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PROJECT WORK OF MATHEMATICS

By
Anshu Shrestha
Stream: Science
Class: XI ’D1’

Submitted to:
THE DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
KATHMANDU MODEL SECONDARY SCHOOL(KMSS)
BAAGBAZAR,KATHMANDU

For the partial fullfilment of the requirement of the

Internal Evaluation of
Grade: XI

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PAGE NO.1

DEDICATION

I dedicate this paper to our teacher Mr. Puspha Raj

Bhandari, for his unwavering support and inspiration
throughout my academic journey and to all those who find
wonder in the beauty of the natural world and seek to
understand its mathematical intricacies.

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COPYRIGHT

Copyright © Anshu Shrestha, 2080. All rights reserved. No part of

this research paper may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior
written permission from the author.

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DECLARATION

I here by declare that the project report has been done by

myself under the supervision of prof./lecturer/Mr.
Puspha Raj Bhandari , and has not been submitted elsewhere
For any examination.

All sources of information have been specifically acknowledged

by references to author and institution.

Signature:________________
Name of student: Anshu Shrestha
Stream : Science
Section: D1
Date : 2080/07/1

ENDORSEMENT
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We here by endorse the project work entitled ‘ EXISTENCE OF

MATHEMATICS IN NATURE’ submitted by Anshu Shrestha of
Kathmandu Model Secondary School, Baagbazar,Kathmandu in
partial fulfillment of the requirements of the internal evaluation of
mathematics of grade XI.

Signature:__________________
Signature:______________________
Chiranjivi Gyawali Nagendra Aryal
Department of mathematics Principal
Date:2080-07-05 Date: 2080-07-05

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SUBJECT TEACHER’S RECOMMENDATION

The project work report entitled “ EXISTENCE OF MATHEMATICS IN

NATURE” submitted by Anshu Shrestha, of Kathmandu
Model Secondary School , Bagbazar, Kathmandu is prepared under
my supervision as per procedure and format requirements
laid by the Department of Mathematics , Kathmandu Model
Secondary School, as the partial fulfillment of the requirements
of the internal evaluation of grade XI . I, therefore, recommend
the report for evaluation.

Signature :______________________
Name of the subject teacher : Puspha Raj Bhandari
Date:___________________

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Mr.

Puspha Raj Bhandari for bringing this topic to my attention and for
this help and support and guidance during the preparation of this
project work .I am grateful to my respected mathematics teachers
who contributed to build strong foundation of
mathematics .Special thanks goes to my classmates and my
project team members who helped me while preparing for this
project report.

Anshu Shrestha

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title
page………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………..i
Dedication………………………………………………………………………………………
……….ii
copyright……………………………………………………………………………..iii
Declaration……………………………………………………………………………………
…iv
Subject’s teacher recommendation…………………………………………………….v
Endorsement…………………………………………………………………………………
……………………….vii
Acknowledgement……………………………………………………………….viii

1.Introduction………………………………………………………………..9
1.1. Background…………………………1
1.2. Objectives………………….2

2. Historical development ……………………………………..13

2.1. Pythagorean theorem……………………………3
2.2. Fibonacci numbers and golden ratio………………….4

3. Mathematical patterns in nature……………………16

3.1. Fractals in nature……………………………..5
3.2. Symmetry in biology……………………………….6
3.3. The geometry of crystals………………………………….7

4. Theoretical explanations………………………………….20
4.1. Chaos theory……………………..8
4.2. Quantam mechanics and symmetry……………………..9

5. Implications and significance………………………….22

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5.1. Scientific advancement…………………………………………………….10

6. Conclusions………………………………………………..24
7. Reference and bibliography………………………………..26

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 .Background:
he idea that mathematics exists in nature is a concept deeply rooted
in the history of human thought. It represents the exploration of the underlying
order and regularity in the natural world. The background of the existence of
mathematics in nature can be traced through several key historical
developments and the contributions of prominent thinkers:

1. Ancient Civilizations: The origins of this concept can be found in the

mathematics of ancient civilizations, notably in Mesopotamia and Egypt.
These early mathematicians discovered numerical patterns in the
movements of celestial bodies and in the geometry of structures.

