Cell Division

DR B.E ARAYOMBO
ANATOMY AND CELL BIOLOGY
BMS, CHS, OAUIFE.
Learning Objectives
At the end of this lecture, students are expected to;
• define and identify the types of cell division in human.
• describe various Phases and Sub-phases of cell division.
• compare and contrast the types of cell division.
• understand the genetic relationship of the daughter cells to parent
cell.
Introduction and Definition
• Cell division is a process whereby a parent cell divides into two
daughter cells or more.
• Cell division occur as part of cell cycle, different stages of Mitosis
forms the mitotic phase of cell cycle.
• Approximately 10 quadrillion cell divisions occur in a human life time,
which essence is to maintain original cell genome.
History of Cell Division and Discovery of Meiosis
• Cell division under microscope was first discovered
by German Botanist Hugo von Mohl who in 1834
worked on green alga. In 1943, cell division was first
filmed microscopically(PC) for the 1st time by Kurt
Michael

• In 1882, British cytologist Pierre-Joseph van Beneden

found different numbers of chromosomes in different
cells

• Specifically, he observed that gametes (sperm & egg)

contain half the number of chromosomes compared
to somatic cells (non- reproductive cells).
Types of Cell Division (Mitosis and Meiosis)

• Cell replication involves copying of DNA, then copies are

separated and sorted into two parts.
• The cell then divides into two, part of each parent cell is
carried to the two new cells.
• This results in somatic cells in mitosis.
• While in meiosis part of each parent is carried to the four new
cells which results in sex cells.
 DNA Transcription
• DNA Transcription into mRNA starts with RNA polymerase II attachment
to a core promoter.

• With series of cofactors, transcription is initiated by unwinding the

double helix of the DNA two turns, to expose the nucleotides and codons
on the DNA strand.

• The enzyme uses exposed DNA strands as a template on which to

assemble and polymerize complementary bases of the RNA molecule.

• The process repeats as a new region of the DNA double helix is unwound
and more nucleotides are polymerized into the growing mRNA chain.
• As the enzyme moves along the DNA molecule, the polymerized mRNA
chain is separated from the template DNA strand, permitting the two DNA
strands to re-form into the double helix configuration.
Why Cell Division?
• As cells get bigger, more of its cytoplasm is located
farther from the cell membrane.

• If a cell gets too big, it would take too long to get

materials into the cell and too long to get waste out of
the cell.
• Younger/smaller cells are more efficient!
 Steps in Mitotic Division
Interphase occurs just before Mitosis begins:

DNA is replicated along with organelles and other cellular

components and the cell prepares for division.
1st step in Mitosis: (Karyokinesis – Cytokinesis)
Prophase (preparation phase)

The DNA recoils, and the chromosomes condense; the nuclear

membrane disappears, and the mitotic spindles begin to form.
2nd step in Mitosis:
metaphase (organization phase)

The chromosomes line up the middle of the cell with the help
of spindle fibers attached to the centromere of each replicated
chromosome.
3rd step in Mitosis: Anaphase (separation phase)

The chromosomes split in the middle and the sister chromatids

are pulled by the spindle fibers to opposite poles of the cell.
4th step in Mitosis: Telophase

The chromosomes, along with the cytoplasm and its organelles

and membranes are divided into 2 portions.
 Beginning of cytokinesis :

After Mitosis: Cytokinesis

The actual splitting of the daughter cells into two separate cells
is called cytokinesis .
Interrelationship between cell Cycle and Cell Division
Meiosis
Interphase
Meiosis is preceded by interphase.
The chromosomes have not yet condensed.

The chromosomes have replicated, and the

chromatin begins to condense.
 Meiosis I ( Reduction division) Prophase I
The chromosomes are completely condensed. In
meiosis (unlike mitosis), the homologous
chromosomes pair with one another

Prophase I is by far the most complicated phase of meiosis.

