CLASS X CBSE ENGLISH GRAMMAR

CLASS X CBSE HAS GRAMMAR TOPICS

1. TENSE
2. SUBJECT VERB AGREEMENT( SUBJECT VERB CONCORD)
3. DETERMINERS
4. REPORTED SPEECH
5. MODALS

1.TENSES

Study the following sentences:

1. My father goes for a morning walk daily

2. She is reading a magazine.

3. I saw Kate yesterday.

4. She was knitting a scarf.

5. We shall go to the zoo tomorrow.

6. He will arrive here next Monday

All these sentences refer to certain actions at certain points of time.

Sentences 1 and 2 refer to actions happening now, i.e., the present.
Similarly, sentences 3 and 1 express actions that happened some time
ago, i.e., in the past. Sentences 5 and 6 express actions that will take
place some time from now, i.e., in the future. We may refer to tenses
as time references.

Study the following diagram:

We see that past extends from the speaker's present to the beginning
of time, while future extends from the speaker's present to the end of
time. We also infer that present divides time but itself moves towards
future.
The following table shows the different forms of the verb:

2. Forms of the present Simple Tense:

 Thus we have seen that the Simple Present Tense is formed by

using the plain infinitive. But -s or -es are added to the bare
infinitive (i.e. infinitive without ‘to’) for the third person singular
(He, She) and singular noun (Nitu)
 We form the negative sentences by using doesn’t or don’t
before the main verb.
 The interrogative sentences are formed by using do or does
before the subject.
 The negative interrogative sentences are formed by using do or
does before the subject and not after the subject.

But the short forms don’t and doesn’t come before the Subject.

You can master in English Grammar of various classes by our articles like
Tenses, Clauses, Prepositions, Story writing, Unseen Passage, Notice
Writing etc.

We use Present Simple time to talk about things in general. We are not
thinking only about now. We use it to say that something happens all the
time or repeatedly or that something is true in general. Here it is not
important whether the action is happening at the time of speaking
Examples:

 I take my breakfast every day.

 We go to school.

We use Present Continuous tense to talk about something that is

happening at or around the time of speaking. The action is not finished. In
such sentences is/am/are + verb + ing is used to show continuation.
Examples:
  Girls are playing.
 I am watching TV.

Present Perfect tense is used to give information about an action that has
recently been completed. It is also used to talk about some action in the
past that has a result now. In such sentences verb ends with have/has +
verb + ed/t/en/ne forms.
Examples:

 Tom has lost his key.

 I have forgotten your name.

Present Perfect Continuous tense is used to indicate an activity that

continues from the past until now repeatedly or an activity that has
recently stopped. In these sentences have/ has + been + v + ing form is
used.
Examples:

 John looks sunburnt. He has been working under the sun since
morning.
 Your clothes are very dirty. What have you been doing?

Past Tense

 I/You/He/She/It/We/They played. – (Affirmative)

 I/You/He/She/It/We/They didn’t play. – (Negative)
 Did I/You/She/It/We/They play? – (Interrogative)

All these sentences are in simple past. We use Past Simple for:

 Action completed in the past

 Actions which happened at a specific point in time.
 Past habits and past actions that happened immediately after
the other.

Now look at the following sentences:

 I/He/She/It was playing. – (Affirmative)

 We/You/They were playing. – (Affirmative)
 I/He/She/It wasn’t playing. – (Negative)
 We/You/They weren’t playing. – (Negative)
 Was/I/He/She/It playing? – (Interrogative)
 Where were/We/You/They playing? – (Interrogative)

All these sentences are in Past Continuous. We use past continuous for:

 An action that was in progress at a stated time in the past.

  A past action which was in progress when another action
interrupted it.
 Two or more actions were happening at the same time.

Let’s read the following sentences:

 Rohit had already left when we arrived at the party.

 He had broken his leg and it was still hurting.
 Everything had seemed normal at first.

All these sentences have been written in Past Perfect Tense. We use it to
talk about an action which finished before another action in the past.

We use certain time expressions with past perfect: before, already, after,
just, when, never, etc.

Now read the following sentences:

I had been watching TV for an hour when I remembered I had forgotten to
call my friend.
She had been painting her room and her clothes were covered in paint.
These sentences have been written in Past Perfect Continuous Tense. We
use it to talk:

 for a past action which started and finished in the past before
another past action, putting emphasis on the duration.
 for an action which lasted for some time in the past and the
result was still visible in the past..