2. Pythagoras and the Pythagorean Theorem: Pythagoras and his

followers in ancient Greece made significant contributions to the
understanding of mathematical relationships in the natural world. The
Pythagorean Theorem, which describes the geometry of right-angled
triangles, is a fundamental example.

3. The Golden Ratio: The concept of the Golden Ratio, often denoted by
the Greek letter phi (Φ), is an ancient mathematical idea that dates back
to the Greeks. It has been observed in various aspects of nature,
including art, architecture, and plant growth.
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4. Leonardo Fibonacci: The 13th-century mathematician Leonardo of Pisa,

commonly known as Fibonacci, introduced the Fibonacci sequence. This
sequence, in which each number is the sum of the two preceding ones (0,
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, and so on), is observed in the growth patterns of
plants and flowers.

5. The Scientific Revolution: The Scientific Revolution of the 17th

century, led by figures like Galileo, Kepler, and Newton, emphasized the
application of mathematical principles to understand the laws governing
the physical world. These scientists laid the foundation for modern
physics, which relies heavily on mathematical equations.
6. Fractals and Chaos Theory: In the 20th century, mathematicians and
scientists delved deeper into the concept of mathematics in nature with
the advent of computers. Benoît Mandelbrot's work on fractals and the
development of chaos theory unveiled the presence of intricate
mathematical patterns in seemingly chaotic systems.

7. Quantum Mechanics and Symmetry: The field of quantum mechanics,

which emerged in the early 20th century, relies on complex mathematical
principles to describe the behavior of subatomic particles. Symmetry
principles in quantum mechanics reveal the mathematical order
underlying the natural world at its smallest scales.

8. Contemporary Research: Today, mathematicians, biologists, physicists,

and other scientists continue to explore and document mathematical
patterns in nature. From the geometry of snowflakes to the branching
patterns of trees, the presence of mathematical regularity in the natural
world remains a subject of ongoing research and fascination.

The background of the existence of mathematics in nature reflects humanity's

evolving understanding of the universe. It highlights the interplay between
mathematical concepts and the physical world, illustrating how mathematics
serves as a fundamental tool for comprehending and describing the patterns,
structures, and processes that underpin the natural world. This concept

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continues to be a driving force in scientific discovery and the philosophy of

science.

1.2. OBJECTIVES:

The objective of a research paper on the existence of

mathematics in nature is to explore, analyze, and understand the
relationship between mathematics and the natural world. This research
paper seeks to achieve several key objectives:

1. Examine Historical Context: Investigate the historical development

of the idea that mathematics exists in nature. This involves tracing the
origins of this concept and understanding the contributions of early
mathematicians and natural philosophers.

2. Identify Mathematical Patterns: Identify and document specific

examples of mathematical patterns and structures in the natural world.
This may include instances of geometric principles, numerical
sequences, or other mathematical phenomena found in various
aspects of nature.

3. Explore Theoretical Explanations: Delve into the theoretical

underpinnings that explain the presence of mathematics in nature.
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This involves examining scientific theories and concepts such as chaos

theory, fractals, symmetry, and quantum mechanics and how they
relate to natural phenomena.

4. Analyze Scientific Implications: Assess the scientific implications of

the existence of mathematics in nature. Investigate how understanding
and applying mathematical principles to natural systems have led to
advancements in various scientific disciplines, from physics to biology.

5. Consider Philosophical and Existential Questions: Reflect on the

philosophical and existential questions that arise from the concept of
mathematics in nature. This includes pondering the nature of reality,
the existence of an underlying order in the universe, and the
implications for our understanding of existence

.
6. Highlight Significance and Applications: Emphasize the practical
significance of recognizing mathematical patterns in nature. Discuss
how this understanding can lead to advancements in fields such as
engineering, architecture, biology, and environmental science.

