CHAPTER ONE

1. INTRODUCTION TO HEAT &

MASS TRANSFER

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 Objectives:
• Explain how heat flows in physical systems in terms of
conduction, convection, and radiation.
• Apply the concepts of thermal insulators and conductors
to the concepts of thermal insulators and conductors to
practical systems.
• Describe free and forced convection and recognize these
free and forced convection and recognize these processes
in real-life applications.
• Calculate the heat transfer in watts for conduction,
convection, and radiation in simple systems.
• Explain how the three heat- transfer processes are applied
to evaluating the energy efficiency of a house or building. 2
Heat transfer 3
 1. INTRODUCTION
 From the concepts of Thermodynamics, energy can be
transferred by interactions of systems with its
surrounding.
 This interaction is known as heat and work.
Surrounding

System

Heat transfer
Work transfer
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Fig.1.1 Interaction of a system with its surrounding
Fig. 1.1 Interaction of system with its surrounding
 1.1 WHAT IS HEAT TRANSFER?
 Heat transfer is the science that seeks to predict the
energy transfer that may take place between material
bodies as a result of a temperature difference.
 Thermodynamics teaches that this energy transfer is
defined as heat.
 The science of heat transfer seeks not merely to explain
how heat energy may be transferred, but also to predict
the rate at which the exchange will take place under
certain specified conditions.
 The fact that a heat-transfer rate is the desired objective
of an analysis points out the difference between heat 5

transfer and thermodynamics.

 1.1 WHAT IS HEAT TRANSFER?……..
• A system interacts with its surrounding through heat and
work transfer (Thermodynamics).
• Heat transfer is the energy in transit due to temperature
differences between system and surrounding.
 Temperature difference is a driving force for heat transfer.

 The energy change of a system is related to the heat and

work transfers according equation (1.1)

dE  Q  W ……………………(1.1)

Where;
• E includes all forms of the energy of the system,
• Q is the heat transferred to the system and 6
• W is the work done by the system.
 The heat transfer Q is what this course is concerned with.
 1.2 APPLICATION AREAS OF HEAT TRANSFER
 Heat transfer analysis has a number of applications in
engineering and other aspects of life.
 Some examples are:

 The human body.

 Many household equipments like heating and air-

conditioning system, the refrigerator and freezer, the water
heater, the iron, and even the computer.
 Energy-efficient home design- optimal insulation thickness
of walls and roofs.
 Radiators and Engines of automotive.

 The design of solar collectors , various components of power

plants, and even spacecraft.
 Cooling of electronic equipments. 7

 Chemical processes where there is energy (heat) generation.

 1.3 HEAT TRANSFER MODES

The modes of heat transfer between system and its

surrounding or between systems can be classified into
three:
 Conduction,

 Convection, and

 Radiation

In all the three modes the heat is transferred from a body at

higher temperature to one at lower temperature.
Except radiation, the other modes of heat transfer require a
medium for the heat to be transferred.
Fig. 1.2 shows an analogy for the three heat transfer modes. 8
1.3 HEAT TRANSFER MODES …

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Fig.1.2 Analogy for the Heat Transfer Modes
 1.3.1 Conduction Heat Transfer
Conduction:
 It is the transfer of heat from one part of a body to another part of the
same body, or from one body to another in physical contact with
it, without appreciable displacement of the particles of the body.
 Is due to the interactions between particles of a substance.
 More energetic particles transfer heat to the less energetic ones.
 In solids conduction is due to vibration of molecules in a lattice and

motion of free electrons.

 In liquids and gases it is due to collision of molecules in their random
motion.
Experiments reveal that the rate of conduction heat transfer through a medium is
dependent on:
 Geometry of the medium (cross sectional area)
 Thickness of the medium
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 Material property of the medium and
 Temperature difference across the medium
 1.3.1 Conduction Heat Transfer …….

