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 Fundamentals of
Materials Science
for Technologists
Third Edition
 Fundamentals of
Materials Science
for Technologists
Properties, Testing, and
Laboratory Exercises

Third Edition

Larry Horath
California University of Pennsylvania

Long Grove, Illinois

For information about this book, contact:
Waveland Press, Inc.
4180 IL Route 83, Suite 101
Long Grove, IL 60047-9580
(847) 634-0081
info@waveland.com
www.waveland.com

Cover image: manine99, Shutterstock

Copyright © 2019, 2001, 1995 by Larry Horath

10-digit ISBN 1-4786-3769-2

13-digit ISBN 978-1-4786-3769-1

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or trans-
mitted in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

7654321
 Contents

Preface xiii

SECTION ONE
Fundamentals of Materials Technology

Introduction to Materials Technology 3

1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Atomic Theory 4
1.3 Bonding of Materials 10
1.4 Crystalline Structures 12
1.5 Specification of Materials 17
1,6 Standards Organizations 18
1.7Summary 19
M™@ Questions and Problems 20

Ferrous Metals 21
2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Production of Iron 23
2.3 Production of Steel 27
2.4 Carbon Content in Steels 35
2.5 Other Elements in Steels 37
2.6 Nomenclature of Steels 38
2.7 Tool Steels 39
2.8 CastIron 42
2.9 Stainless Steels 44
2.10 Corrosion 46
2.11Summary 47
M@ Questions and Problems 48
vi Contents

3 Nonferrous Metals 49
3.1 Introduction 49
3.2 Aluminum 50
3.3. Chromium 54
3.4 Copper, Brass, and Bronze 54
3.5 Magnesium 59
3.6 Nickel 61
3.7 Precious Metals 62
3.8 Refractory Metals 64
3.9Titanium 65
3.10 White Metals: Lead, Tin, and Zinc 65
3.11 Summary 67
@ Questions and Problems 67

Heat Treatment 69
4.1 Introduction 69
4.2 Iron-Carbon Phase Diagrams 70
4.3 Time-Temperature Transformation Curves 73
4.4 Methods of Softening Steels 75
4.5 Methods of Hardening Steels 77
4.6 Surface Hardening 80
4.7 Heat Treatment of Other Metals 82
4.8Summary 83
@ Questions and Problems 84

Polymers and Elastomers 85

5.1 Introduction 85
5.2 Polymeric Structure 86
5.3 Mechanisms of Polymerization 88
5.4 Properties of Polymers 89
5.5 Manufacturing Processes Involving Polymers 92
5.6 Natural Resins 104
5.7 Thermosetting Materials 104
5.8 Thermoplastic Materials 108
5.9 Liquid Crystal Polymers 115
5.10 Reinforced Polymers 115
5.11 Elastomers 118
5.12Summary 124
@ Questions and Problems 124
 Contents vii

6 Wood and Wood Products 127

6.1 Introduction 127
6.2 Types and Properties of Wood and Lumber 128
6.2.1 Features of Wood 128
6.2.2 Hardwoods and Softwoods 131
6.2.3 Applications of Wood and Lumber 132
6.2.4 Lumber Production 133
6.3 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Wood 136
6.4 Classification and Grading of Lumber 139
6.5 Plywood, Reconstituted Wood Panels,
Modified Woods, and Their Applications 141
6.6 Preservatives 153
6.7 Paper and Cardboard 154
6.8Summary 158
@ Questions and Problems 158

7 Ceramics and Glass 161

7.1 Introduction 161
7.2Ceramics 162
7.3Glass 164
7.3.1 Introduction 164
7.3.2 History and Development of Glassmaking 165
7.3.3 Types of Glass and Glass Products 169
7.3.4 Manufacture of Glass 174
7.3.5 Applications and Properties of Glass 178
7.4 Types and Properties of Stone 180
7.4.1 Introduction 180
7.4.2 Types of Rock and Stone 181
7.4.3 Properties of Stone 181
7.5 Types and Properties of Clay 183
7.5.1 Introduction 183
7.5.2 Types of Clay 183
7.5.3 Processing of Clay Products 184
7.5.4 Types of Bricks 186
7.5.5 Applications of Bricks 186
7.6 Types and Properties of Refractory Materials 187
7.6.1 Introduction 187
7.6.2 Refractory Materials and Cermets 188
7.7 Abrasives 190
7.8Summary 191
@ Questions and Problems 191
viii Contents

8 Cement, Concrete, and Asphalt 193

8.1 Introduction 193
8.2 Manufacture of Portland Cement 194
8.3 Concrete 197
8.4 Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete 202
8.5 Concrete Additives 204
8.6 Asphalt and Asphaltic Concrete 205
8.7Summary 207
@ Questions and Problems 207

Composites 209
9.1 Introduction 209
9.2 Types of Composites 210
9.3 Nanocomposites 212
9.4 Composite Construction 213
9.5 Fabrication 215
9.6Summary 217
@ Questions and Problems 217

10 Adhesives and Coatings 219

10.1 Introduction 219
10.2 Adhesives 220
10.2.1 Introduction 220
10.2.2 Types of Adhesives 221
10.2.3 Properties of Adhesives 226
10.2.4 Sealants and Caulking Compounds 228
10.3 Coatings 229
10.3.1 Introduction 229
10.3.2 Types of Coatings 230
10.3.3 Inorganic Coatings 235
10.3.4 Electroplating 236
10.3.5 Dipping, Plating, and Spraying Coatings 237
10.4Summary 239
@ Questions and Problems 239

11 Smart Materials 241

11.1 Introduction 241
11.2 Piezoelectric Materials 241
11.3 Rheological Fluids 244
11.4 Shape Memory Alloys and Shape Memory Polymers 245
 Contents ix

11.5 Applications 247

11.6Summary 248
@ Questions and Problems 248

12 Fuels and Lubricants 249

12.1 Introduction 249
12.2 Types of Fuels 250
12.3 Combustion and Burning 251
12.4Coal 253
12.4.1 Producing Coal 256
12.4.2 Refining Coal 258
12.4.3 Quality of Coals 259
12.5 Petroleum 260
12.5.1 Oil 260
12.5.2 Grading Petroleum Products 268
12.5.3 Diesel Fuels 269
12.5.4 Other Liquid Fuels 271
12.6 Gaseous Fuels 272
12.7 Types and Properties of Lubricants 272
12.8Summary 276
™@ Questions and Problems 276

SECTION Two
Principles of Mechanical and Nondestructive Testing

13 Mechanical Behavior 279

13.1 Introduction 279
13.2 Fundamental Mechanical Properties 280
13.3 Mechanical Test Considerations 281
13.4 Testing Conditions 282
13.5 Stress and Strain 282
13.6 Stiffness 286
13.7 Stress-Strain Diagrams 288
13.8 Slip 289
13.9 Elasticity 290
13.10 Plasticity 291
13.11 Categories of Strength 293
13.12 Types of Failure 294
 Contents

13.13 Energy Capacity 295

13.14Summary 297
@ Questions and Problems 298

14 Introduction to Materials Testing 299

14.1 Introduction 299
14.2 Testing versus Inspection 300
14.3 Precision, Accuracy, and Significance of Tests 301
14.4 Collecting Data 301
14.5 Testing Procedures 302
14.6 Testing Machines 303
14.7 Test Instruments 305
14.8 Presentation of Results 308
14.9 Test Selection 309
14.10 Summary 311
@ Questions and Problems 313

15 Tensile Testing 317

15.1 Introduction 317
15.2 Principles 318
15.3 Equipment 321
15.4 Procedure 323
15.5 Expected Results 325
15.6 Variations on Standard Procedures 327
15.7Summary 331
@ Questions and Problems 331

16 Creep Testing 335

16.1 Introduction 335
16.2 Principles 336
16.3 Equipment 337
16.4 Procedure 338
16.5 Expected Results 338
16.6 Summary 338
@ Questions and Problems 339
 Contents xi

17 Compression Testing 341

17.1 Introduction 341
17.2 Principles 342
17.3 Equipment 343
17.4 Procedure 344
17.5 Expected Results 345
17.6 Summary 346
@ Questions and Problems 346