7. Conclude and Summarize: Summarize the findings and conclusions

of the research paper, emphasizing the significance of the existence of
mathematics in nature in both scientific and philosophical contexts.

The objective of this research paper is to provide a comprehensive

exploration of the relationship between mathematics and the natural world.
By achieving these objectives, the paper aims to shed light on the profound
and intricate connection between mathematics and nature, bridging the gap
between abstract mathematical concepts and their tangible manifestations
in the physical world.

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2. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
2.1. Pythagorean theorem:
The historical development of the Pythagorean Theorem,
a fundamental principle in geometry, spans different ancient civilizations:

1. Babylonians (circa 1900–1600 BCE): Babylonian clay tablets

contain early examples of understanding right-angled triangles, though
the theorem is not explicitly stated.
2. Indians (circa 600 BCE): Indian mathematicians in the Vedic period
used Pythagorean triples and worked with right-angled triangles.
3. Chinese (circa 200 BCE): Ancient Chinese texts had geometric
principles related to the theorem.
4. Greek Mathematicians (6th to 4th century BCE): Pythagoras and
the Pythagoreans, Thales, and Euclid contributed to understanding
right-angled triangles and provided proofs.
5. Islamic Mathematicians (9th to 10th century CE): Islamic scholars
made significant contributions, further expanding the theorem's
applications.

The theorem's development involved various cultures over centuries, with

Pythagoras being just one of many contributors to its understanding. It
remains a crucial concept in mathematics and has broad practical
applications.

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2.2. Golden Ratio and Fibonacci Sequence:

1. Fibonacci's "Liber Abaci" (1202): Italian

mathematician Fibonacci introduced the Fibonacci sequence (0, 1,
1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, and so on) in his book "Liber Abaci." It was
initially used to solve problems related to rabbit population growth.
2. Rediscovery and Name: Fibonacci introduced the sequence to the
Western world, though similar sequences had been observed earlier
in Indian and Arabic mathematics. The name "Fibonacci sequence"
was coined by Édouard Lucas in the 19th century.
3. Applications: The Fibonacci sequence has diverse applications,
from modeling growth processes to analyzing financial markets. It is
also found in nature, describing spiral patterns in sunflowers and
pinecones.

Golden Ratio:

1. Ancient Greece: The Golden Ratio's origins date back to

ancient Greece, recognized by mathematicians and artists
like Euclid and Phidias. It was used in the construction of the
Parthenon for its aesthetic and mathematical significance.
2. Fibonacci's Influence: Italian mathematician Fibonacci
played a role in popularizing the concept. He introduced the
Fibonacci sequence, closely related to the Golden Ratio, in
"Liber Abaci."
3. Renaissance and Art: During the Renaissance, artists and
architects like Leonardo da Vinci and Albrecht Dürer
employed the Golden Ratio in their works. Da Vinci's
"Vitruvian Man" is a famous example of its use in art and
human proportions.

Both the Fibonacci numbers and the Golden Ratio have rich historical
backgrounds and continue to be relevant in various fields, from
mathematics to art and nature.

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3. MATHEMATICAL PATTERNS IN NATURE

3.1. Fractals in nature :

Fractals in nature are intricate, self-replicating patterns
found in various natural phenomena. They exhibit a repeating
structure at different scales, much like a mathematical fractal.
Examples include coastlines, mountain ranges, trees, clouds, and
snowflakes. These patterns emerge from complex, iterative processes
and demonstrate the connection between mathematics and the natural
world, offering insights into self-organization and complexity in nature.