Time expressions used: for, since, until, etc.

11. Future Time Reference

 Let us read the following sentences:

 We will go to the zoo tomorrow.
 He will be on leave next week.

All these sentences indicate that we use will to talk about an event in
progress at some point in future. However, there are different modes in
English that can be used to refer to incidents that occur at some time in
future. This mode of reference is called as future time reference. Such
sentences have constructions based on different structures.

They are as follows:

Simple Present Tense

 The Commonwealth Games begin from 2nd October.

  If he works hard like this, he can pass.

Present Continuous Tense: It is used to refer to future events that have

been planned before.

 We are expecting the queen to inaugurate the games this

month.
 I’m sorry I can’t attend the wedding. I’m meeting the director
this evening.

Use of Going to

 We are going to shift to Shimla very soon.

 Suchitra is going to marry Harish.

Be + about to + infinitive

 The class is about to start.

Use of Will/Shall
It is used to make a prediction about future, or in advertisements, etc.

 India will win at least one gold in boxing.

 Their souls shall rest in peace.

Be + To + V

 The teacher is to deliver a talk on study skills.

 . 2.SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

A verb must agree with its subject in number and person.

1. Often, by what is called the ?Error of Proximity?, the verb is to agree m

number with a noun near it instead of its proper subject:
(a) The quality of the mangoes is not good.
(b) His knowledge of Indian Vernaculars is far beyond the common.

2. Two or more singular nouns or pronouns joined by and require a plural

verb:
(a) Gold and Silver are precious metals.
(b) He and I were playing.
But if the nouns suggest one idea, or refer to the same person or thing,
the verb is singular:
(a) Bread and butter is his only food.
(b) The novelist and poet is dead.

3. Words joined to a singular subject by ?with, as well as?, etc., are

parenthetical. The verb should be put in the singular:
(a) The house, with its contents, was insured.
(b) Justice, as well as mercy, allows it.

4. Two or more singular subjects connected by ?or? or ?nor? require a

singular verb:
(a) No nook or corner was left unexplored.
(b) Either the cat or the dog has been here.
 But when one of the subjects joined by 'or' or ?nor? is plural, the verb
must be plural, and the plural subject should be placed nearest to the
verb:
(a) Neither the chairman nor the directors are present.

5. When the subjects joined by ?or? or ?nor? are of different persons, the
verb agrees with nearest:
(a) Either he or I am mistaken.
(b) Neither you nor he is to be blamed.

6. Either, neither, each, everyone, many must be followed by a singular

verb:
(a) Many a man has done so
(b) All of the prison is full.
(c) Each of these substances is found in India.
(d) Neither of the two men was strong.

7. Two nouns qualified by 'each' or 'every' require a singular verb:

(a) Every girl was given a packet of sweets.

8. Some nouns which are plural in form, but singular in meaning take a
singular verb:
(a) The news is true.
(b) The wages of sin is death.

9. Pains? and ?means? take either the singular or the plural verb but the
construction must be consistent:
(a) Great pains have been taken.
(b) Much pains have been taken.

10. Some nouns which are singular in form, but plural in meaning take a
plural verb:
(a) According to the present market rate twelve dozens cost one
hundred rupees.

11. None?, though properly singular, commonly takes a plural verb:

(a) None are so deaf as those who will not hear.

12. A collective noun takes a singular verb when the collection is thought of
as one whole:
(a) The committee has issued its report.

13. When a plural noun denotes some specific quantity or amount

considered as a whole, the verb is generally singular:
(a) Ten kilometres is a long walk.
(b) Fifty thousand rupees is a large amount.

3. DETERMINERS
1. Determiner:
‘Determiner’ is a word used before a norm to indicate which things or
people we are talking about. The words ‘a’, ‘the’, ‘my’, ‘this’, ‘some’,
‘many’, etc. are called determiners:

 He is a good boy.
 The boy you met is my friend.
  This novel is very interesting.
 I have some information about the accident.
 There were many people at the station.