18 Shear Testing 349

18.1 Introduction 349
18.2 Principles 349
18.3 Equipment 354
18.4 Procedure 355
18.5 Expected Results 356
18.6 Summary 360
@ Questions and Problems 360

19 Bend or Flexure Testing 363

19.1 Introduction 363
19.2 Principles 363
19.3 Equipment and Procedures 364
19.4Summary 367
@ Questions and Problems 367

20 Hardness Testing 369

20.1 Introduction 369
20.2 Principles 370
20.3 Equipment and Procedures 370
20.3.1 Brinell Test 370
20.3.2 Rockwell Hardness Test 373
20.3.3 Rockwell Superficial Hardness Test 375
20.3.4 Vickers Hardness Test 376
20.3.5 Monotron Hardness Test 377
20.3.6 Microhardness Testers 377
20.3.7 Durometers 378
20.3.8 Hardness Test of Wood 379
20.3.9 Dynamic Hardness Tests 379
20.3.10 Herbert Pendulum Device 380
20.3.11 Scratch Hardness 380
20.3.12 Abrasion Testing 381
xii Contents

20.4 Comparison of Hardness Tests 381

20.5 Summary 382
@ Questions and Problems 382

21 Impact Testing 385

21.1 Introduction 385
21.2 Principles and Equipment 385
21.3 Procedures and Expected Results 388
21.3.1 Charpy Test 388
21.3.2 Izod Test 390
21.3.3 Hatt-Turner Test 390
21.4Summary 390
@ Questions and Problems 391

22 Fatigue Testing 393

22.1 Introduction 393
22.2 Principles and Equipment 393
22.3 Procedures 395
22.4Summary 397
@ Questions and Problems 397

23 Nondestructive Testing and Evaluation 399

23.1 Introduction 399
23.2 Radiography and Diffraction 399
23.3 Magnetic and Electromagnetic Methods 404
23.4 Ultrasonic and Acoustic Emissions Methods 409
23.5 Visual Methods and Holography 415
23.6 Photoelasticity 421
23.7 Liquid Penetrants 422
23.8Summary 423
™@ Questions and Problems 424

Appendix A: Sources of Further Information 427

Appendix B: Measurement and Properties of Materials 432
Appendix C: Laboratory Exercises 442
Appendix D: Glossary of Selected Terms 504
Appendix E: Answers to Selected Questions and Problems 512
Index 531
 Preface

This book is meant as an introduction and stimulus for learning about the importance
of materials and materials testing. This presentation is appropriate for two-year and four-
year colleges and universities preparing future technicians, technologists, and engineers.
The primary objective of this volume is to provide an awareness of the theory,
manufacturing, processing, properties, applications, and customary test procedures
relating to common materials and their applications. The text provides foundational
information on conventional materials that a learner is most likely to encounter in ser-
vice, including metals, plastics, glass and ceramics, wood and composites, fuels, adhe-
sives, and smart materials. Also included are the significant advantages, disadvantages,
and importance of these materials,
The first section of this book offers a background on the chemistry of materials,
including their structure, properties, and selection. This includes the common properties
that are important to material applications and how they may be created, reduced, and
altered for various applications. The second section deals with the destructive and non-
destructive evaluation of material properties, focusing on their mechanical capabilities.
Each chapter contains an introduction, summary, and questions and problems
aimed at emphasizing essential concepts as well as testing practices. These compo-
nents will assist learners in identifying the overall objectives of the chapter and rein-
force their understanding and learning. Additional support is provided in the
appendices. Laboratory assignments and reference materials have been included for
hands-on learning in a supervised environment, which helps to promote understand-
ing of the underlying “why” of studying materials and materials testing.
There are endless combinations of materials available today, however, it is beyond
the scope of this book to cover every material and test available. The intent of the
Third Edition is to provide a basic understanding of materials and the tests made on
them to identify their properties and conditions in service. This book provides a rele-
vant discussion and vital examples of the fundamentals of materials science so that
this information can then be applied in real-world situations and applications.

Acknowledgments
It is an overwhelming task to try and acknowledge everyone involved in this
book. However, I would like to take this opportunity to thank Diane Evans of Wave-
land Press for the opportunity; my parents for their continued support and assistance
in all that I do; Rebecca for her work as photographer and avid supporter; my chil-
dren, who help me focus on the future; and all of the various friends and contributors
to this work. Thank you all for your patience, support, assistance, and understanding.

xiii
 SECTION ONE

Fundamentals of
Materials Technology
Introduction to Materials Technology

Objectives
State reasons for studying materials.
List and describe common terms related to the study of materials.
Describe and define terms and conditions associated with atomic structure and
atomic theory.
Recognize and describe how the periodic table of elements is used and the structure
of the table.
List and describe how the various bonding forces act to hold atoms together.
Define the various structures of materials in crystal lattice formation.
Describe the solidification process.
List and recognize various standards organizations and their purposes.

@ 1.1 INTRODUCTION
Welcome to a new world, filled with new and established materials that serve a
wide variety of purposes. These materials are presented here, in this text, to give you
an idea of the many common materials you are likely to encounter in modern society.
The general purpose of this text is to introduce you, the reader, to the nature and char-
acteristics of various engineering and related materials, including the processing,
applications, properties, and the advantages and disadvantages of these materials.
Information in later chapters include common testing procedures, data, and test spec-
ifications so that you can conduct your own tests and analyze the data collected. The
purpose of this is for you to become acquainted with the materials found in common-
place applications, products, constructions, and related uses.
4 Section One: Fundamentals of Materials Technology

The field of materials technology deals with the specifications, properties, selection,
and testing of engineering materials. Engineering materials consist primarily of the
materials used in the design, development, construction, and application of various
structures and machines and the many different products manufactured or produced.
from those materials throughout the world. One primary focus of this text is to intro-
duce the subject of materials technology, including aspects of the origins, content,
components, specifications, and standards regarding these materials. Corresponding
sections are presented in each chapter for easy reference, as well as information for
further study and questions related to each selected category. The extended purpose of
this format is to hopefully instill in you a sense of wonder and foster further interest in
exploring materials technology and testing while expanding your skills, knowledge,
and understanding in the field.

@ 1.2 ATOMIC THEORY

‘You may be asking yourself: “Why should I study engineering materials?” To
answer this question, stop and look around and realize that these materials surround
us. Therefore, if we want to understand our world, the function of machines, and the
actions and components of structural assemblies, we must first identify and understand
the characteristics of these materials and their structures. Once we understand the
structure of materials, we are able to ask questions about how they might perform in
service. This latter aspect of materials technology relies on the testing of engineering
materials to collect data on that material’s expected performance. We can use this data
to predict behavior and, subsequently, match the material to an existing or a new appli-
cation. New materials are constantly being researched and developed, putting a greater
emphasis on the understanding of the structure and properties of these materials.
To gain an understanding of materials, one must realize that all materials are made
up of atoms. Azoms are the smallest parts of an element that still retain the properties of
that element. These building blocks are too small to be seen with the naked eye, but
can be seen and identified using intense magnification. These atoms are bonded
together in different patterns using different methods to form different materials. We
will look at these different patterns and study their effects on material properties.
It is often necessary to classify or categorize materials according to their attributes
and characteristics. We may base these classifications on available empirical data or on
some theoretical basis yet to be proved or disproved. At present, there are several ways
to classify materials, but they all refer, in part or in whole, to four important categories:
* Chemical composition,
+ The material’s natural state,
* The refining or manufacturing processes the material must undergo before it
reaches its final useful or applicable state, and
+ Atomic structure.
All materials can be classified into one of the following broad areas based on their
chemical composition: elements, compounds, or mixtures.
Elements cannot be broken down into chemically simpler substances. The known.
periodic table of elements is shown in Figure 1-1. Dmitri Mendeleyev produced the
5
Introduction to Materials Technology