1. Coastlines: Coastal areas often exhibit fractal-like patterns. As you zoom

in, you notice that the irregularities and shapes repeat themselves at
different scales, which is a key characteristic of fractals.
2. Mountain Ranges: The branching structure of mountain ranges, where
smaller ridges and valleys resemble the larger ones, is an example of
fractal geometry.
3. Trees: The branching patterns of trees, such as the way branches split
into smaller branches and twigs, follow fractal patterns. This self-
similarity can be observed at various scales.
4. Ferns: Fern leaves and their intricate, repeating structures are also an
example of fractals.
5. Clouds: Cloud formations often exhibit fractal-like shapes, with smaller
cloud patterns resembling the larger cloud formations.
6. Snowflakes: Snowflakes are well-known for their fractal symmetry. Each
arm of a snowflake can be seen as a self-replicating pattern, and the
overall shape of a snowflake is a fractal.
7. Cauliflower and Broccoli: The branching structure of cauliflower and
broccoli also displays fractal patterns.
8. Lightning Bolts: Lightning discharges can exhibit fractal patterns in
their branching shapes.
9. River Networks: River systems often exhibit fractal-like branching
patterns, with smaller tributaries resembling the larger river channels.
10. Human Lungs: The bronchial tree in the human respiratory system
displays fractal branching, ensuring efficient oxygen exchange at
different scales.

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3.2. SYMMETRY IN BIOLOGY:

Symmetry in biology and mathematical patterns in

nature often intersect, as mathematical concepts can be used to describe
and understand the symmetry found in living organisms. Here's an
explanation of how symmetry in biology relates to mathematical patterns in
nature:

Bilateral Symmetry and Mathematical Patterns:

 Bilateral symmetry, the most common form in animals, is often
described mathematically as a mirror image along a central axis. The
shape of one half is essentially a reflection of the other. This symmetry
can be analyzed using mathematical concepts like geometry and
coordinate systems.

Radial Symmetry and Geometric Patterns:

 Radial symmetry, found in organisms like starfish and jellyfish, involves
body parts radiating from a central point. These radial arrangements
can be described using geometric patterns and transformations .
 The mathematical concept of polar coordinates is often used to
precisely define and model radial symmetry, allowing for a clear
understanding of how an organism's body parts are distributed around
a central axis.

Spiral Symmetry and Fibonacci Sequences:

 Some natural structures, such as the arrangement of seeds in a
sunflower head or pinecone scales, exhibit spiral symmetry. These
patterns can be closely related to mathematical sequences, such as
the Fibonacci sequence, which describes the growth patterns and
spiral arrangements in many plants.

Mathematical Models for Growth and Development:

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 Mathematical models like the Golden Ratio and the Fibonacci sequence
are often used to explain patterns in nature, including the branching of
trees and the arrangement of leaves on a stem. These mathematical
concepts are related to the optimal distribution of resources in
organisms.

Symmetry in Classification and Taxonomy:

 In biology, symmetry can be a critical factor in classifying and
categorizing organisms. Mathematically describing an organism's
symmetry can help scientists place it within the correct taxonomic
group.

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3.3. THE GEOMETRY OF CRYSTALS :

The geometry of crystals is a fascinating example of

mathematical patterns in nature. Crystals are solid materials whose atoms or
molecules are arranged in a highly ordered and repetitive three-dimensional
pattern, known as a crystal lattice. This ordered arrangement follows specific
geometric principles and mathematical patterns, contributing to the unique
properties and aesthetics of crystals. Here's an explanation of the geometry of
crystals in the context of mathematical patterns in nature:

1. Symmetry in Crystal Lattices:

 Crystals exhibit various types of symmetry based on the
arrangement of their atoms or molecules. This symmetry is
characterized by repeating motifs and shapes that are described
using mathematical concepts.
 Common forms of crystal symmetry include cubic, tetragonal,
orthorhombic, monoclinic, triclinic, and hexagonal systems. Each of
these systems follows specific mathematical rules governing the
angles and relationships between crystallographic axes.
2. Unit Cells:
 A unit cell is the smallest repeating unit within a crystal lattice. It is
often a parallelepiped (a three-dimensional figure with six faces,
each a parallelogram), and its geometry can be precisely defined
mathematically.
 Different crystal systems have distinct unit cell shapes and
dimensions, which can be expressed using mathematical equations.
3. Crystallographic Symmetry Operations:
 Crystallographers use mathematical transformations, such as
rotations, translations, and reflections, to describe the symmetry of
crystal lattices. These operations help identify and understand the
repetitive patterns within the crystal structure.
4. Miller Indices:
 Miller indices are a mathematical notation system used to represent
crystal planes and directions within a crystal lattice. They provide a