All the italicised words are determiners and they limit the meaning of the
nouns that follow them.
2. Kinds of Determiners:

3. Pre-determiners:
Pre-determiners are the words which occur before a determiner to limit
the meaning of a noun:

4. Articles:
The article system in English consists of the definite article ‘the’ and the
indefinite article ‘a’ or ‘an”. We can think of nouns in a specific or general
way. When we refer to particular people or things or something that has
already been mentioned or can be understood, we use the definite article
‘the’. When we refer to singular nouns for the first time, or refer to things
in a general way, we use the indefinite article ‘a’ or ‘an’.
➤ The Definite Article ‘The’:
 We can use the definite article before any common noun:
He threw the ball into the river.
The boys were not in the class.
 We use the definite article to refer to specific persons or things:
I want to meet the principal in the school.
The tourists crossed the river in a boat.
 The definite article is used to refer to the things that are only
one in the world:
The moon and stars were shining in the sky.
The sun sets in the west.
The earth revolves round the sun.
 We use the definite article with the words such as school,
university, prison, when we are referring to a particular
building: .
They will visit the school on Monday.
I met him in the university.
 The definite article may be used with the countable nouns that
are used in the singular to refer to things more general:
If you break the law, you will be punished.
He played the violin for half an hour.
 The definite article is used to refer to the parts of the body:
Smoking is harmful for the lungs.
He caught him by the neck.
There was an injury in the right eye.
 The definite article is used with time expressions:
I met her in the evening.
She came here in the morning.
 We use the definite article before something that has already
been mentioned.
I met a man at the station.
The man belonged to Tamil Nadu.
 The definite article is used before a noun that is followed by a
relative clause or a prepositional phrase:
The man I met at the station belonged to Haryana.
He put the sweater on the table.
 The definite article is used to refer to familiar things we use
regularly:
She looked at the ceiling.
Suddenly the lights went out.
 The definite article is used before dates or periods of time:
We met on the 15th of October.
It is a popular music of the 1940s.
 The definite article is generally used before a noun which is
followed by ‘of’:
This led to the destruction of the whole village.
The burning of houses rendered people homeless.
 The definite article is used before the names of seas, rivers,
deserts, mountains,
The ship crossed the Pacific Ocean.
 Delhi stands on the banks of the Yamuna.
The Sahara is a famous desert.
They came across the Himalayas.
 The definite article is used before the names of large public
buildings:
They visited the Taj Mahal.
They went to the Town Hall.
 The definite article is used before the superlative adjectives:
He is the- best boy in the class.
She is the most beautiful girl in the school.
 The definite article is used before adjectives such as rich, poor,
deaf, dumb, blind, to use them as nouns:
The rich and the poor went to the fair.
We should help the blind.
 We use the definite article before the nationals of a country or
continent:
The Indians are very religious.
Some of the Europeans live here.
 We use the definite article before the names of trains and
ships:
The Rajdhani Express is a very fast train.
The Queen Elizabeth is a famous ship.

➤ The Indefinite Articles-‘a’, ‘an’:

The indefinite articles (‘a’, ‘an’) are used when we talk about people in a
general or indefinite way.

 The article ‘a’ is used before the words which begin with
consonant sounds and ‘an’ is used before the words beginning
with vowel sounds. However, some words start with a vowel
letter but begin with a consonant sound. So we use the article
‘a’ before these words:
He is a European. This is a
unique idea.
Theirs is a one-parent family. He is
teaching at a university.
 We use an before words which begin with a vowel sound:
The girl bought an orange. He is an
Indian.
He had an umbrella in his hand.
 Some words begin with a silent So we use an before them:
He is an honest man. He is
an heir to the throne.
I met him an hour ago.
 We use ‘a’ or ‘an’ before singular countable nouns:
Kolkata is a big city. The dog is
an animal.
  We use ‘a’ or ‘an’ before the names of occupations and
professions:
His father is an engineer. He is a pilot.
 When we use ‘a’ before ‘little’ and few’, there is a change in
the meaning of these words. ‘A Jew’ is used with plural
countable nouns, and ‘a little’ with uncountable nouns. ‘Few’
means not many, while ‘a few’ means a small number. ‘Little’
means not much, while ‘a little’ means some:
Few people visit this temple now. I know a few
students of this school.
There is little water in the bucket. There is a
little milk in the bottle.
 We use ‘a’, ‘an’ before an adjective in a noun phrase:
She is a good girl. She told me
an interesting story.
 We use ‘an’ with abbreviations beginning with the following
letters: A, F, H, I, L, M, N, O, R, S, X (They shoud have vowel
sounds).
For example:
His father is an M.P. He is an
N.R.I. She got an X-Ray done.
 We use the indefinite article before certain nouns considered
as a single unit:
She bought a knife and fork.
The old lady had a cup and saucer in her hand.