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Section One: Fundamentals of Materials Technology

first table of elements more than a century ago. Many of the elements in Figure 1-1
were not discovered until long after Mendeleyev’s Periodic Table was created. All of
the elements listed in this table are in their most basic form and cannot be simplified.
Oxygen (O) and Hydrogen (H) are two common basic elements. These atoms com-
bine in specific, defined proportions to produce a new substance, H,O—water. By
studying these elements, scientists discovered repetitive patterns, which allowed them
to predict the nature and properties of elements not discovered until much later. This
periodic (repetitive pattern) nature of elements is determined in part by their nuclear
particles and also by the behavior and configuration of the electrons.
Looking at the table of elements, note that the element hydrogen (H) has an
atomic number of 1. The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus or cen-
ter of the atom. Protons are positively charged particles. Other elements have various
numbers of protons in the nucleus, characterized by their atomic number. Also
included in the nucleus are neutrons, or neutral particles. Neutrons remain at the cen-
ter or nucleus of the atom. Electrons are negatively charged particles that orbit the
nucleus at velocities approaching the speed of light. Atoms in a free state (balanced
electronic charge) must contain the same number of electrons as protons. In the free
state, the negative charges balance the positive. Electrons do not follow neat, well-
defined orbits. Instead they randomly orbit the nucleus in what have been described as
clouds or predictable energy ranges. Electrons orbit so quickly that, if you could see
an atom, the orbit of the electrons would appear to be a random pattern typified by a
cloud structure (Figure 1-2).
An atom consists of the central cluster called the nucleus and the orbiting elec-
trons. The number of protons in the nucleus determines which element the atom rep-
resents. For example, carbon (C) has an atomic number of 6, because there are six
protons in the nucleus of a carbon atom. Neutrons and protons are much heavier rela-
tive to the other subatomic particles. Based on this fact, scientists often ignore the
mass of the other particles and define the atomic mass of an atom as the sum of the
masses of the protons and neutrons. Mass is a property of a body, expressed in pounds
(Ib) or kilograms (kg). Weight is the gravitational force exerted on a body by the earth.
The terms mass and weight are often confused and erroneously used interchangeably.

Nucleus

First shell: 2 electrons

Second shell: 8 electrons
Third shell: 18 electrons

{a) (b)

Figure 1-2 (a) Atomic structure and (b) electron cloud.

 Chapter 1 Introduction to Materials Technology 7

An electron, the largest in size of the remaining particles, weighs about 1/2000th
as much as a proton. An arbitrary mass of | is assigned to protons and neutrons. For
example, carbon has six protons and six neutrons in the nucleus. Therefore, its atomic
mass is 12. Refer to the periodic table in Figure 1-1 and compare the atomic masses to
the atomic numbers of several elements. The difference between the two numbers is
roughly the number of neutrons in the nucleus.
Isotopes are atoms that vary from the normal atomic mass found in naturally
occurring forms of the element. For instance, an atom may contain more or fewer
neutrons in the nucleus. Neutrons are neutral particles (without electrical charge),
therefore, they do not alter the atomic number or the chemical properties of the ele-
ment. However, some isotopes are unstable and radioactive, attempting to return to a
balanced state. These isotopes are used in such applications where this characteristic
is useful, such as in chemical tracers and nuclear fuels. For example, some elements
are known to collect in certain cancerous tumors. Doctors inject radioisotopes into
the bloodstream of a patient to detect or to monitor changes in tumors using sensitive
radioactivity monitors.
‘We’ve established that electrons orbit the nucleus of the atom. This tiny model,
resembling a solar system, behaves in ways that cannot be predicted by the common
laws of physics. The speeds involved and the size of the particles make it necessary to
use a branch of physics called quantum mechanics to study atoms. Quantum mechanics
is a field of study that uses energy levels, motion analysis, and probability theories to
describe and predict the motion and behavior of electrons. Quantum mechanics
makes a basic assumption related to the electrons: Electrons behave in a wavelike
fashion rather than like individual particles. Waves can be diverted by reflection or dif-
fraction. This makes it difficult to predict the exact locations or paths of electrons. It is
more accurate or descriptive to use energy levels or energy contents of electrons in
describing their location in space. Again, using the idea of a solar system, the higher
the energy level or energy content of an electron, the farther it is from the central core
or nucleus.
It is common to have more than one electron in an orbit. The electrons in the
same orbit or energy level have the same energy content. In addition to orbiting the
nucleus, electrons also spin or rotate while orbiting. Electrons spin in a clockwise or
counterclockwise direction. For two electrons to orbit at the same energy level, they
must spin in opposite directions, one positive and one negative. The two electrons are
virtually identical except for spin direction.
Energy levels appear at predictable intervals. Electron levels cannot exist in the
gaps between these major levels. The first orbit, or electron shell, called 1s, can hold
up to two electrons. The second orbit contains two subshells, called 2s (lower energy)
and 2p (higher energy), that are close to each other in energy values. Common sub-
shell designations are s, p, d, and f, and they increase in energy from s to f Referring to
the periodic table in Figure 1-1, the repetitive pattern of the elements becomes clearer.
Looking at Group I, hydrogen contains one proton in the nucleus and one electron at
the 1s level. Hydrogen, also in the first period (row), has two electrons, both in the 1s
level but with opposite spin directions. The second period begins with lithium, which
has one electron in the outer shell, like hydrogen. Lithium (Li) has two electrons in
the 1s level and one electron in the 2s level. The second and third periods continue to
Section One: Fundamentals of Materials Technology

fill the third energy level. Starting with the fourth period, lower subshells must be
filled before the outermost energy shell is filled. Common electron shells and configu-
rations are shown in Table 1-1.
Quantum mechanics has come up with four basic quantum numbers to describe
any electron. The total energy of an electron is designated by the principal quantum
number, n. The letter n is used to designate the shell: 1, 2, 3, 4, and so forth. The angu-
lar momentum of an electron, /, is the second quantum number. The angular momen-
tum of the electron ranges from 0 to n—1, and the subshell is 2(2/ + 1). This expression
is used to determine the subshell inhabited by the electron. Subshells are designated as
s, p, d, f, g, and h. The magnetic moment of the electron, designated M, is the third
quantum number. M has values from +1 to 0 to —1 and designates the orbit within the
subshell that corresponds to its energy level. M, is the spin direction of the electron. It
can have values from +1/2 to -1/2. No two electrons can have the same four quan-
tum numbers.
The vertical groupings in the periodic table are based on similar electron configu-
rations and similarities in both chemical and physical properties. For example, the
members of Group IA elements are termed the alkali metals; Group IIA elements are
termed the alkaline-earth metals; Groups IIIA through VA and VIIA elements are
mostly nonmetals; and the last group contains the inert gases. Groups identified as
transition elements are mostly metals with incomplete subshells. The atomic size of
the elements typically decreases from left to right within a period and increases from
top to bottom within a group.
Elements can be roughly divided into two categories: metals or nonmetals. Char-
acteristically, metals tend to be solid at room temperature and to be good conductors
of heat and electricity. Nonmetallic elements may be solids, liquids, or gases and tend
to be insulators. These are general considerations and are meant to be rough guide-
lines, not absolutes. Approximately 92 elements occur naturally in and around the
earth. With the addition of synthesized or manufactured elements, the total number of
elements rises to around 120. Many of these synthetic elements are short-lived and
many even remain unnamed—only atomic number designations have been given.
Compounds are combinations based on two or more elements. These combina-
tions often have properties that differ from any of the component elements. Sodium
chloride (NaCl), or common table salt, is an example of a compound that has proper-
ties different from either constituent. Sodium is a metal that burns at room tempera-
ture and chlorine is a poisonous gas. Alloys are combinations or compounds of
metallic elements combined with one or more different elements. The smallest part of
a compound that retains the properties of that compound is a molecule. Molecules are
generally made up of different types of atoms in varying combinations. Differing pro-
portions of constituents may produce differing results, especially in metal alloys.
Mixtures are constructs of two or more pure substances that have been mechani-
cally mixed together. The pure substances can be elements or compounds. Mixtures
differ from compounds in that, theoretically, mixtures can be separated back into their
component parts. One example of a mixture is oil and water, which can be mixed into
an emulsion and later separated.
A naturally occurring material exists in nature in the form in which it will be
used. These materials include wood, stone, and water, which occur naturally in the
 Chapter 1 Introduction to Materials Technology 9

Table 1-1 Electron shells and orbits for selected elements.