Figure 1.4
Heat must flow downhill on the
temperature scale, as indicated in the
coordinate system.
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Fig. 1.3 One dimensional conduction heat transfer
 1.3.1 Conduction Heat Transfer …….
• Conduction heat transfer rate can be expressed
mathematically by Fourier’s law.

……………………(1.2)

.
Where Q = conduction heat transfer rate (W)
k = thermal conductivity of the material (W/mK)
A = cross-sectional area normal to direction of
heat flow ( )

 The negative sign in equation (1.2) indicates that heat flow

is in the direction of temperature decrease. 12
 1.3.1 Conduction Heat Transfer …….
 The thermal conductivity k is the property of a material
which shows the ability of the material to conduct heat
(Table 1.1)
Table 1.1 Thermal conductivities of some materials at room temperature

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 1.3.1 Conduction Heat Transfer …….
 In the limiting case where the thickness L  0, equation (1.2)
can be written as
………………………….(1.3)

 Equation (1.3) is known as Fourier’s law of heat conduction.

 The heat transfer rate per unit area is known as heat flux, q.
.
Q
q   k
dT ………………………..(1.4)
A dx
dT
dx
is temperature gradient or the slope of the curve on T-X
diagram.

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Example 1.1
A copper slab (k=372w/mK) is 3mm thick. It is protected from
corrosion on each side by a 2 mm thick layer of stainless steel
(k=17w/mK). The temperature is on one side of this composite wall
and on the other. Find the temperature distribution in the copper
slab and the heat flux conducted through the wall.

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Fig. Example 1.1

 Solution
From conservation of energy principle, heat flux through
stainless steel=heat flux through copper.

Solving this equation gives

T2=2550C and T3=2450C ……(Ans.)
The heat flux through the wall can be obtained as

…(Ans.)16
Example 1.2

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Fig. Example 1.2
Solution

 Since heat transfer through the wall is by conduction, the

heat flux may be determined by Fourier’s law.
.
Q dT
q   k
A dx

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𝑄 = qA = q(HW)

𝑄 = 2833W/ (0.5mx1.2m) = 1700W (Ans.)

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 1.3.2 Convection Heat Transfer
Convection:
 It is the transfer of heat from one point to another point within
a fluid, gas, vapor, or liquid by the mixing of some portion of
the fluid with an other.
 Convection is a heat transfer mode that takes place between
a solid surface and a moving fluid when there is a
temperature difference between the surface of the solid and
the fluid.
 Convection occurs due to a combination of two phenomena:
 Random motion of fluid molecules (conduction)and

 Bulk motion of the fluid

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 Convection heat transfer is classified in to two based
on the cause of motion of the fluid:
a) Natural or Free Convection: the movement
of the fluid is entirely caused by differences in
density resulting from temperature differences.
b) Forced Convection: the motion of the fluid is
accomplished by mechanical means, such as a
fan or a blower.

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Fig. 1.3 Forced Convection Fig. 1.4 Free Convection

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Fig. 1.5 Heat transfer from a hot surface to the
surrounding fluid by convection and conduction.
The rate of convection heat transfer is given by the
Newton’s law of cooling
.
Q  hA(Ts  T ) ………..………..…(1.5)
Where = convection heat transfer rate (w)
A = surface area through which convection heat transfer
takes place ( m 2 )
h = convection heat transfer coefficient (W / m 2 K )
Ts = surface temperature (K)
T = temperature of fluid far away from surface (K)

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Fig. 1.6 Heat transfer from a hot
surface to air by convection.
Table 1.2 typical values of convection heat transfer coefficient

Type of convection h, w/m2K

Free convection of gases 2-25

Free convection of liquids 10-1000

Forced convection of gases 25-250

Forced convection of liquids 50-20,000

Boiling and condensation 2500-100,000

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Example 1.3
A 2-m-long, 0.3-cm-diameter electrical wire extends
across a room at 15°C, as shown in Fig. below. Heat is
generated in the wire as a result of resistance heating,
and the surface temperature of the wire is measured to
be 152°C in steady operation. Also, the voltage drop and
electric current through the wire are measured to be 60
V and 1.5 A, respectively. Disregarding any heat
transfer by radiation, determine the convection heat
transfer coefficient for heat transfer between the outer
surface of the wire and the air in the room.