5. Demonstratives: This, These, That, Those

The demonstrative determiners are used to talk about persons or things
that have already been mentioned.
This and These refer to the things that are near and can be seen. ‘That’
and ‘Those’ are used to refer to the things that are at a distance but can
be seen.

 We lived in this house for four years.

 She bought these books.
 Those boys are very mischievous.
 I like this school.
 I met her this week.

‘This’ and ‘that’ are used for singular nouns and ‘‘these’’ and ‘those’ for
plural nouns.

 Can you lift that box?

 Would you like to buy those books?
 These boys have done their work.
 I have already met that man.

6. Possessives: My, our, your, his, her, its, their. The possessives are used
to show possession.
  He is my uncle.
 Our neighbour is a rich man.
 Your daughter is beautiful.
 What is her age?
 What is his name?
 Do you know its value?
 Their house is very big.

7. Ordinals: first, second, next, last, etc.

 The ordinals show what position something has in a series:

 He is the first boy who has joined this school.
 I shall meet him the next week.
 He is the last man to help you.

8. Cardinals: one, two, three, hundred, etc.

Cardinals are ordinary numbers like one, two, three, etc. They show how
many of something there are:

 There were only ten boys in the class.

 She lived for eighty years.
 He has two daughters.
 I met three young men at the station.
 He balanced himself on one foot.

9. Quantifiers: much, some, several, a lot of, both, all, etc.

The quantifiers refer to the quantity of things or amount of something.

 There were some people at the airport.

 Plenty of people would like to have your job.
 They didn’t make much progress.
 There is no milk in the bottle.
 There is enough powder in the can.
 I have forgotten some of the details.
 They had enough guests already.
 All children enjoyed the show.
 There was little water in the jug.
 It has not made any difference to me. He drank a lot of water.

10. Distributives: each, every, either, neither.

Distributive determiners refer to each single member of a group.

 Each is used when we talk about the members of a group

individually and every when we make a general statement.
Both are followed by a singular countable noun:
He met each guest. The minister
visited every flood-affected area.
 I agree with every word he says. Each request will
be considered.

Either is used to talk about two things, but usually indicates that only one
of the two is involved.
Either of the two girls should come here.

 Neither is the negative of…..

Neither member came to attend the meeting.
 Either can also mean….
People stood in either side (both sides) of the road.
Neither is followed by a singular noun.
 Neither boy said anything.
Neither answer is correct.

11. Interrogatives: what, which, whose, etc.

The interrogative determiners are used for asking questions:

 What subjects are you studying?

Which colour do you like the most?
Whose house is this?
 4. INDIRECT SPEECH (REPORTED SPEECH)

 Sohan told to Mohan that he (Sohan) was going to school.

1. Reporting Clause and Reported Speech:

Sohan told Mohan that he was going to school. The words which
generally come before the inverted commas are called the reporting
clause, i.e. Sohan said to Mohan and the verb ‘said’, is called the
reporting verb. The words spoken by Sohan and put within inverted
commas are called the reported speech, i.e. “I am going to school.”

2. Rules for Changing Direct Speech into Indirect Speech:

 In the Indirect speech, no inverted commas are used.

 The conjunctions that, if, whether, are generally used after the
reporting verb.
 The first word of the reported speech begins with a capital
letter.
 The tense of the reporting verb is never changed.
 The reporting verb changes according to sense: it may be told,
asked, inquired

3. Rules for the Change of Pronouns:

  The first person pronouns (I, me, my, we, us, our) in the
reported speech change according to the subject of the
reporting verb.
 The pronouns of the second person (you, your, yourself) in the
reported speech change according to the object of the
reporting verb.
 The pronouns of the third person do not change.

For example:

1. He said, “I like the book.”

He said that he liked the book.
2. He said to me, “Do you like the book?”
He asked me if I liked the book.
3. He said, “He likes the book.”
He said that he liked the book.

