ● Customer Satisfaction Surveys: Surveys track consumer perceptions of product quality,
focusing on performance against expectations.
● Goods vs. Services: While goods quality is assessed through performance
characteristics, service quality is measured by comparing customer expectations with
actual service delivery.

6. Service Quality Improvement

● Identifying Needs: Organizations must analyze customer service needs and define
service specifications.
● Training and Motivation: Frontline personnel should be trained and motivated to deliver
exceptional service that exceeds customer expectations.
● Regular Surveys: Consistent surveys help measure service quality against established
standards.
Chapter 10: Survey Research Introduction

Introduction: The text discusses how traditional survey methods (human interviews and paper
questionnaires) have evolved, especially with the rise of digital technology. Digital
advancements are reshaping business research by introducing new communication forms.

Interviews as Interactive Communication

● Interviews involve direct human interaction, either face-to-face or over the phone.
● Electronic interactive media, enabled by the Internet, allow researchers to communicate
with a broader audience, personalizing messages and enabling two-way interactions.
● Respondents actively engage with surveys through electronic media, choosing the
information they receive.

Noninteractive Media

● Traditional mail questionnaires lack immediate feedback and interaction, categorizing

them as noninteractive.
● While noninteractive surveys have limitations, they still hold value in research.
● The chapter aims to compare different survey techniques, outlining the advantages and
disadvantages of live interviews versus self-administered questionnaires and the role of
digital technology in survey research.

Personal Interviews: Personal interviews are a form of direct communication where an

interviewer engages respondents face-to-face, allowing for a flexible and interactive dialogue.
This method has been used for centuries, dating back to practices in ancient civilizations and
utilized by notable merchant families in the Middle Ages. Researchers often conduct interviews
in public places like shopping malls or via telephone, using computers for data recording.

Advantages of Personal Interviews

1. Opportunity for Feedback: Allows for immediate clarification of questions, reducing

misinterpretation.
2. Probing Complex Answers: Interviewers can follow up on brief or unclear responses,
enabling a deeper understanding of respondent insights.
3. Length of Interview: Personal interviews can accommodate longer questionnaires (e.g.,
up to 90 minutes), unlike mail or telephone surveys which have strict time limits.
 4. Completeness of Questionnaire: Higher likelihood of respondents completing all
questions due to social interaction with the interviewer.
5. Props and Visual Aids: Enables the use of visual aids, enhancing understanding and
engagement (e.g., showing product samples).
6. High Participation: The presence of an interviewer generally increases response rates, as
people may feel more obliged to participate in a personal setting.

Disadvantages of Personal Interviews

1. Lack of Anonymity: Respondents may be hesitant to provide sensitive information due to

the personal nature of the interaction.
2. Interviewer Influence: The demographic characteristics and techniques of the
interviewer may unintentionally bias responses (e.g., differences in variance based on
the interviewer's age or gender).
3. Interviewer Variability: Variability in interviewer performance can affect data quality,
leading to inconsistencies in how questions are interpreted and answered.
4. Social Desirability Bias: Researchers must carefully phrase sensitive questions to
minimize biases related to respondents wanting to present themselves favorably.
5. Cost: Personal interviews are typically more expensive than other survey methods due
to logistical factors like travel and the need for trained interviewers.
Door-to-Door Interviews: Door-to-door interviews involve personal interactions with
respondents at their homes or offices. This method aims to increase participation rates and
ensure a more representative sample compared to mail surveys.