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standardized way to describe the orientation and spacing of

crystallographic features.
 Miller indices are particularly useful in understanding the geometry
of crystal faces, the angles between crystallographic planes, and the
relationships between different crystallographic directions.
5. X-ray Crystallography:
 X-ray crystallography is a powerful technique that relies on the
mathematical principles of diffraction to determine the arrangement
of atoms within a crystal. By analyzing how X-rays are diffracted by
a crystal lattice, scientists can deduce the three-dimensional
distribution of atoms, leading to a detailed geometric model of the
crystal structure.
6. Geometric Symmetry Groups:
 Crystals are classified into different crystal systems and space
groups, each with its unique geometric symmetries. These
classifications are based on mathematical principles and describe
the specific geometric arrangements within a crystal lattice.

4.THEORETICAL EXPLANATIONS:
4.1. CHAOS THEORY:

Chaos theory is a branch of mathematics and

science that deals with complex systems showing apparent randomness and
unpredictability, despite following deterministic rules. It emphasizes the
sensitivity to initial conditions, where small changes can lead to vastly
different outcomes. Chaos theory applies to nonlinear systems, involves the
concept of attractors (such as strange attractors with fractal-like patterns),
and is used in fields like physics, meteorology, biology, economics, and
engineering to study and model complex, dynamic behaviors. The "butterfly
effect" illustrates how tiny changes can have significant, unforeseeable
consequences in chaotic systems.

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4.2. QUANTAM MECHANICS AND SYMMETRY:

Quantum mechanics is a branch of physics that deals with the

behavior of particles at the smallest scales. Symmetry is a key concept in
quantum mechanics:

1. Quantum Mechanics: Quantum mechanics is the theory that

describes the behavior of particles like electrons and photons. It
introduces the idea of wave-particle duality, where particles can
behave as both particles and waves.
2. Symmetry in Quantum Mechanics: Symmetry plays a fundamental
role in quantum mechanics. It helps describe the mathematical
relationships that govern quantum systems. Symmetry operations
simplify quantum calculations, reveal patterns in particle behavior, and
are associated with conservation laws.
3. Applications: In quantum mechanics, symmetry is applied to predict
atomic and molecular spectra, explain particle behavior, establish
selection rules, and design quantum experiments and technologies.

In essence, symmetry is a critical mathematical tool in quantum mechanics,

helping understand the behavior of particles and predict quantum
phenomena.

5.IMPILCATIONS AND SIGNIFICANCE

5.1. Scientific advancements:
Scientific advancements have revealed the
pervasive role of mathematics in understanding the natural world.
Mathematics is a fundamental language of science, and it's employed
in fields like physics, chemistry, biology, and astronomy to model,
describe, and predict natural phenomena. From quantum mechanics
and general relativity to genetics and climate modeling, mathematics
is an essential tool for unraveling the mysteries of the universe and
advancing our knowledge of nature.

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General Relativity: Albert Einstein's theory of general

relativity, which describes the gravitational force as the curvature of
spacetime, is another testament to the power of mathematics in
physics. It uses complex mathematical concepts like tensor calculus to
explain the motion of massive objects and the bending of light by
gravity.