4. Changes in words expressing nearness, time, auxiliaries, etc.

5. Change in Tenses:

 If the reporting verb is in the present or the future tense, the

tense of the reported speech is not changed:
Satish says, “I am flying a kite.”
Satish says that he is flying a kite.
Satish will say, “I want a glass of milk.”
Satish will say that he wants a glass of milk.
  If the reporting verb is in the past tense, then the tense of the
reported speech will change as follows:

 If the direct speech expresses a historical fact, universal truth,

or a habitual fact, then the tense of the direct speech will not
change:
Direct: He said, “Honesty is the best policy.”
Indirect: He said that honesty is the best policy.
Direct: He said, “The sun rises in the east.”
Indirect: He said that the sun rises in the east.
Direct: Rakesh said, “I am an early riser.”
Indirect : Rakesh said that he is an early riser.
Direct: She said, “God is omnipresent.”
Indirect: She said that God is omnipresent.
Direct: The teacher said, “The First World War started in 1914.”
Indirect: The teacher said that the First World War started in
1914.

6. Changing Statements into Indirect Speech:

 The reporting verb ‘said to’ is changed-to ‘told’, ‘replied’,

‘remarked’,
 The reporting verb is not followed by an object, it is not
changed.
 The inverted commas are removed. The conjunction is used to
connect the reporting clause with the reported speech.

The rules for the change of pronouns, tenses, etc. are followed.

1. Direct: Ramu said, “I saw a lion in the forest.”

Indirect: Ramu said that he had seen a lion in the forest.

2. Direct: Satish said to me, “I am very happy here.”

Indirect: Satish told me that he was very happy there.

3. Direct: He said, “I can do this work.”

Indirect: He said that he could do that work.

4. Direct: Renu said to me, “I was washing the clothes.”

Indirect: Renu told me that she had been washing the clothes.
 5. Direct: She said, “I am not well.”
Indirect: She said that she was not well.

6. Direct: He said to Sita, “I have passed the test.”

Indirect: He told Sita that he had passed the test.

7. Direct: I said to my friend, “He has been working very hard.”

Indirect: I told my friend that he had been working very hard.

8. Direct: My friend said to me, “I shall go to Delhi tomorrow.”

Indirect: My friend told me that he would go to Delhi the next
day.

9. Direct: I said, “I agree to what he said.”

Indirect: I said that I agreed to what he had said.

10. Direct: The student said to the teacher, “I am sorry that I am

late.”
Indirect: The student told the teacher that he was sorry that he
was late.

7. Rules for the Change of Interrogative (Questions) sentences:

The reporting verb “say’ is changed into ask, inquire,

The interrogative sentence is changed into a statement by placing the

subject before the verb and the full stop is put at the end of the sentence.

If the interrogative sentence has a wh-word (who, when, where, how, why,
etc) the wh-word is repeated in the sentence. It serves as conjunction.

If the interrogative sentence is a yes-no answer type sentence (with

auxiliary verbs am, are, was, were, do, did, have, shall, etc), then ‘if or
‘whether’ is used as a conjunction.

The auxiliaries do, does, did in a positive question in the reported speech
are dropped.

The conjunction is not used after the reporting clause.

1. Direct: I said to him, “Where are you going?”

Indirect: I asked him where he was going.
2. Direct: He said to me, “Will you go there?”
Indirect: He asked me if I would go there.
3. Direct: My friend said to Deepak, “Have you ever been to
Agra?”
Indirect: My friend asked Deepak if he had ever been to Agra.
 4. Direct: I said to him, “Did you enjoy the movie?”
Indirect: I asked him if he had enjoyed the movie.
5. Direct: I said to her, “Do you know him?”
Indirect: I asked her if she knew him.
6. Direct: He said to me, “Will you listen to me?”
Indirect: He asked me if I would listen to him.
7. Direct: I said to him, “When will you go there?”
Indirect: I asked him when he would go there.
8. Direct: He said to me, “How is your father?”
Indirect: He asked me how my father was.
9. Direct: I said to him, “Are you happy?”
Indirect: I asked him if he was happy.
10. Direct: He said to her, “Do you like apples?”
Indirect: He asked her if she liked apples.