Key Points:

1. Participation Rates:
○ The presence of an interviewer tends to enhance willingness to complete
interviews.
○ More representative samples can be obtained, particularly from demographics
less likely to respond to mail surveys, such as certain Hispanic populations or
individuals without landlines.
2. Challenges and Limitations:
○ Certain groups may be underrepresented, including:
■ Residents in secured buildings (e.g., high-rises).
■ Busy professionals who may decline interviews during working hours.
■ Security-conscious individuals, including elderly adults.
○ Access to these groups may require alternative methods, such as phone
appointments.
3. Callback Procedures:
○ If a respondent is unavailable during the initial visit, interviewers typically
attempt callbacks.
○ This approach helps reduce nonresponse errors but can be more costly and
logistically complex due to geographic dispersion.
4. Comparison with Mall Intercept Interviews:
○ While mall intercept interviews are quicker and cheaper, they face high refusal
rates due to shoppers being in a hurry.
○ Mall interviews are less likely to yield a representative sample and should be
targeted toward specific market segments.
5. Global Considerations:
○ Willingness to participate can vary significantly by culture, affecting the feasibility
of conducting interviews in different countries.
○ Cultural norms may dictate appropriateness, such as gender interactions in
interviews or discussing personal topics.

Importance of Door-to-Door Interviews: Door-to-door interviews provide a vital means of

gathering data that can be more inclusive and representative, particularly when targeting
hard-to-reach populations. However, they also require careful consideration of logistics and
cultural sensitivities to optimize participation and data quality.
Telephone Interviews Overview

1. Historical Significance: Landline telephone interviews have traditionally been a primary

method for commercial survey research due to their ability to provide comparable data
quality to face-to-face interviews. Respondents often feel more comfortable sharing
personal information over the phone.
2. Challenges with Landline Interviews:
○ The do-not-call registry limits the reach of surveys, affecting sample
representativeness, as those who opt out may have common traits (e.g., privacy
concerns, education level).
○ Costs for accessing the registry can be high, but they are a necessary investment
to avoid legal penalties for unsolicited calls.
3. Mobile Phone Interviews:
○ Telemarketing to mobile numbers is prohibited, requiring respondents to opt in
for such calls, which complicates data collection.
○ Respondents on mobile phones may be distracted or unable to engage fully due
to their environments (e.g., driving, walking).
○ Geographic representation is less reliable since area codes do not always indicate
the respondent's current location.

Characteristics of Phone Interviews

1. Speed: Data collection is quick, allowing for numerous interviews to be conducted in a

short time frame, especially when responses are directly inputted into a computer.
2. Cost: Telephone interviews are generally more affordable than personal interviews,
reducing travel expenses.
3. Impersonal Nature: While the lack of face-to-face interaction may encourage candid
responses to sensitive questions, it can also lead to incomplete answers due to the
inability to gauge respondent reactions or prompts.
4. Cooperation and Response Rates:
○ Response rates have declined significantly, influenced by caller ID, answering
machines, and the increase in mobile-only households.
○ Strategies like sending advance invitations to participate can improve response
rates.
5. Incentives: Providing incentives, whether financial or in the form of prize draws, can
enhance participation rates.
6. Sample Representativeness: Difficulties in obtaining representative samples arise due to
unlisted numbers, the prevalence of mobile phones, and the demographic
characteristics of those with listed numbers.
Methodological Considerations

1. Random Digit Dialing: This technique helps mitigate issues related to unlisted numbers
but tends to have higher refusal rates.
2. Callbacks: Making multiple attempts to reach respondents can improve response rates.
Different times and days should be tried.
3. Interview Length: Shorter interviews tend to yield higher participation rates, with 15
minutes being a general maximum for most respondents.
4. Limited Visual Aids: The lack of visual materials makes telephone interviews less
suitable for certain types of research, such as packaging or advertising tests.
5. Centralized Interviewing: Conducting interviews from a central location enhances
supervision and quality control.

Technology in Telephone Interviews

1. Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing (CATI): This system allows for direct input of
responses into a computer, streamlining data processing. The questionnaire is presented
on-screen, guiding the interviewer through the process.
2. Voice-Activated Systems: New technology enables researchers to conduct interviews
without human interviewers, using voice-activated messages to collect responses.

Conclusion

Telephone interviews remain a valuable method for data collection despite the challenges
presented by changing technologies, privacy laws, and demographic shifts. Adapting strategies
to enhance cooperation and representation can help researchers continue to utilize this method
effectively.
Self-Administered Questionnaires: Self-administered questionnaires are surveys where
respondents independently read and answer questions without an interviewer’s assistance.
They can be distributed through various means, such as mail, electronic formats (e.g., websites,
email), and physical locations (e.g., stores, malls). The clarity of the questionnaire's wording is
crucial for effective responses.