Element Symbol Atomic Number Shell and Subshell Configuration
Hydrogen H 1 1s!
Helium He 2 1s?
Lithium ui 3 182, 2s"
Beryllium Be 4 182, 25?
Boron B 5 182, 282, 2p!
Carbon c 6 182, 25%, 2p?
Nitrogen N 7 182, 25%, 2p?
Oxygen ° 8 182, 25%, 2p*
Fluorine F 9 152, 2s, 2p*
Neon Ne 10 1s?, 25%, 2p®
Sodium Na u 152, 2s, 2p% 3s!
Magnesium Mg 12 1s2, 2s, 2p% 35?
Aluminum| Al 13 182, 2s, 2p®, 382, 3p!
Silicon Si 14 182, 282, 2p%, 35%, 3p?
Phosphorus Pp 15 182, 25%, 2p8, 352, 3p?
Sulfur s 16 152, 282, 2p%, 35%, 3p*
Chlorine a 17 182, 25%, 2p8, 352, 3p
Argon A 18 152, 2s?, 2p%, 352, 3p®
Potassium K 19 132, 25%, 2p®, 352, 3p8, 4s!
Calcium Ca 20 152, 2s, 25, 352, 3p% 4s?
Scandium Se 21 12, 25, 2p®, 382, 3p% 3d", 4s?
Titanium Ti 22 152, 282, 2p%, 352, 3p§, 302, 4s?
Vanadium v 23 152, 2s2, 2p%, 35%, 3p®, 3d, 45?
Chromium cr 24 182, 252, 2p8, 382, 3p%, 308, 4s!
Manganese Mn 25 152, 2s?, 2p°, 35%, 3p®, 3d°, 45?
tron Fe 26 12, 25%, 2p®, 352, 3p%, 3°, 4s?
Cobalt Co 27 152, 2s, 2%, 352, 3p®, 3d”, 48?
Nickel Ni 28 152, 25%, 2p®, 352, 3p% 38, 4s?
Copper cu 29 1s?, 282, 2p%, 3s?, 3p®, 3d", 4s!
Zine Zn 30 15?, 25%, 2p®, 352, 3p%, 3d", 4s?
Gallium Ga 31 152, 282, 2p%, 352, 3p%, 3d"°, 452, 4p!

Silver Ag 47 12, 25%, 2p®, 352, 3p, 3d", 452, 4p 4d", 5s!

Cesium Cs 55 1s, 2s, 2p, 357, 3p, 3d", 45?, 4p, 4d", 5s”, 5p®, 6s!

Gold Au 79 1s, 2s, 2p®, 35%, 3p, 3d"°, 452, 4p%, 4d, 4f"4, 552, 5p,
5d'°, 6s!

Lead Pb 82 152, 282, 2p%, 352, 3p®, 3d", 452, 4p8, 4d", af"4, 552, Sp,
5d"°, 6s?, 6p?
10 Section One: Fundamentals of Materials Technology

form in which we use them. The majority of materials used today are processed, man-
ufactured, or refined in some manner for their intended purpose. The form in which
we use them is based on some manufacturing or refinement process. Thus, materials
may be classified as natural or manufactured (sometimes termed synthetic) and further
classified according to the principle or process used to refine them.
Materials may also be classified as organic or inorganic. Organic materials are car-
bon-based materials. All biological systems are organic. Some materials, such as lime-
stone, have biological origins but are not organic. Most plastics are organic, as are
most petroleum-derived products. Inorganic materials are not derived from living
things. Sand, rocks, and metals are inorganic materials.

@ 1.3 BONDING OF MATERIALS

Many materials consist of atoms bonded together through some means. This bond-
ing can occur directly between atoms or can occur between previously grouped atoms
called molecules. These molecules combine to form different materials. The bonding
forces present help determine the chemical and physical properties of the material.
The properties of a material are affected by the willingness or affinity of the mate-
rial element to combine or react with other material elements. This willingness is
related to the chemical structure of the material. Of particular importance is the outer-
most shell, or valence shell, which has an overall positive or negative charge. The elec-
trons in that shell have the highest amount of energy but are the least tightly held
electrons in the atom. These high-energy electrons, or valence electrons, are responsible
for the chemical activity of the atom. This activity stems from the ease with which
these valence electrons attract other electrons or are given up to another atom to com-
bine with other molecules. For instance, the inert gases are essentially not chemically
active. Their outermost shells are full and, therefore, they do not have free electrons to
attract or to give up. Their valence shells are satisfied. The most reactive elements are
the alkali metals and the halogens found in Groups II and VII. These elements have a
shortage of one electron in a filled valence shell or have a valence shell that contains
only one electron. Therefore, they have a surplus or shortage of electrons. The activity
levels of the other periodic element groups tend to decline in comparison with these
two situations.
These two general types of elements, metals and nonmetals, act differently in
combining with other atoms. Metals tend to give up, or donate, their valence electrons
when bonding with other atoms. Nonmetals are those that tend to gain or attract
other electrons. In general, metals are those with fewer than four valence electrons
while nonmetals typically have more than four valence electrons. The transition ele-
ments are difficult to understand in general valence terms and often do not act in a
clearly metallic or nonmetallic manner.
The physical state of an element depends on the type of bonding by which the
atoms are attracted and the relative strength of those bonds. For example, atoms of
gases are loosely bonded together and are free to move independently of one another.
A solid material represents the most tightly bound substance; the atoms are rigidly
held in place by other atoms. Liquids and gases exhibit random arrangements. When
several unlike atoms combine, they quickly separate and re-form. Due to the activity
 Chapter 1 Introduction to Materials Technology il

level and the “excitedness” of the atoms, the action of random grouping, scattering,
and regrouping is a characteristic typical of liquids and gases.
As the energy level and activity decrease, the random groupings and scattering
become less frequent. Bonds become stronger and begin to form ordered patterns
called /attices. These lattices form crystals, which in turn form larger patterns we know
as solids. These patterns are recognized as the grain structure of the material. Excep-
tions to this order of events are the amorphous materials. Amorphous materials retain
the random order and do not exhibit regular patterns, order, or groupings in their solid
form. Amorphous or noncrystalline materials may exhibit short-run chains but no def-
inite, recognizable pattern. These materials include both natural and synthetic materi-
als and may occur in many materials we think of as “solid,” including thin film
lubricants, glass, polymers, and gels. Glass is a special case and exhibits a reversible
transition at a specific temperature from an amorphous solid to a glassy liquid state.
Any material that exhibits this reversible transition can be termed an amorphous solid.
Bonding also gives materials density. For instance, tighter bonding increases the
viscosity of liquids. Liquids are heavier than gases because they contain more atoms
in the same volume. Solids are denser than liquids and retain their shape better. Liq-
uids and gases tend to take the shape of their containers because they are free to move
around. Solids maintain their shape until acted upon by a force greater than that hold-
ing them together.
When elements gain or lose an electron, they become ‘ons. Ions are versions of
the original element that deviate from the normal neutral state—as, for instance, when
sodium and chlorine combine to form salt. The sodium atom relinquishes its valence
electron and becomes a positive sodium ion. Chlorine, with its seven outer electrons,
absorbs this electron and becomes a negative ion. The charges on these atoms are
dependent on the original number of protons in the nucleus. The net charge is depen-
dent on their original state and the gains made in bonding. Sodium and chlorine share
an electron. The attraction of the ions for the electron holds the two together. This
results in a very tight ionic bond. The resulting molecule (NaCl) is electrically neutral,
crystalline, and very stable after bonding.
Large numbers of ionically bonded atoms arrange themselves so that the positive
ions are surrounded by negative ions of other pairs. Again, the attractions between
pairs hold the entire arrangement together (Figure 1-3). Each ion is rigidly held in
place by the attraction of the other ions that surround it. This bonding produces a def-
inite, regular structure known as a Jattice structure, or crystalline structure. lonically
bonded materials, such as sand and salt, tend to be hard and have high melting points.
This makes them useful in applications such as ceramics and refractories, where these
properties are extremely significant.
Covalent bonding is another type of bond mechanism. Many gases are diatomic,
that is, they consist of two atoms bonded together in the natural state, such as hydro-
gen (H,), nitrogen (N), and oxygen (O,). Oxygen, for example, has six electrons in its
outer shell. It needs two more to complete its valence shell. When two atoms com-
bine, as in O,, the two atoms combine and share enough electrons to complete their
outer shells. This, effectively, completes each of the atoms’ outer shells. The two
atoms are bonded quite strongly. Covalently bonded materials include many gases
and organic materials.
12 Section One: Fundamentals of Materials Technology

(b) ()

Figure 1-3 Bonding. (a) lonic bonding of sodium chloride (NaCl). (b) Covalent bonding of
methane (CH,). (c) Metallic bonding where positive ions donate electrons; electron cloud
bonds positive ions.