8. Changing Commands and Requests into Indirect Speech:

 In imperative sentences having commands, the reporting verb

is changed into command, order, tell, allow, request, etc.
 The imperative mood is changed into the infinitive mood by
putting ‘to’, before the verb. In case of negative sentences, the
auxiliary ‘do’ is dropped and ‘to’ is placed after ‘not’:

1. Direct: She said to me, “Open the window.”

Indirect: She ordered me to open the window.
2. Direct: The captain said to the soldiers, “Attack the enemy.”
Indirect: The captain commanded the soldiers to attack the
enemy.
3. Direct: I said to him, “Leave this place at once.”
Indirect: I told him to leave that place at once.
4. Direct: The teacher said to the students, “Listen to me
attentively.”
Indirect: The teacher asked the students to listen to him
attentively.
5. Direct: The Principal said to the peon, “Ring the bell.”
Indirect: The Principal ordered the peon to ring the bell.
6. Direct: The master said to the servant, “Fetch me a glass of
water.”
Indirect: The master ordered the servant to fetch him a glass of
water.
7. Direct: I said to him, “Please bring me a glass of water.”
Indirect: I requested him to bring me a glass of water.
8. Direct: I said to my friend, “Please lend me your book.”
Indirect: I requested my friend to lend me his book.

9. Sentences with ‘Let’.

 ‘Let’ is used in various meanings.

(i) ‘Let’ is used to make a proposal.

 First change the reporting verb into ‘proposed’ or ‘suggested’.

 Use ‘should’ instead of ‘let’.
Example:
Direct: He said to me, “Let us go home.”
Indirect: He suggested to me that we should go home.

(ii) ‘Let’ is used as ‘to allow’.

 In Indirect Speech, we change the reporting verb to ‘requested’

or ‘ordered’.
 We start Reported Speech with ‘to’.
Direct: Ram said to Mohan, “Let him do it.”
Indirect: Ram ordered Mohan to let him do that.
Or
Ram told Mohan that he might be allowed to do that.

10. Sentences with Question Tags

(i) In the indirect speech the question-tag is usually left.
(ii) In indirect speech these words are removed and the word ‘respectfully’
is used in the reporting clause.
Direct: Mahesh said, “Sir, may I go home?”
Indirect: Mahesh respectfully asked his sir if he might go home.

11. Sentences with ‘Yes’ or ‘No’

Direct : He said, “Can you dance?” And I said, “No.”
Indirect: He asked me if I could dance and I replied that I couldn’t.
Direct : My mother said, “Will you come home on time?” And I said,
“Yes.”
Indirect: My mother asked me if I would come home on time and I replied
that I would.

Note : ‘Yes’ of ‘No’ hides a complete sentence. Therefore, change yes/no

into a short answer.

Direct : She said to me, “You didn’t break the window, did you?”
Indirect: She asked me if/whether I had broken the window.
Direct : He said to Geeta, “You are going to the station, aren’t you?”
Indirect: He asked Geeta if/ whether she was going to the station.

12. Sentences with ‘have to’ or ‘had to’

(i) Change ‘have to’ according to the rules.
(ii) But change ‘had to’ into ‘had had to’ in the indirect speech.
Direct : Hari said, “I have to work a lot.”
Indirect: Hari said that he had to work a lot.
Direct : Hari said, “I had to work a lot.”
Indirect: Hari said that he had had to work a lot.

13. Sentences with ‘Sir’, ‘Madam’ or ‘Your Honour’ etc.

 Generally such words are used to show respect to the person

concerned.

14. Exclamations and Wishes

Sometimes Exclamatory sentences contain exclamations like Hurrah!,
Alas!, Oh!, Heavens!, Bravo, etc. Such exclamatory words are removed in
the indirect speech and we use ‘exclaimed with sorrow’, exclaimed with
joy, exclaimed with surprise, etc. instead of ‘said’.
Examples:

1. Direct : Rohan said, “Hurrah! We won the match.”

Indirect: Rohan exclaimed with joy that they had won the
match.
2. Direct : Reema said, “Alas! Karina’s mother is suffering from
cancer.”
Indirect: Reema exclaimed with sorrow that Karina’s mother
was suffering from cancer.
3. Direct : The captain said to Kapil, “Bravo! You scored 89
runs.”
Indirect: The captain exclaimed with praise that he (Kapil) had
scored 89 runs.

(a) Look at these sentences.

1. Direct : My mother said, “May God bless you!”

Indirect: My mother prayed to God for my well being.
2. Direct : She said, “May God save the country!”
Indirect: She prayed to God to save the country.
3. Direct : They said to the king, “Long live!”
Indirect: They blessed the king for his long life.

