Autoclave

An autoclave is a machine used to carry out industrial

Autoclave
and scientific processes requiring elevated temperature
and pressure in relation to ambient pressure and/or
temperature. Autoclaves are used before surgical
procedures to perform sterilization and in the chemical
industry to cure coatings and vulcanize rubber and for
hydrothermal synthesis. Industrial autoclaves are used in
industrial applications, especially in the manufacturing of
composites.

Many autoclaves are used to sterilize equipment and

supplies by subjecting them to pressurized saturated
steam at 121 °C (250 °F) for 30–60 minutes at a pressure of
205 kPa or 2.02 atm[1] (about double atmospheric
pressure) depending on the size of the load and the
contents.[2] The autoclave was invented by Charles
Chamberland in 1879,[3] although a precursor known as Cutaway illustration of a jacketed
the steam digester was created by Denis Papin in 1679.[4] rectangular-chamber autoclave
The name comes from Greek auto-, ultimately meaning Uses Sterilization
self, and Latin clavis meaning key, thus a self-locking
Inventor Charles
device.[5]
Chamberland
Related Waste autoclave

Uses items

Sterilization autoclaves are widely used in microbiology

and mycology, medicine and prosthetics fabrication,
tattooing and body piercing, and funerary practice. They
vary in size and function depending on the media to be
sterilized and are sometimes called retort in the chemical
and food industries.

Typical loads include laboratory glassware, other

equipment and waste, surgical instruments, and medical
waste.[6][7] Cutaway illustration of a cylindrical-
chamber autoclave
A notable recent and increasingly popular application of
autoclaves is the pre-disposal treatment and sterilization
of waste material, such as pathogenic hospital waste. Machines in this category largely
operate under the same principles as conventional autoclaves in that they are able to
neutralize (but not eliminate) potentially infectious agents by using pressurized steam and
superheated water. A new generation of waste converters is capable of achieving the same
effect without a pressure vessel to sterilize culture media,
rubber material, gowns, dressings, gloves, etc. It is
particularly useful for materials that cannot withstand the
higher temperature of a hot air oven.[8]

Autoclaves are also widely used to cure composites,

especially for melding multiple layers without any voids
Video demonstrating how
that would decrease material strength, and in the
autoclaves work
vulcanization of rubber.[9] The high heat and pressure that
autoclaves generate help to ensure that the best possible
physical properties are repeatable. Manufacturers of spars for sailboats have autoclaves
well over 50 feet (15 m) long and 10 feet (3 m) wide, and some autoclaves in the aerospace
industry are large enough to hold whole airplane fuselages made of layered composites.[10]

A thermal effluent decontamination system functions as a single-purpose autoclave

designed for the sterilization of liquid waste and effluent.

Air removal
It is very important to ensure that all of the trapped air is removed from the autoclave
before activation, as trapped air is a very poor medium for achieving sterility. Steam at
134 °C (273 °F) can achieve a desired level of sterility in three minutes, while achieving the
same level of sterility in hot air requires two hours at 160 °C (320 °F).[11] Methods of air
removal include:

Downward displacement (or gravity-type):

As steam enters the chamber, it fills the upper areas first as it is less dense than air. This
process compresses the air to the bottom, forcing it out through a drain which often contains
a temperature sensor. Only when air evacuation is complete does the discharge stop. Flow is
usually controlled by a steam trap or a solenoid valve, but bleed holes are sometimes used.
As the steam and air mix, it is also possible to force out the mixture from locations in the
chamber other than the bottom.
Steam pulsing:
Air dilution by using a series of steam pulses, in which the chamber is alternately pressurized
and then depressurized to near atmospheric pressure.
Vacuum pumps:
A vacuum pump sucks air or air/steam mixtures from the chamber.
Superatmospheric cycles:
Achieved with a vacuum pump. It starts with a vacuum followed by a steam pulse followed
by a vacuum followed by a steam pulse. The number of pulses depends on the particular
autoclave and cycle chosen.
Subatmospheric cycles:
Similar to the superatmospheric cycles, but chamber pressure never exceeds atmospheric
pressure until they pressurize up to the sterilizing temperature.
Stovetop autoclaves used in poorer or non-medical settings do not always have automatic
air removal programs. The operator is required to manually perform steam pulsing at
certain pressures as indicated by the gauge.[12]