Van der Waals forces, named after the Dutch physicist who explained their function,
are another type of binding force. These forces result from the influence that the action of
the valence electrons in one atom exerts on the valence electrons in another atom. For
example, when two atoms have valence electrons that move in compatibility, they pro-
duce a small attractive force. These forces are very weak and are able to act over consider-
able distances, but they are often masked by the larger bonding forces. To liquefy a pure
gas where only these forces are at work, high pressures are applied to the gas to squeeze
the atoms together so that the stronger bonding needed for liquefaction can take place.
Metallic bonding is another type of bonding in which a localized exchange of elec-
trons takes place between small numbers of atoms. This is more likely to take place in
metals, where all of the atoms have similar valences and cannot directly exchange
electrons to complete their outer shells. Metallic bonds are based on the donation of
electrons by the constituent atoms to a common pool of electrons known as an electron
cloud. This results in a structure where positively charged ions with completed outer
shells are surrounded by a negatively charged electron cloud, which moves randomly
and fluidly throughout the localized structure. The cloud bonds the atoms together
and can be shaped or resized as needed.
The emphasis here is that the chemical makeup and activity of the element(s) of
which a material is composed help determine the physical, chemical, mechanical, and
other properties in application. The bonding mechanism also helps determine the
properties of a material. In addition, the lattice and crystalline structure of the mate-
rial, which are examined soon, also affect the properties of a material. It is important
to note that the relevant properties of these materials depend on these characteristics.

@ 1.4 CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURES

If we consider an atom as a solid sphere, two atoms will approach each other
until the forces of attraction equal the forces of repulsion between like charges. This
distance is different for different materials. It is related to the number of shells and
 Chapter 1 Introduction to Materials Technology 13

number of valence electrons present. The greater the number of shells, the greater the
distance is between atoms. The greater the number of valence electrons, the less the
distance is between atoms. Imaginary lines that connect the centers of atoms in a pat-
tern are called lattice structures. Through the use of X-ray diffraction analysis, it has
been determined that common metals crystallize into one of seven common types of
lattice structures: cubic, tetragonal, orthorhombic, rhombohedral, hexagonal, monoclinic, or
triclinic. Every crystal lattice structure has its own unit cell. A unit cell is the smallest
unit into which a lattice structure can be broken down that still retains the properties
of the whole structure. Figure 1-4 illustrates basic crystalline structures.
Figure 1-4a shows a simple cubic structure. In this structure, eight atoms form a
cube whose sides are equal in size. When the cube has an atom centered in the cube,
such as the common material iron, it is called a body-centered cubic structure, as in Fig-
ure 1-4b. If the simple cubic has an atom centered on each of its faces, the resulting
structure is called a face-centered cubic structure (Figure 1-4c). Body-centered cubic
structures are found in metals such as barium, cesium, potassium, lithium, molybde-
num, sodium, tantalum, and tungsten. Face-centered cubic structures are found in
aluminum, copper, gold, lead, nickel, platinum, and silver.
In the simple tetragonal and body-centered tetragonal structures (Figure 1-4d and Fig-
ure 1-4e, respectively), all of the atomic planes are still at right angles to each other, as
in the cubic structure. However, one of the dimensions is longer than the other two
dimensions. A good example of a natural tetragonal structure is pure tin.

oO Ve: e|

(a) Simple cubic. (b) Body-centered _ (¢) Face-centered (qd) Simple tetragonal. (e) Body-centered
All sides equal. cubic. cubic. Stretched cubic tetragonal.
structure,

= .
°
. .

(f) Orthorhombic. (g) Body-centered (h) Base-centered (i) Face-centered _(j) Rhombohedral.All
Length, width, orthorhombic. orthorhombic. orthorhombic. sides equal length,
height all different. angles same but + 90°.

(k) Close-packed (1), Monoclinic. (m) Base-centered (n) Triclinic.

No sides
hexagonal. Two sides parallel monoclinic. or angles are equal.
while the third is 90°.

Figure 1-4 Crystal lattice structures.

14 Section One: Fundamentals of Materials Technology

Figure 1-4f is an example of the simple orthorhombic structure, in which the lengths
of all three axes are all different. However, the planes of atoms are perpendicular. Fig-
ure 1-4g is an example of a body-centered orthorhombic structure. Notice the atom cen-
tered within the tetrahedron. The base-centered and face-centered structures (Figure 1-4h
and Figure 1-4i, respectively) are the two remaining orthorhombic structures.
The rhombohedral structure differs from the three previous structures because none
of the planes are perpendicular. However, as illustrated in Figure 1-4j, the distances
between the crystal planes are equal.
Figure 1-4k illustrates the hexagonal close-packed (HCP) structure. The distances
between atoms in the bases are equal in the hexagonal structure. Although the bases are
perpendicular to the sides, the angle between the sides is 120°. When three unit cells are
put together, the resulting structure forms a hexagon formation, which is the source of
the name. The cells of a crystal structure may overlap when assembled. This situation
results in the material packing more closely together than the normal structure. When
this happens, the structure is termed close-packed. Graphite is a common material exhib-
iting a close-packed hexagonal structure. Diamond, however, is carbon that has formed
in the face-centered close-packed cubic structure, or complex cubic form. This form is often
referred to as the diamond structure. Materials that have a close-packed hexagonal struc-
ture include beryllium, cadmium, cobalt, magnesium, titanium, zinc, and zirconium.
In a monoclinic structure, two of the atomic planes are perpendicular, but the third
angle is not 90°. Also, the atoms in the crystal plane are not the same distance apart.
There are two variations: simple monoclinic and base-centered monoclinic structures. Fig-
ure 1-4] illustrates the monoclinic structure, and Figure 1-4m shows the base-centered
monoclinic.
The last crystalline structure, the triclinic, is shown in Figure 1-4n. No two planes
are perpendicular to each other, the distances between the atoms are all different, and
the angles between atom planes are not equal. The result is an elongated, thin crystal
formation. Table 1-2 gives the common crystal lattice structure for common elements.
The physical, mechanical, and other properties of a material depend on the crys-
talline structure of that material. Generally, soft metals have a face-centered cubic
structure, whereas mild steels and less ductile metals have body-centered cubic struc-
tures and brittle metals are often simple cubic structures. Most common metals are
face-centered cubic (FCC), body-centered cubic (BCC), or hexagonal in structure.
Refer to Table 1-2 for a partial list of the lattice structure of many metals.
Some elements can exist in two or more crystal structures. These alternative
structures are known as allotropes. Allotropes depend on temperature and pressure
changes. For example, pure iron will assume a BCC structure at normal temperature
and pressure conditions. It undergoes an allotropic change to FCC if the temperature
is raised above 1670°F (910°C). Allotropes are also known as polymorphs.
As the energy in liquid systems decrease, the forces that are grouping, scattering,
and regrouping atoms tend to develop distinct patterns, which become the characteris-
tic lattice structure for that material. The temperature or energy level at which this
begins is called the freezing point for that material.
The formation of these lattice crystals produces heat. As the heat produced is
drawn off, the lattice grows until stopped by some energy block or deformation, such
as another lattice or a container. Two lattice structures that collide exhibit what is
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gynœceum). The number of carpels in some of the last mentioned
orders dwindles down to 1 (e.g. the Berberideæ and Myristicaceæ).
The carpels in Nymphæaceæ become united into one pistil
(syncarpous), a condition which we also find distributed among the
other orders.
Endosperm occurs in almost all the orders (except e.g.
Lauraceæ). The nutritive tissue in Cabombeæ and Nymphæeæ is
chiefly perisperm.