(b) Look at these sentences.

1. Direct : Mohan said, “What a pity!”

Indirect: Mohan exclaimed that it was a great pity.
2. Direct : I said, “How stupid he is!”
Indirect: I exclaimed that it was a very stupid of him.
3. Direct : “What a terrible sight it is!” said the traveller.
Indirect: The traveller exclaimed that it was a very terrible
sight.
All the sentences in inverted commas are exclamatory
sentences.
 (i) Use ‘exclaimed’ in place of ‘said’ in the reporting verb in the
indirect speech.
(ii) In Indirect sentences, we use exclamatory sentences as
statements.
(iii) Indirect speech begins with that and full stop (•) is used
instead of the exclamation mark (!).

5. MODALS

Modals are auxiliary verbs used to form the tenses, moods, voices, etc. of
other verbs. They are helping verbs that cannot be used on their own but
to be used along with other main verbs mainly to express attitudes.
1. When something happens, they form a tense of the main verb.
Examples:

 I shall go.
 He was going

2. They express permission, necessity, or possibility to do something.

Examples:

 They may go.

 You must go.
 I can’t go.
 I might go.
 She would go if she could.

Observe the highlighted words in these sentences.

 We can make our nation a superpower by the year 2020.

 Kalam says that we need to do things ourselves. We must not
import equipment from other nations.
 In twenty years, each one of us ought to have our destiny
worked out.

All the highlighted words are Modal Auxiliaries that are used with another
verb, and express the mood of the speaker.

 The main MODALS are: can, could; may, might; shall, should;
will, would; must; ought to; need to; have to.
 The negative modals are: couldn’t, wouldn’t, shouldn’t,
mustn’t, needn’t, oughtn’t.

1.Must and have to:

  Must is used for all persons in the present and the future
tenses.
 The negative is must not (mustn’t).
 The interrogative form is, must I?
 Must has no infinitive and no past tense. It is followed by the
infinitive without ”to’.

(i) Must is used to express obligation:

 You must obey your parents.

 You must go to school in time.

(ii) It is used to express compulsion, e. ordering someone to do something

because it is necessary or important to do so:

 You must answer all questions.

 You must return by the evening.

(iii) It is used for saying that something is probably true because nothing
else seems possible:

 You must be tired after your long journey (inference).

 There must be some mistakes.

(iv) The negative form of must (must not) is used for prohibition:

 You must not come here.

 You must not use the office phone for private calls.

(v) It is used to give emphatic advice:

 She must consult a doctor at once.

 You must work hard if you want to get good marks.

You can master in English Grammar of various classes by our articles like
Tenses, Clauses, Prepositions, Story writing, Unseen Passage, Notice
Writing, etc.

Must and have to:

Have to, like must, expresses obligation in the present while had to does
so in the past. Must expresses an obligation imposed by the speaker.
Have to/Had to expresses external obligations—an obligation by some
authority or circumstances.

 I must reach there in time (the speaker himself feels so).

 You must reach in time (ordered to do so by some external
authority).
Had to is used when describing something belonging to the past.

 He had to go early to catch the train.

These two verbs have the following forms:

Have to and had to have alternative negative and interrogative forms:

For example:
Have you to obey his orders?
or
Do you have to obey his orders? Had you to
work on Sundays?
or
Did you have to work on Sundays? Do you
have to mind your watch every day?
Did you have to pay customs duty on your watch?

You can master in English Grammar of various classes by our articles like
Tenses, Clauses, Prepositions, Story writing, Unseen Passage, Notice
Writing etc.

2. Have to/Had to:

(i) Have to express obligation and necessity in the present. Had to does so
in the past:

 She has to look after her mother.

 He had to finish his work before 5 p.m.

(ii) Have to and had to are used for giving advice:

 First you have to mix the water and the sugar.

 She had to take those pills to get better.
(iii) Have to and had to are used to draw a logical conclusion:

 There has to be some reason for his mischief.

 This has to be a part of the whole plan.

(iv) Have to is used for supposition or to describe something based on

possible ideas or situations:

 You will have to work very hard to stand first.

 If she has to choose, she won’t marry him.

(v) Have to is used to indicate that something is very important or

necessary:

 We have to be more careful in the future.

 They will have to clear all their debts before December.