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SOLUTION
 The convection heat transfer coefficient for heat
transfer from an electrically heated wire to air is to be
determined by measuring temperatures when steady
operating conditions are reached and the electric
power consumed.
 Assumptions
1. Steady operating conditions exist since the
temperature readings do not change with time.
2. Radiation heat transfer is negligible.
 Analysis
When steady operating conditions are reached, the rate
of heat loss from the wire will equal the rate of heat
generation in the wire as a result of resistance heating.

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 1.3.3 Radiation Heat Transfer
Radiation:
• It is the transfer of heat from one body to another, not
in contact with it, by means of "wave motion“ through
space.
• Thermal radiation is an energy emitted in the form of
photons (electromagnetic waves) from a body because of
its temperature.
• All objects at a temperature above absolute zero emit
thermal radiation.
Tsur

Ts
A
e
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Fig. 1.8 Radiation heat transfer between a surface and its surrounding
The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted
from a surface at absolute temperature of Ts is given
by the Stefan-Boltzmann law
Q
.
 AT 4 ……………(1.6)
max s

.
Where Q max =
radiation heat transfer rate (W)
= Stefan-Boltzmann constant ( 5.67 10 W / m K )
8 2 4

A= surface area of the object ( m 2 )

Ts = surface temperature (K)

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 .

An object that can emit Q max is called Black body

(ideal thermal radiator). But
. real objects radiate
thermal energy less than Q max given by:
.
Q  eATs4 ….………………(1.7)

Where ɛ is a property known as emissivity.

 The value of emissivity is in the range .
 When a surface is enclosed by a single or a number
of surfaces as shown in Fig. 1.8, the radiation heat
transfer is given by
.
Q  eA(Ts4  Tsur
4
) ………….. (1.8)

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In general, these three basic mechanisms of heat transfer
occur simultaneously in real world problems (Fig. 1.8).

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Fig. 1.9 Heat transfer mechanisms at the tube wall of a steam generator
 Example 1.4
It is a common experience to feel “chilly” in winter and
“warm” in summer in our homes even when the
thermostat setting is kept the same. This is due to the so
called “radiation effect” resulting from radiation heat
exchange between our bodies and the surrounding
surfaces of the walls and the ceiling.
Consider a person standing in a room maintained at 22°C
at all times. The inner surfaces of the walls, floors, and
the ceiling of the house are observed to be at an average
temperature of 10°C in winter and 25°C in summer.
Determine the rate of radiation heat transfer between this
person and the surrounding surfaces if the exposed
surface area and the average outer surface temperature of
the person are 1.4 m and 30°C, respectively (Fig. below).
2

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Example 1.5
An insulated steam pipe passes through a room in which the air
and walls are at 25°C. The outside diameter of the pipe is
70mm, and its surface temperature and its emissivity are
200°C and 0.8, respectively. What is the emissive power per
unit area of the pipe? If the coefficient associated with free
convection heat transfer from the surface to the air is 15 W / m 2 K ,
what is the rate of heat loss from the surface per unit length of
pipe?

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 Solution
The surface emissive power per unit area is obtained by
equation (1.7) .
Q
q  eTs4  0.8 * 5.67 *108 * 4734
A
 2270W / m 2
Heat is lost from the pipe through combination of convection
to the room air and radiation exchange with walls. From
equations (1.5) and (1.8),
.
Q  hA(Ts  T )  eA(Ts4  Tsu4 )
 h(DL)(Ts  T )  e (DL)(Ts4  Tsu4 )
The heat loss per unit length of the pipe will be
.

. Q
q'   h(D)(Ts  T )  e (D(Ts4  Tsu4 )
L
 15 * ( * 0.07)(200  25)  0.8 * ( * 0.07) * 5.67 *108 (4734  2984 )
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 577  421  998W / m