1. Astronomy and Cosmology: From predicting planetary motion using

Kepler's laws to understanding the Big Bang and dark matter,
astronomy and cosmology depend on mathematical equations and
models. The cosmic microwave background radiation, for example, is
described through mathematical distributions.
2. Engineering: Engineers rely on mathematics to design everything
from bridges and buildings to electrical circuits and spacecraft. The
structural integrity of a building, for instance, is determined using
mathematical principles of mechanics.
3. Computer Science: Computer algorithms, data structures, and
artificial intelligence are deeply rooted in mathematics. Complex
algorithms for image recognition, machine learning, and cryptography
are all products of mathematical concepts.
4. Environmental Science: Mathematical models are used to
understand and predict environmental changes, including climate
models that assess the impact of human activities on the Earth's
climate.

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6.CONCLUSIONS:

Research on the existence of mathematics in nature has led to

several significant conclusions:

1. Mathematics is Inherent in the Universe: The consistent

application of mathematical principles in various natural phenomena
indicates that mathematics is an inherent feature of the universe. It
suggests that the laws governing the natural world can be precisely
described and understood through mathematical models.
2. Mathematical Patterns Abound: Mathematical patterns are found in
diverse aspects of nature, from the fractal geometry of coastlines to
the symmetries in crystals, the Fibonacci sequences in plant growth,
and the precise equations that govern the behavior of subatomic
particles. This ubiquity of mathematical patterns reinforces the idea
that mathematics is deeply embedded in the structure of the universe.
3. Predictive Power of Mathematics: The success of mathematical
models in predicting and explaining natural phenomena demonstrates
the power of mathematics as a tool for understanding and harnessing
the forces of the natural world. It has practical applications in various
scientific disciplines and technological advancements.
4. Symmetry and Order: The presence of symmetry and order in
nature, as described through mathematical concepts, highlights the
underlying principles that organize the universe. Symmetry often leads
to the conservation of fundamental quantities such as energy,
momentum, and angular momentum.
5. Chaos and Complexity: The study of chaos theory reveals that even
seemingly random or chaotic systems can have underlying
mathematical structures and deterministic behaviors. This challenges
our understanding of predictability in complex systems and
demonstrates the intricate relationship between mathematics and the
unpredictable.
6. Interdisciplinary Connections: Research on the role of mathematics
in nature has fostered interdisciplinary connections between
mathematics, physics, biology, chemistry, and other scientific fields. It
has enhanced our ability to explore and explain phenomena that
transcend traditional boundaries.

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In conclusion, the research on the existence of mathematics in nature has

deepened our understanding of the natural world and how mathematical
principles underpin its structure and behavior. This has not only advanced
scientific knowledge but also led to practical applications across a wide
range of industries and technologies.

7.REFERANCE AND BIBLOGRAPHY:

In order to support and justify an idea in this project work ,

different sources are used for collecting information about the
existence of mathematics in nature. Some sources used for presenting
this project work are :

1 . Books: class ‘XI’ foundation of mathematics

Author: Durga Jung K.C

Santosh Ghimire
Jhavi Lal Ghimire
Ananta Uperati
Amrit Sharma Gautam

Publisher: Ashmita books publisher and distribuators

2 . Websites :

I. www.topper.com
II. www.byjus.com
III. Wikipedia
IV. www.origoeducation.au
V. www.slideshare.net
VI. www.mathsgeekmama.com
VII. www.quora.com
VIII. www.sciencealert.com
IX. www.artandculture.com
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X.

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7.REFERANCE AND BIBLOGRAPHY:

In order to support and justify an idea in this project work ,

different sources are used for collecting information about the
existence of mathematics in nature. Some sources used for presenting
this project work are :

1 . Books: class ‘XI’ foundation of mathematics

Author: Durga Jung K.C

Santosh Ghimire
Jhavi Lal Ghimire
Ananta Uperati
Amrit Sharma Gautam

Publisher: Ashmita books publisher and distribuators

2 . Websites :

XI. www.topper.com
XII. www.byjus.com
XIII. Wikipedia
XIV. www.origoeducation.au
XV. www.slideshare.net
XVI. www.mathsgeekmama.com
XVII. www.quora.com
XVIII. www.sciencealert.com
XIX. www.artandculture.com

XX.

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