3. Should:
(i) Should is the past tense of shall. In the indirect form of speech ‘shall’
changes into should:

 I said, “I shall go to school tomorrow.”

 I said that I should go to school the next day.

(ii) Should is used to express obligation, duty, etc.

 You should look after your old parents.

 You should pay all your taxes.

(iii) Should is used to give advice or suggestion:

 You should consult a doctor.

 She should do yoga exercises daily.
 He should learn English if he wants to get a good job.

(iv) Should is used to express purpose:

 Mohan walked fast so that he should catch the train.

 Satish worked hard so that he should stand first in the class.

(v) Should is used to state imaginary results:

 He should get angry if he had come to know about it.

(vi) Should is used to express polite requests:

  I should be thankful if you give me some money.

4. Need:
As a modal verb, need is usually followed by an infinitive without ‘to’:
The modal verb need is mainly used in questions and negatives, which are
formed without ‘do’:
Need I go now? You need not go.

The negative need not is often shortened to needn’t in the conversation

and informal writing. Need does not change its form, so the third person
singular of the present tense does not end in’ —s’ :
He need not go there.
The modal verb need has no past tense. But it can be used in the pattern
followed by a past participle:
Need not have/needn’t have
You needn’t have waited for me.
The negative and interrogative forms of the past tense are:
Did not (didn’t) need and did I need?
In the present and future tenses, the negative and interrogative can be
formed in either of the two ways:

(i) The negative need expresses absence of obligation:

 They need not send the letter now.

 You need not go. (i.e., It is not necessary for you to go).
 He need not come now.

(ii) Need is used to express obligation or necessity:

 Need I attend the class today?

 Need he solve all the sums?

(iii) Need not + perfect infinitive is used to express an unnecessary action

which was performed:

 You needn’t have gone to see the doctor. He was on leave

today.
 You needn’t have carried an umbrella as it was not raining.

5. Ought
ought is usually followed by ‘to’ and an infinitive:
  You ought to tell the truth.

It does not change its form so that the third person singular form does not
end in ‘-s’:

 She ought to work a little harder.

It can be used as a present, past, or future tense.

The negative is ought not (oughtn’t) and the interrogative is ought I?,
Ought you?, Ought he?, etc:

 Ought I do it at once?
 He ought not disobey his teachers.

(i) Ought to is used for expressing what is the right or sensible thing to do,
or the right way to behave:

 You ought to get up earlier.

 We ought to exercise daily.
 Teachers ought not smoke before students.

(ii) Ought to is used when we believe strongly or expect that something

will happen:

 The Indian team ought to win.

 Satish ought to pass.
 The meeting ought to have finished by 2 o’clock.

(iii) Ought to see/hear/meet, is used for emphasising how good,

impressive or unusual something or someone is:

 You ought to see their new house.

 You ought to meet his elder brother.

(iv) Ought to have is used when we realise that we did not do the right
thing in the past:

 You ought to have listened to my advice.

 She ought to have taken the money.

Ought, must, have to, and should

Note: Ought is used to express the subject’s obligation or duty. But it

indicates neither the speaker’s authority as with must nor an outside
authority as with have to. The speaker is only reminding the subject of his
duty. Besides this, he is giving advice or indicating a correct or sensible
action.
Ought can be used in exactly the same way as should:

 You ought to/should obey your parents.

 Have to and must:

 You have to be regular. (These are the rules.)
 You must obey your teachers. (The speaker insists on it.)
 You have to take this medicine. (The doctor insists on it.)
 You must take this medicine. (The speaker insists on it or It is
the speaker’s emphatic advice.)
 You mustn’t drink this, it is poison, (prohibition)
 You oughtn’t to smoke so much. (It is not right or sensible.)

MODALS TABLE:

S. Modal Usage
NO.
1. Shall Futurity, suggestion,
insistence
2. Should Obligation, advisability,
necessity
3. Will Willingness, prediction,
request (in question)
4. Would Willingness, past habit,
probability, wish
5. May Purpose, permission,
possibility
6. Might Possibility, permission,
concession
7. Can Ability, permission, possibility,
request
8. Could Ability, very polite request,
possibility
9. Must Compulsion, obligation,
prohibition
10. Need Necessity, obligation
11. Dare To venture or have courage
12. Ought to Expectation, advice
13. Used to Past habit, existence of
something in past