In medicine
A medical autoclave is a device that uses steam to sterilize
equipment and other objects. This means that all bacteria,
viruses, fungi, and spores are inactivated.[13] However,
prions, such as those associated with Creutzfeldt–Jakob
disease, and some toxins released by certain bacteria, such
as Cereulide, may not be destroyed by autoclaving at the
typical 134 °C for three minutes or 121 °C for 15 minutes
and instead should be immersed in sodium hydroxide (1M
NaOH) and heated in a gravity displacement autoclave at Dental equipment in an autoclave to
121 °C for 30 min, cleaned, rinsed in water and subjected be sterilized for 2 hours at 150 to
to routine sterilization.[14] Although a wide range of 180 degrees Celsius
archaea species, including Geogemma barossii, can survive
and even reproduce at temperatures found in autoclaves,
their growth rate is so slow at the lower temperatures in the less extreme environments
occupied by humans that it is unlikely they could compete with other organisms.[15] None
of them are known to be infectious or otherwise pose a health risk to humans; in fact, their
biochemistry is so different from that of humans, and their multiplication rate is so slow,
that microbiologists need not worry about them.[16]

Autoclaves are found in many medical settings, laboratories, and other places that need to
ensure the sterility of an object. Many procedures today employ single-use items rather
than sterilizable, reusable items. This first happened with hypodermic needles, but today
many surgical instruments (such as forceps, needle holders, and scalpel handles) are
commonly single-use rather than reusable items (see waste autoclave). Autoclaves are of
particular importance in poorer countries due to the much greater amount of equipment
that is re-used.

Because damp heat is used, heat-labile products (such as some plastics) cannot be sterilized
this way or they will melt. Paper and other products that may be damaged by steam must
also be sterilized another way. In all autoclaves, items should always be separated to allow
the steam to penetrate the load evenly.

Autoclaving is often used to sterilize medical waste prior to disposal in the standard
municipal solid waste stream. This application has become more common as an alternative
to incineration due to environmental and health concerns about the combustion by-
products emitted by incinerators, especially from the small units which were commonly
operated at individual hospitals. Incineration or a similar thermal oxidation process is still
generally mandated for pathological waste and other very toxic or infectious medical
waste. For liquid waste, an effluent decontamination system is the equivalent hardware.

In dentistry, autoclaves provide sterilization of dental instruments.

In most of the industrialized world medical-grade autoclaves are regulated medical devices.
Many medical-grade autoclaves are therefore limited to running regulator-approved cycles.
Because they are optimized for continuous hospital use, they favor rectangular designs,
require demanding maintenance regimens, and are costly to operate. (A properly
calibrated medical-grade autoclave uses thousands of gallons of water each day,
independent of task, with correspondingly high electric power consumption.)

In research
Autoclaves used in education, research, biomedical research, pharmaceutical research and
industrial settings (often called "research-grade" autoclaves) are used to sterilize lab
instruments, glassware, culture media, and liquid media. Research-grade autoclaves are
increasingly used in these settings where efficiency, ease-of-use, and flexibility are at a
premium. Research-grade autoclaves may be configured for "pass-through" operation. This
makes it possible to maintain absolute isolation between "clean" and potentially
contaminated work areas. Pass-through research autoclaves are especially important in
BSL-3 or BSL-4 facilities.

Research-grade autoclaves—which are not approved for use in sterilizing instruments that
will be directly used on humans—are primarily designed for efficiency, flexibility, and ease-
of-use. They display a wide range of designs and sizes, and are frequently tailored to their
use and load type. Common variations include either a cylindrical or square pressure
chamber, air- or water-cooling systems, and vertically or horizontally opening chamber
doors (which may be electrically or manually powered).

In 2016, the Office of Sustainability at the University of California, Riverside (UCR)

conducted a study of autoclave efficiency in their genomics and entomology research labs,
tracking several units' power and water consumption. They found that, even when
functioning within intended parameters, the medical-grade autoclaves used in their
research labs were each consuming 700 gallons of water and 90 kWh of electricity per day
(1,134MWh of electricity and 8.8 million gallons of water total), because they consumed
energy and water continuously, even when not in use. UCR's research-grade autoclaves
performed the same tasks with equal effectiveness, but used 83% less energy and 97% less
water.[17]

Quality assurance
In order to sterilize items effectively, it is important to use optimal parameters when
running an autoclave cycle. A 2017 study performed by the Johns Hopkins Hospital
biocontainment unit tested the ability of pass-through autoclaves to decontaminate loads of
simulated biomedical waste when run on the factory default setting. The study found that
18 of 18 (100%) mock patient loads (6 PPE, 6 linen, and 6 liquid loads) passed sterilization
tests with the optimized parameters compared to only 3 of 19 (16%) mock loads that passed
with use of the factory default settings.[18]

There are physical, chemical, and biological indicators that can be used to ensure that an
autoclave reaches the correct temperature for the correct amount of time. If a non-treated
or improperly treated item can be confused for a treated item, then there is the risk that
they will become mixed up, which, in some areas such as
surgery, is critical.