Fig. 370.—Diagram of Aquilegia

vulgaris: sp spur. A cyclic flower.
 Fig. 371.—Diagram of a dichasium of Ranunculus acer: α1,
α1, and β1, β1, bracteoles (the buds in the axils of the
bracteoles, α and α1, are continued antidromously). The flower
has cyclic calyx and corolla, bub acyclic (8/21) stamens.
 Fig. 372.—Diagram of an acyclic
Ranunculaceous flower (only 3
stamens are indicated). The spiral of
the sepals has a divergence of 3/5;
that of the corolla and subsequent
leaves 3/8.
Order 1. Ranunculaceæ. Nearly all are herbs (except Clematis).
The leaves are scattered (except Clematideæ), they have a large
sheath with broad base (no stipules), and are most frequently
palminerved with palmate lobes. The flowers are hypogynous, with
most frequently a well pronounced convex receptacle (Figs. 374 B,
380), ☿, regular (except Delphinium and Aconitum); their structure
varies very much; in some the leaves are verticillate, in others
arranged spirally; in others, again, both modes of arrangement are
found. It is a characteristic feature that the various series of leaves
(especially calyx and corolla) are not so distinct or so sharply divided
as is usual. The leaves of the perianth are free, imbricate (except
Clematideæ); stamens numerous, with most frequently extrorse
anthers; gynœceum free, apocarpous (except Nigella and partly
Helleborus), with 1 or several ovules (Figs. 373, 378, 379) borne on
the ventral suture. The fruit is either a nut or a follicle (Actæa has
berries). The seed has a large, oil-containing endosperm and a small
embryo (Fig. 374).
The main axis generally terminates in a flower, and the lateral axes branch in a
cymose manner (Fig. 371). The flowers show the following differences in
construction: verticillate (eucyclic), i.e. constructed all through of alternating
whorls: Aquilegia (Fig. 370), Xanthorhiza, and sometimes Eranthis.
Semiverticillate (hemicyclic) i.e. with sepals and petals in alternate whorls, and
the others arranged spirally: Ranunculus (Fig. 371), Myosurus, Pæonia and
several other genera entirely, or in certain species only. Spiral-flowered
(acyclic) i.e. all the leaves are arranged spirally, so that sepals and petals do not
alternate the one with the other, even though they are the same in number: Adonis
(Fig. 372), Aconitum, Delphinium-species, Nigella-species, Helleborus. The leaves
of the calyx are in this instance arranged on a spiral of 2/5; those of the corolla on
2/5, 3/8, 5/13 or 8/21, and stamens and carpels likewise on higher fractions of the
same series.
The genera Caltha, Anemone, Thalictrum and Clematis have a single perianth,
which is most frequently petaloid; it is thus apparent that the sepals are petaloid,
and the leaves, which in other genera have developed as petals, are in these
instances stamens. The calyx is similarly petaloid in the genera Helleborus,
Eranthis, Nigella, Delphinium and Aconitum; but the petals are present in these
instances in unusual (horn-like) forms, and almost entirely given up to the function
of nectaries, a function they already possess in Ranunculus. According to a more
recent theory the “honey-leaves” are transformed stamens, which have lost the
function of reproduction; the perianth is then single, and most frequently petaloid.
[Those leaves in the flowers of many Ranunculaceæ which bear nectaries are
termed by Prantl honey-leaves, and comprise those leaf-structures of the flower
whose essential function lies in the production of nectar, and which, independent
of the differentiation of the perianth into calyx and corolla, are derived from the
stamens by the loss of their reproductive functions. Clear transitional forms are
found between the two series of the perianth (e.g. between the sepaloid and
petaloid perianth-leaves of Anemone japonica, A. decapetala, Trollius-species)
while transitional forms are never found between perianth-and honey-leaves (with
the exception of Aquilegia vulgaris, var. stellata). In Anemone and Clematis the
honey-leaves pass gradually into the stamens, and agree with the stamens in the
other Ranunculaceæ in their arrangement, development, and scant system of
veins (except Nigella). In Delphinium, sect. Consolida, the two honey-leaves
placed in front of the unpaired perianth-leaf are united into one, as shown by the
veins (twice three veins arranged symmetrically). The honey-leaves of Aquilegia,
Callianthemum, and the majority of the Ranunculus-species serve by reason of
their large circumference, as organs of attraction, and on this account are
considered as petals by other authors.—The same position in the flower which the
honey-leaves assume is found occupied by staminodes, without nectar, in some
Coptis-species, in Anemonopsis, Actæa sect. Euactæa, (e.g. A. racemosa),
Clematis sect. Atragene; in the last-named they closely surround the stamens, in
Actæa they are petaloid.—A perianth, sharply differentiated into calyx and corolla,
and destitute of honey-leaves, is found in Anemone, sect. Knowltonia (Cape),
Adonis, Pæonia.—The perianth of the Ranunculaceæ is considered by Prantl to
be usually petaloid.—The nectaries arise in the Ranunculaceæ (1) on normal
stamens (Clematis sect. Viorna), (2) on the honey-leaves (this is generally the
case), and (3) on the carpels (Caltha and the majority of Trollius-species).—As the
result of his researches upon the Ranunculaceæ, Prantl does not agree with the
view advanced by Drude (Schenk, Hand. d. Bot. iii.) that the petals in general have
proceeded from the metamorphosis of the stamens (K)].

Fig. 373.—Ovaries in longitudinal section: v the ventral suture; d the

dorsal suture: A, B Clematis; C Ranunculus; D Myosurus.
The most primitive form of fruit is undoubtedly the pod formed by one carpel, on
the edges of which (along the ventral suture) two rows of ovules are situated:
Pæonieæ, Helleboreæ, Delphinieæ (Fig. 379). In a great many genera the number
of ovules has been limited to one perfect one, which is placed in the central plane
under the united leaf-edges, and sometimes also some barren ovules above it
(Fig. 373). The fruitlets in this case become achenes, and are present in much
larger numbers than when there are follicles.
 Fig. 374.—Helleborus niger: A flower; B receptacle; pet petals (honey-
leaves); pi stamens and carpels; C seed; D anther (cross section); alb
endosperm.
 Fig. 375.—Caltha palustris: fruit.
The following have Follicles: Pæonieæ, Helleboreæ (except
Actæa) and Delphinieæ; Achenes: Ranunculeæ, Anemoneæ and
Clematideæ.
A. Follicles (Figs. 375, 379), with many ovules, situated in two
rows along the ventral suture. Actæa has berries, Nigella has capsules of
several loculi.