Types of Self-Administered Questionnaires:

1. Mail Surveys: Paper questionnaires sent through the mail. They are cost-effective for
reaching geographically dispersed participants but can have low response rates.
2. Electronic Surveys: Distributed via the internet, email, or mobile devices.

Advantages of Mail Questionnaires:

● Geographic Flexibility: Reach respondents in remote areas or difficult-to-contact

professionals, like doctors.
● Cost: Generally cheaper than personal interviews, though still involves costs for printing
and postage.
● Convenience: Respondents can complete surveys at their leisure, which may enhance
the quality of responses.
● Anonymity: Higher likelihood of honest answers to sensitive questions due to
confidentiality assurances.

Disadvantages of Mail Questionnaires:

● Lack of Clarification: Absence of an interviewer means respondents cannot ask for

clarifications, which can lead to misunderstandings.
● Response Rate Issues: Low engagement, often less than 5%, with potential bias as only
interested individuals may respond.
● Length Considerations: Longer questionnaires may require incentives to boost response
rates; generally, keep it to six pages or less.

Strategies to Increase Response Rates:

1. Effective Cover Letters: Explain the study's importance, assure confidentiality, and offer
incentives. Personalized letters are more effective.
2. Monetary Incentives: Offering money or donations to charities can significantly increase
motivation to respond.
3. Engaging Questions: Include interesting questions at the start to capture respondents'
interest.
 4. Follow-Ups: Sending reminders or duplicate questionnaires can increase participation
rates.
5. Advance Notification: Informing potential respondents about an upcoming survey can
boost cooperation rates.
6. Sponsorship: Surveys endorsed by reputable organizations tend to receive higher
response rates.

Other Forms of Self Adminstered Questionnaires: can be distributed through various

methods, similar to traditional mail surveys. Key forms include:

1. In-Person Distribution: Airlines, restaurants, hotels, and magazines distribute printed

questionnaires for immediate customer feedback. Manufacturers also use warranty or
registration cards to gather demographic and purchasing data.
2. Drop-Off Method: Interviewers deliver and later collect questionnaires, improving
response rates over mail but adding costs due to required travel. This method is effective
in cluster sampling.
3. Fax Surveys: Distributed via fax, these surveys are quick and reduce printing and postage
expenses, yet are limited to respondents with fax access and may draw biased responses
due to extreme opinion holders.
4. E-Mail Surveys: Effective for internal or regular customer surveys, e-mail offers fast
distribution, lower costs, and flexibility. However, response can vary due to limitations
with attachments, layout issues across devices, and potential security concerns for
respondents, especially in corporate settings. Researchers can ensure privacy through
brief cover letters and careful use of the “bcc” field for anonymity.
5. Internet-Linked E-Mail Invitations: E-mails can invite participants to web-based surveys
via links and passwords, making it another versatile option in survey research.
6. Internet Surveys: An Internet survey is a self-administered questionnaire conducted
online, often through platforms like Qualtrics. This method of surveying has gained
popularity due to the accessibility of web survey tools, offering unique advantages and
some limitations.
❖ Speed and Cost-Effectiveness: Internet surveys enable researchers to reach a
vast audience rapidly and cost-efficiently, potentially on a global scale. The digital
format eliminates costs associated with paper, postage, and manual data entry.
Once set up, surveys can reach additional respondents at minimal incremental
cost, allowing for larger sample sizes. Even for extensive samples, surveys that
once took months can now be completed in a week or less.
 ❖ Visual Appeal and Interactivity: Internet surveys support interactive elements
that can adapt questions based on previous responses. The format allows for
vibrant visuals, including color, sound, and animation, which may encourage
respondents to engage. This makes Internet surveys ideal for displaying product
prototypes, ads, or promotional content.
❖ Respondent Participation and Cooperation:Participation varies based on how
respondents are directed to the survey. Some intentionally access it via a
website, while others may come across it unexpectedly. Internet surveys often
rely on email invitations, especially for members of pre-assembled consumer
panels. In these cases, secure logins and passwords ensure that responses are
restricted to the selected sample and allow for tracking. Financial incentives are
effective in increasing participation, as shown in studies.
❖ Representative Samples:The sampling quality of Internet surveys can vary. If
surveys only capture voluntary responses from web visitors, they risk
non-representative samples due to self-selection bias. However, strategically
selecting respondents—like every 100th visitor or members of consumer
panels—can yield samples more representative of the target population.
❖ Accurate Real-Time Data Capture:Responses in Internet surveys are recorded
directly, reducing the risk of data entry errors. Survey software can also
interactively address errors, ensuring cleaner data. This setup allows real-time
monitoring and analysis, giving researchers up-to-date insights during data
collection.
❖ Personalized and Flexible Questioning: Internet surveys offer customizable
questioning paths based on respondents’ answers, mirroring computer-assisted
telephone interviews. These branching paths reduce unnecessary questions and
help maintain engagement, while prompts for skipped questions lower item
nonresponse rates.
❖ Respondent Anonymity: The anonymity provided by Internet surveys encourages
participants to share more sensitive or private information. Without direct
human interaction, respondents often feel more comfortable sharing truthful
insights.
7. Kiosk-Administered Surveys: Kiosk-administered surveys are self-administered
questionnaires provided through public kiosks, typically set up in high-traffic locations
such as shopping malls, airports, or retail stores. These kiosks allow businesses and
researchers to gather feedback in real time at the point of experience.
8. Mixed-Mode Surveys combine two or more survey methods (e.g., online and phone) to
improve response rates and reach diverse populations. By using multiple channels,
researchers can overcome limitations of individual methods—like reaching Internet
 users through online surveys and those less tech-savvy through phone interviews.
However, mixed-mode approaches can increase costs and complexity in managing data
from various sources.
9. Text Message Surveys are brief questionnaires delivered via SMS, effective for high
response rates due to their convenience. They are ideal for capturing short, timely
feedback, especially in populations that frequently use mobile phones. Text surveys are
limited by character constraints and may not be suitable for complex questions, but
they’re highly accessible, quick, and can prompt immediate responses, making them
useful for simple satisfaction or experience-based feedback.

Selecting the Appropriate Survey Research Design

There is no universally "best" survey method, as each approach has its unique advantages and
disadvantages. When choosing a survey design, researchers consider various factors, such as the
need for interviewer assistance, respondent interest, ease of cooperation, timeline, complexity
of questions, and budget constraints. Key criteria—such as cost, speed, and anonymity—vary by
project. For instance, a mail survey may be chosen for privacy concerns despite slower response
times, whereas telephone interviews might be ideal when precise question control is needed.
Exhibit 10.4 in the text further outlines specific pros and cons of common survey methods like
door-to-door, mall intercept, telephone, mail, and Internet surveys.

Pretesting

Pretesting is a quality-control step to ensure that surveys function as intended before full
deployment. By conducting a trial run, researchers identify issues such as misunderstood
questions, skipped sections, or instructions that are unclear to respondents. Pretesting may
involve two main types of screening: (1) review by other research professionals to catch
potential wording or order biases, and (2) feedback from the client or research manager to
ensure that the questionnaire meets the study’s objectives. The final pretest involves
administering the questionnaire to a small sample of respondents to refine the survey further.

Ethical Issues in Survey Research

Ethics in survey research covers a range of responsibilities, such as respecting respondents'

privacy, avoiding deception, informing participants about the research purpose, maintaining
confidentiality, collecting data honestly, and reporting findings objectively. Ethical
considerations aim to balance research objectives with respect for participant rights and
transparency.

These summaries ensure all key points are noted for MCQ preparation, capturing essential
terms like "criteria for design selection," "screening procedures," and "ethical responsibilities,"
which may feature in exam questions. Let me know if any specific points need further expansion
or if you'd like similar summaries for additional sections.