Chemical indicators on medical packaging and autoclave

tape change color once the correct conditions have been
met, indicating that the object inside the package, or under
the tape, has been appropriately processed. Autoclave tape
is only a marker that steam and heat have activated the Sterilization bags often have a
dye. The marker on the tape does not indicate complete "sterilization indicator mark" that
sterility. A more difficult challenge device, named the typically darkens when the bag and
Bowie-Dick device after its inventors, is also used to verify its contents have been adequately
a full cycle. This contains a full sheet of chemical indicator processed. Comparing the marks on
an unprocessed bag (L) and on a
placed in the center of a stack of paper. It is designed
bag that has been properly cycled
specifically to prove that the process achieved full
(R) will reveal an obvious visual
temperature and time required for a normal minimum difference.
cycle of 134 °C for 3.5–4 minutes.[19]

To prove sterility, biological indicators are used. Biological indicators contain spores of a
heat-resistant bacterium, Geobacillus stearothermophilus. If the autoclave does not reach
the right temperature, the spores will germinate when incubated and their metabolism will
change the color of a pH-sensitive chemical. Some physical indicators consist of an alloy
designed to melt only after being subjected to a given temperature for the relevant holding
time. If the alloy melts, the change will be visible.[20]
Some computer-controlled autoclaves use an F0 (F-nought) value to control the sterilization
cycle. F0 values are set for the number of minutes of sterilization equivalent to 121 °C
(250 °F) at 103 kPa (14.9 psi) above atmospheric pressure for 15 minutes. Since exact
temperature control is difficult, the temperature is monitored, and the sterilization time
adjusted accordingly.[21]

Additional images

Stovetop autoclaves, also known The machine on the right is an

as pressure cooker—the simplest autoclave used for processing
of autoclaves substantial quantities of
laboratory equipment prior to
reuse, and infectious material
prior to disposal. (The machines
on the left and in the middle are
washing machines.)