1. Pæonieæ, Peony Group. This has regular, acyclic flowers with

a normal, most frequently 5-leaved, imbricate calyx; large, coloured
petals, and introrse anthers. Slightly perigynous. Surrounding the
base of the carpels a ring-like swelling of the receptacle (“disc”) is
present, which is largest in P. moutan. The follicles are more or less
fleshy or leathery. Mostly herbs, with pinnatisect or decompound
leaves and large, solitary flowers; a gradual transition may be traced
from the foliage-leaves to the petals. Pæonia; Hydrastis.
Fig. 376.—Aquilegia vulgaris.
Fig. 377.—Caltha palustris (nat. size).
 Fig. 378.—Nigella: A, B fruit of N. damascena, entire, and cut
transversely. C Petal (honey-leaf) of N. arvensis. D Petal of N.
damascena.
2. Helleboreæ, Hellebore Group. This has regular flowers
with most frequently a coloured calyx. The petals (honey-leaves) are
modified into nectaries; they may be horn-like, provided with a spur,
or of a similarly unusual form, or they may be entirely absent.
Anthers often extrorse.—Trollius (Globe-flower[36]). The flower is
acyclic: many petaloid sepals, succeeding these, most frequently,
several linear, dark yellow petals, which bear a naked nectary at the
base; finally, many stamens and carpels arranged in a spiral (3/8,
8/21).—Caltha (Marsh-marigold, Figs. 375, 377); 5 (-7) yellow
sepals, no petals. The foliage-leaves have a large amplexicaul
sheath.—Helleborous (Hellebore) has pedate leaves. The flower is
acyclic, with 5 large, regular, persistent, often petaloid sepals (2/5);
small, horn-like petals (honey-leaves; most frequently 13, divergence
8/13) and generally few carpels (Fig. 374).—Coptis.—Isopyrum.—
Eranthis (Winter Aconite), like Anemone, has a 3-leaved involucre
and most frequently trimerous flowers, 6 large petaloid sepals, 6 petals
(tubular honey-leaves), 6 oblique rows of stamens, 3–6 carpels. Aquilegia
(Columbine, Fig. 376); the flower is entirely cyclic and has large
spurs on all the 5 petals (funnel-shaped honey-leaves); S5 coloured,
P5, A5 × (8–12), G5 in regular alternation (Figs. 376, 370); the
innermost stamens are often staminodes (Fig. 370).—Nigella (Love-
in-the-mist, Fig. 378) has 5 sepals and 8 small, two-lipped petals
cleft at the apex (the nectary is covered by the under-lip; Fig. 378 C,
D). The 5 carpels are more or less completely united; and a many-
carpellate ovary with free styles is formed in some. Large air-
chambers in the external wall of the ovary are formed in N.
damascena (Fig. 378).—Actæa (Baneberry) has coloured sepals,
either no petals or an indefinite number, and only 1 carpel. The fruit
is a berry (or follicle).—Cimicifuga, Garidella, Xanthorhiza (S5, P5, A5 + 5,
G5).
3. Delphinieæ, Larkspur Group. Zygomorphic flowers with
coloured calyx; the 2 posterior petals (honey-leaves) are transformed
into nectaries, the others are small or absent altogether.—Aconitum
(Monkshood); 5 sepals, of which the posterior one (Fig. 379 A) is
helmet-shaped; most frequently 8 petals (as in Fig. 372), of which
the two posterior ones (honey-leaves) are developed into long-
clawed nectaries (Fig. 379 A, k) enveloped by the helmet-like sepal;
the others are small, or are to some extent suppressed. Stamens on a
spiral of 3/8–5/13; generally 3 carpels. Perennial herbs.—Delphinium
(Larkspur); very closely allied to Aconitum, but the anterior 4 petals
are most frequently wanting, and the 2 posterior ones have each a
spur, which is enclosed by the posterior sepal, the latter being also
provided with a membranous spur. Stamens and carpels arranged on a
spiral of 3/8, 5/13, 8/21. In D. ajacis and consolida there is apparently only 1 petal
(by the fusion of 4) and 1 carpel.
 Fig. 379.—Aconitum napellus. A Flower in longitudinal
section, below are the 2 bracteoles; a half of helmet-like
sepal; b and c other sepals; k nectary; f carpels. B Ovary in
longitudinal section; C the same transversely; d dorsal
suture; v ventral suture.
B. Fruit achenes. Many carpels, each with only 1 ascending (Fig.
373 C), or pendulous (Fig. 373 D), perfect ovule; often also
rudimentary ovules above it (Fig. 373 A, B). Fruit achenes.
4. Ranunculeæ, Buttercup Group, has double perianth.
Myosurus and Adonis have pendulous ovules as in Anemoneæ (Fig.
373 D); Ranunculus, with Batrachium and Ficaria, erect ovules (Fig. 373 C) and
downwardly-turned radicle.—Ranunculus. Most frequently S5, P5, many
spirally-placed stamens and carpels (Figs. 371, 380). The petals
(honey-leaves) have a nectary at the base, covered by a small scale.
Batrachium, Water Ranunculus, deviates by the achenes being transversely
wrinkled; dimorphic leaves. Ficaria has 3 sepals and 7–8 petals arranged in 2/5–
3/8. F. ranunculoides (the only species) has tuberous roots, which spring from the
base of the axillary buds, and together with these, serve as organs of reproduction.
The embryo has only 1 cotyledon.—Myosurus (Mouse-tail) has small
prolongations from the 5 sepals; 5 narrow petals which bear the
nectaries near the apex; sometimes only 5 stamens, and an
ultimately very long receptacle, with numerous spirally-arranged
achenes (Fig. 381).—Adonis is acyclic (Fig. 372); most frequently 5
sepals with a divergence of 2/5, 8 petals of 3/8, indefinite stamens
and carpels of 3/8 or 5/13. The corolla has no nectary.

Fig. 380.—Flower of Ranunculus sceleratus

in longitudinal section.
 Fig. 381.—Myosurus minimus: c cotyledons; m the
foliage-leaves; f the floral axis with the carpels, and g the
same without; y insertion of perianth.]
5. Anemoneæ, Anemone Group, has a single perianth. (Pendulous
ovules (Fig. 373 D), radicle turned upward).—Anemone has a single,
petaloid, most frequently 5–6-leaved perianth, and beneath the
flower most frequently an involucre of 3 leaves, placed close
together in the form of a whorl. In A. nemorosa, ranunculoides, etc.,
the involucral leaves resemble foliage-leaves; in A. hepatica they are
situated close under the perianth, and resemble sepals, and in the
sub-genus Pulsatilla they stand between the foliage-leaves and
floral-leaves. The style of Pulsatilla finally grows out in the form of a
feather. The main axis of A. hepatica has unlimited growth (it is biaxial), and the
flowers are borne laterally in the axils of the scale-leaves; in the others (uniaxial)
the flower is terminal, and the rhizome becomes a sympodium after the first
flowering.—Thalictrum
(Meadow Rue) has no involucre; 4–5-leaved,
greenish perianth. The receptacle is flat. The stamens are brightly-
coloured and have long filaments; 1–5 accessory flowers may occur in the leaf-
axils of the panicle-like inflorescence.
6. Clematideæ, Clematis Group. This differs from all the others
in the valvate æstivation of the calyx and its opposite leaves. There
are 4 (-several) petaloid sepals; petals are absent, or linear
(Atragene). Ovule 1, pendulous. Achenes, often with prolonged,
feathery style. The majority of the genera are shrubs, and climb by
their sensitive, twining leaf-stalks.—Clematis; Atragene.
Pollination. The flowers are conspicuous either by coloured petals (honey-
leaves) (Ranunculus, Pæonia) or coloured sepals (Helleborus, Anemone, Caltha,
etc.), or by both (Aquilegia, Delphinium), or by the coloured stamens (Thalictrum).
Some have no honey (Clematis, Anemone, Thalictrum), and are generally visited
by insects for the sake of their pollen. Others have nectaries on the corolla
(Ranunculus, Trollius, Helleborus, Nigella, Aconitum, etc.), more rarely on the
stamens (Pulsatilla, Clematis-species), or the carpels (Caltha), or the calyx (certain
species of Pæonia). The honey is readily accessible in the flat, open flowers, and
these flowers also may easily pollinate themselves. There is marked protandry
where the honey lies deeply hidden, as in Aquilegia, Delphinium, and Aconitum.
Helleborus and some Ranunculus-species are protogynous.
About 680 species; especially in northern temperate climates, and extending to
the Polar and Alpine regions. Only the Clematideæ are tropical.
The order has an abundance of acrid, vesicant properties (R. acer, sceleratus,
etc.), and poisonous alkaloids (Helleborus niger is poisonous). Officinal:
Aconitum napellus (aconitine; leaves and tuberous roots); the rhizome of Hydrastis
canadensis from N. Am. (the alkaloid hydrastine). The order, however, is best
known for its ornamental plants; almost all the genera have species which are
cultivated for their beauty. Sweet-scented flowers are absent.
Order 2. Nymphæaceæ (Water Lilies). Water Plants; generally
with large, floating leaves, and large solitary flowers; sepals 3–5,
petals 3–∞, stamens 6–∞, carpels 3–∞. The flower is hypogynous,
but in the Nymphæeæ different degrees of epigyny are found, and
from this fact, as well as from the carpels being united into one pistil,
the family forms a lateral offshoot from the Ranunculaceæ, with
much greater modification. The seed often has an aril, and, in the
majority, a farinaceous nutritive tissue, partly endosperm, partly
perisperm (Fig. 383 C). The embryo has 2 thick cotyledons and a
small hypocotyl; the plumule is well developed, with 2–4 leaves.
1. Cabombeæ. 3–4 species (Tropical S. Am.), resembling the Water
Ranunculus, with two kinds of leaves, the submerged being dissected and the
aerial peltate. The flowers are eucyclic, trimerous, with 2–3 free, epigynous
carpels. The ovules are situated on the central line of the carpel—an almost
unique circumstance. Endosperm and perisperm. Cabomba; Brasenia.
2. Nelumboneæ. The leaves are peltate, raised on long stalks
high above the water. Large, hypogynous flowers (Fig. 382); sepals
4–5; petals numerous; stamens numerous; carpels several, distinct.
The receptacle is very remarkable, being raised above the stamens,
and developed into an inverted conical body on the apex of which
the nut-like fruits are embedded in pits. Endosperm is wanting, but
the embryo is large and has well developed cotyledons.—Nelumbo, 2
species. N. lutea (N. Am.); N. speciosa (E. Ind.) was sacred amongst the ancient
Hindoos and Egyptians, (the Lotus flower); its seeds are used as food.
3. Nymphæeæ, Water Lily Group. The carpels are united into
one, many-locular ovary, whose numerous ovules are situated on
the surface of the partition walls (as in the Poppies); the stigma is
sessile and radiating, the number of rays corresponding to the
number of carpels (Fig. 383). The fruit is a spongy berry with many
seeds, which have a large perisperm in addition to the endosperm
(Fig. 383 C).
 Fig. 382.—Nelumbo nucifera: vertical
section through the receptacle.
Sepals, petals, and stamens often pass gradually over the one
into the other, the petals becoming narrower by degrees, and
bearing anthers on each side of the apex, which gradually become
larger anthers in proportion to the filament, until the perfect stamen is
developed. The long-stalked leaves are floating, and most frequently
cordate, elliptical, leathery, with a shiny surface, sometimes (as in
Victoria regia and Euryale ferox) with strongly projecting thorny ribs
on the lower surface. In the intercellular passages of the leaves are
some peculiar, stellate cells.
Nuphar has 5 sepals, and an hypogynous flower. The petals, which
are small, have a nectary on the back; the coloured inner side of the sepals
functions as petals; the ovate gynœceum is quite free.—N. luteum is a native plant
(Yellow Water-Lily), with, most frequently, 13 petals and 10–16 loculi in the ovary.
The rhizome is horizontal, as much as 5–6 cm. in thickness, and bears on its
under surface a number of roots, which on dying-off leave deep scars; the leaves
are borne in spiral lines, and the flowers are solitary in certain leaf-axils. The
construction of the rhizome is very peculiar; the vascular bundles are scattered
and closed as in a monocotyledonous stem.

Fig. 383.—Nymphæa: A flower in longitudinal section, the most

external leaves being removed; B fruit; C seed of Nuphar
(longitudinal section); the perisperm at the base, the endosperm at
the top surrounding the embryo.
Nymphæa has 4 sepals, and the flower is more or less epigynous.
Petals and stamens are inserted at different heights on the ovary to
just beneath the stigma (Fig. 383). Nymphæa alba (White Water-
Lily). Victoria regia from the Amazon, and Euryale ferox from Asia,
have entirely epigynous flowers. The shield-like leaves of Victoria are as
much as 2 metres in diameter, and the edge is bent up to a height of 5–14 cm.; the
flowers are 20–40 cm. in diameter, and change in twenty-four hours from white to
rose-red. A development of heat, as much as 14°C. above the temperature of the
air, together with a strong formation of carbonic acid, has been observed during
flowering.
Pollination. Nymphæa alba and other species of the sub-genus
Symphytopleura are self-pollinated; the sub-genus Leptopleura is insect-pollinated.
Nuphar and Victoria can effect self-fertilisation; Euryale is self-fertilised, often in
entirely closed and submerged flowers.—The dissemination of the seeds in
Nuphar luteum is effected by the fruit, which rests on the water, becoming
detached from its stalk, and dehiscing from the base upwards so that the seeds
are set free; while in Nymphæa alba the spirally-twisted stalk draws the fruit under
water, and it dehisces by its upper part being thrown off as a hood, and the seeds
which are enclosed in air-tight sacs rise to the surface of the water. In this
condition they are able to float and can only sink to the bottom when the air has
disappeared.
53 species; in fresh water in all parts of the world, but especially in the Tropics.
—The rhizomes and seeds of some may be used as food; Euryale ferox is even
cultivated. Nymphæa cœrulea and Lotus were sacred among the Egyptians.

Order 3. Ceratophyllaceæ. About 3 species. Aquatic plants,

submerged, rootless; leaves cartilaginous, verticillate, dissected into
repeatedly dichotomous branches which are finely toothed; only one
of the leaves in a whorl supports a vegetative branch. The flowers
are monœcious, axillary. Inside the 6–12 perianth-leaves are
situated in the ♂-flower 10–20 stamens with thick connective, and in
the ♀ -flower a gynœceum formed by one carpel, with one
orthotropous and pendulous ovule, which has only one integument.
Fruit a nut, which, in some species, bears on each side a pointed
horn, and at the apex a similar one, formed by the persistent style.—
The embryo has an unusually well developed plumule with several
whorls of leaves. The plant is rootless throughout its whole life.—
Ceratophyllum (Horn-wort).
Order 4. Annonaceæ. Sepals 3; petals 3+3 (most frequently valvate);
succeeding these (as in the Ranunculaceæ) are numerous acyclic stamens and an
apocarpous gynœceum; the flowers are hypogynous, regular and ☿, generally very
large (2–3 cm. in diameter), and the leaves of the perianth are more or less fleshy
or leathery. The majority have syncarps with berry-like fruitlets, but in Annona and
some others the carpels fuse together into a large, head-like fruit—a kind of
composite berry. The seeds have ruminate endosperm as in Myristica.—Trees or
shrubs with alternate, simple, entire, penninerved leaves without stipules. 450
(700?) species; especially tropical. The best known are Anona cherimolia,
squamosa and reticulata (all from America) cultivated on account of their large,
delicious fruits. Some have acrid and aromatic properties (Xylopia, Cananga—the
flowers of the latter yield Ylang-ylang); Artabotrys odoratissimus; Asimina (N. Am.).
Order 5. Magnoliaceæ. Trees or shrubs with scattered, often leathery, entire
leaves, generally with stipules, which (as in Ficus) are rolled together and form a
hood round the younger internodes above them, and are cast off by the unfolding
of the next leaf, leaving a ring-like scar. The endosperm is not ruminate. Corolla
imbricate. Fruit a syncarp.
 A. Magnolieæ. The flowers are borne singly, and before opening are
enveloped in an ochrea-like spathe which corresponds to the stipules of the
foliage-leaves. The perianth generally consists of 3 trimerous whorls, the external
one of which is sometimes sepaloid (Liriodendron, and the majority of
Magnoliaspecies), sometimes coloured like the others; the perianth is sometimes
many-seriate. Numerous spirally-placed stamens and carpels. The latter are
situated on the elongated, cylindrical receptacle, and are individually more or less
united, except in Liriodendron, where they are free. This last genus has winged
achenes; the fruitlets in Magnolia open along the dorsal and ventral sutures, and
the seeds then hang out, suspended by elastic threads formed from the vascular
bundles of the funicle and raphe; they are red and drupaceous, the external layer
of the shell being fleshy—a very rare occurrence.
B. Illicieæ has no stipules. The carpels are situated in a whorl on a short
receptacle. Follicles, one-seeded. The leaves are dotted by glands containing
essential oil. Illicium; Drimys.
70 species; in tropical or temperate climates; none in Europe or Africa. They are
chiefly used as ornamental plants, e.g. the Tulip-tree (Liriodendron tulipifera, N.
Am.), Magnolia grandiflora (N. Am.), M. yulan and fuscata (China), and others. The
remains of Liriodendron occur as fossils in the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods.—
The fruits of Illicium anisatum (Star-aniseed from Eastern Asia) are officinal. The
bark of Drimys winteri (S. Am.) is also strongly aromatic.
Order 6. Calycanthaceæ. These are very closely related to the Magnoliaceæ,
but differ in having perigynous flowers with many perianth-leaves, stamens and
(about 20) carpels in a continuous spiral, seeds almost devoid of endosperm with
rolled up, leaf-like cotyledons, and leaves opposite on a square stem.—There are
some species in N. America (Calycanthus florida, occidentalis, etc.) and 1 in Japan
(Chimonanthus præcox), all strongly aromatic.
Order 7. Monimiaceæ. Aromatic shrubs with opposite leaves. Perigynous
flowers. The anthers dehisce by valves like those of the Lauraceæ, and the
Monimiaceæ may thus be considered as an apocarpous form of this order. They
are also closely related to Calycanthaceæ. 150 species, tropical.—Hedycarya,
Mollinedia, Monimia.
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