Horizontal high-capacity Illustration of a cylindrical-

autoclave with cylindrical chamber pass-through autoclave
chamber

References
1. Menge, John A. (1984). "Chapter 9: Inoculom Production". In Powel, Conway L.; Bagyaraj, D.
Joseph (eds.). VA Mycorrhiza (https://books.google.com/books?id=X0taDwAAQBAJ&dq=sterili
 zation+103+kPa+15+lb&pg=RA1-PA124). CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-351-09441-2. Retrieved
June 11, 2024.
2. Black, Jacquelyn (1993). Microbiology. Prentice Hall. p. 334. ISBN 9780135829172.
3. "Charles Chamberland, the inventor" (https://www.pasteur.fr/fr/institut-pasteur/notre-histoire/c
harles-chamberland-inventeur). Pasteur Institute. 9 November 2018. Archived (https://web.arch
ive.org/web/20211122124224/https://www.pasteur.fr/fr/institut-pasteur/notre-histoire/charles
-chamberland-inventeur) from the original on 2021-11-22. Retrieved 2021-12-15.
4. Hugo WB (July 1991). "A brief history of heat and chemical preservation and disinfection".
Journal of Applied Bacteriology. 71 (1): 9–18. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2672.1991.tb04657.x (https://
doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-2672.1991.tb04657.x). PMID 1894581 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.ni
h.gov/1894581).
5. "autoclave (n.)" (http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=autoclave). Online Etymology
Dictionary. Etymonline.com. September 16, 2018. Retrieved June 11, 2024.
6. "Sterilization Cycles" (http://consteril.com/index.php?pg=41). Consolidated Machine
Corporation. Retrieved 2009-06-30.
7. "Sterilization of liquids, solids, waste in disposal bags and hazardous biological substances" (h
ttps://www.systec-lab.com/sterilization-of-liquids-solids-waste-in-disposal-bags-and-hazardou
s-biological-substances/). 2 January 2017. Retrieved 2017-04-20.
8. Seymour Stanton Block (2001). Disinfection, Sterilization, and Preservation (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=3f-kPJ17_TYC&pg=PA1052). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 978-0-683-
30740-5. Retrieved 19 January 2013.
9. R. B. Simpson (2002). Rubber Basics (https://books.google.com/books?id=sp0UpURKUV8C&pg
=PA161). iSmithers Rapra Publishing. p. 161. ISBN 978-1-85957-307-5. Retrieved 19 January
2013.
10. "A new approach to making airplane parts, minus the massive infrastructure: Carbon nanotube
film produces aerospace-grade composites with no need for huge ovens or autoclaves" (http
s://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2020/01/200113124504.htm). ScienceDaily. Retrieved
2020-01-13.
11. Joint Technical Committee HE-023, Processing of Medical and Surgical Instruments (6 April
2006), Australian/New Zealand Standard: Office-based health care facilities— Reprocessing of
reusable medical and surgical instruments and equipment, and maintenance of the associated
environment (AS/NZS 4815:2006) (https://www.saiglobal.com/PDFTemp/Previews/OSH/AS/AS
4000/4800/4815-2006.pdf) (pdf), Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand, retrieved
11 June 2024
12. "All American Autoclave Sterilizers" (https://www.allamericancanner.com/Autoclave-Sterilizer.h
tm). AllAmericanCanner.com. Red Hill General Store. Retrieved 2022-04-30.
13. "How Does an Autoclave Work?" (https://www.scienceequip.com.au/blogs/news/how-does-an-
autoclave-work). ScienceEquip. ScienceEquip Quality Laboratory Equipment and Consumables.
Retrieved 11 June 2024.
14. Communicable Disease Surveillance and Control (1999-03-26). "WHO Infection Control
Guidelines for Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies" (https://www.who.int/csr/resourc
es/publications/bse/whocdscsraph2003.pdf) (PDF). Communicable Diseases (CDS). World
Health Organization. pp. 29–32. Retrieved 2002-02-05. "Immerse in sodium hydroxide
(NaOH)20 and heat in a gravity displacement autoclave at 121°C for 30 min; clean; rinse in
water and subject to routine sterilization."
15. Cowan, D. A. (2004-02-01). "The upper temperature for life – where do we draw the line?" (http
s://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0966842X03003160). Trends in Microbiology.
12 (2): 58–60. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2003.12.002 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tim.2003.12.002).
hdl:10566/147 (https://hdl.handle.net/10566%2F147). ISSN 0966-842X (https://search.worldca
t.org/issn/0966-842X). PMID 15040324 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15040324).
16. Davies, Julian; Davies, Dorothy (September 2010). "Origins and Evolution of Antibiotic
Resistance" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2937522). Microbiology and
Molecular Biology Reviews. 74 (3): 417–433. doi:10.1128/MMBR.00016-10 (https://doi.org/10.1
128%2FMMBR.00016-10). ISSN 1092-2172 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1092-2172).
PMC 2937522 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2937522). PMID 20805405 (ht
tps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20805405).
17. Faugeroux, Delphine; Wells, Barbra. "Laboratory autoclaves: a case study" (https://www.priorcla
ve.com/en-us/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2018/08/LabDesign_Dec2016.pdf) (PDF).
Laboratory Design. 20 (6): 10–12. Retrieved May 24, 2017.
18. Garibaldi, Brian T.; Reimers, Mallory; Ernst, Neysa; Bova, Gregory; Nowakowski, Elaine;
Bukowski, James; Ellis, Brandon C.; Smith, Chris; Sauer, Lauren; Dionne, Kim; Carroll, Karen C.;
Maragakis, Lisa L.; Parrish, Nicole M. (February 2017). "Validation of Autoclave Protocols for
Successful Decontamination of Category A Medical Waste Generated from Care of Patients
with Serious Communicable Diseases" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC52775
25). Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 55 (2): 545–551. doi:10.1128/JCM.02161-16 (https://doi.o
rg/10.1128%2FJCM.02161-16). ISSN 0095-1137 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0095-1137).
PMC 5277525 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5277525). PMID 27927920 (ht
tps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27927920).
19. "Guideline for Disinfection and Sterilization in Healthcare Facilities (2008): Steam Sterilization"
(https://www.cdc.gov/infectioncontrol/guidelines/disinfection/sterilization/steam.html). U.S.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). United States Department of Health and
Human Services. November 28, 2023. Retrieved June 11, 2024.
20. "The Autoclave, effectivity and low cost" (https://kalstein.eu/the-autoclave-effectivity-and-low-c
ost/?lang=en). Kalstein. Kalstein France. 2022. Retrieved 2023-10-21.
21. "Sterilizer" (https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/sterilize
r). ScienceDirect. Elsevier B.V. Retrieved 11 June 2024.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Autoclave&oldid=1232130630"