It is much longer than in mitosis, during this stage, homologs
join (synapse) along their length and exchange DNA. Prophase 1
is itself divided into five substages:
 1. Leptotene (Leptonema.)
The chromosomes have appeared within the nuclear envelope,
but are not yet fully condensed.
A thin thread of DNA (lepto-Greek for thin and – ‘tene’ ribbon
or band ) along which clearly defined beads of local coiling can
be seen.
The chromosomes, while they have this thread like form, are
called chromatonemata (sing. chromatonema; -nema means
thread ).
 LEPTOTENE (Leptonema.)
• The chromosomes are still so tightly bound to each other that
they cannot be seperately seen, during this stage both
telomeres of each chromosomes are turned toward, and
probably attached to the same region of the nuclear envelope.

• Also referred to as the bouquet stage because all the

telomeres tend to contact the nuclear envelope In one spot so
that the looped chromosomes balloon out from that point like
flower petals .
 Zygotene (Zygonema.)
• Homologs begin to unite (synapse) by coming into
approximate alignment (zygo- is Greek for union, fusing, or
yoking).

• After synapsis, the fused homologs look like a single

chromosome under the light microscope ,but they are actually
double, the interface where two homologs unite, the
synaptonemal complex can be seen under an electron
microscope
 Pachytene (Pachynema)
• Two sister chromatids of each chromosomes separate from
each other, this makes the chromosomes look thicker
(pachy- thick), homologs are still paired here.

• Crossing-over; non-sister chromatids remain in contact

throughout pachytene and a kind of localized breakage of
the DNA occurs ,followed by exchanges of DNA between
them . This process called crossing over produces cross
–over chromatids, each composed of distinct blocks of DNA,
some blocks derived from the mother, others from the
father.
 Diplotene (Diplonema)
• At the beginning of this stage each chromatids of each
chromosome is still fused to a chromatid of that chromosome’s
homolog, these initially fused non-sister chromatids begin to
separate from each other .

• However, they cannot separate completely because they are

still connected by two strands, form an x-shaped structure
called a chiasma (pl. chiasmata). The chiasmata then begin
moving toward the ends of the chromatids, this process of
sliding toward the ends is also known as terminalization.
 Diplotene (Diplonema)
• in oocytes, a special, extremely prolonged form of diplotene
occurs called dictyotene.

• The primary oocyte undergoes the first three of the substages

of prophase I, during late fetal life the process is then
suspended during diplotene until puberty or thereafter.
Therefore, in dictyotene (and consequently prophase I) can last
months or even years , depending on the type of organism in
question.
 Diakinesis

• The last stage of prophase I, nucleolus disappears,

terminalization reaches completion, the chromosomes coil
tightly and so become shorter and thicker, the nuclear
envelope begins to disappear and finally the centrosomes
reach the poles.
 Meiosis Metaphase I

The nuclear membrane dissolves and the homologous

chromosomes attach to the spindle fibers.
They are preparing to go to opposite poles.
 Meiosis Anaphase I

The chromosomes move to opposite ends of the cell.

 Meiosis Telophase I & Cytokinesis

The cell begins to divide into two daughter cells. Each daughter
cell can get any combination of maternal and paternal
chromosomes.
Meiosis II ( Equatorial division)
Prophase II
The cell has divided into
two daughter cells.
Meiosis Metaphase II
As in Meiosis I, the
chromosomes line up on the
spindle fibers.
Meiosis Anaphase II
The two cells each begin to
divide.
As in Meiosis I, the
chromosomes move to
opposite ends of each cell.
Telophase II & Cytokinesis
With the formation of four cells,
meiosis is over.

Each of these prospective germ

cells carries half the number of
chromosomes of somatic cells.
Summary of Meiosis
 The cell cycle
• This is a regular sequence of growth and division. It is divided into three main stages:
• Interphase – cell grows into its mature size, makes a copy of its DNA, and prepares for division. cell
is here for most of its life! It is made up of G1, S, G2.
• Mitosis – one copy of the DNA is distributed into each of its daughter cells
• Cytokinesis – the cytoplasm divides and organelles are distributed into the two new cells
• Actively dividing eukaryotic cells pass through series of stages known collectively as the
cell cycle. There are two gap phases (G1 and G2); and an S (for synthesis) phase, in
which the genetic material is duplicated; and an M phase, in which mitosis partitions
the genetic material and the cell divides.
• G1 phase. Metabolic changes prepare the cell for division. At a certain point - the
restriction point - the cell is committed to division and moves into the S phase.
• S phase. DNA synthesis replicates the genetic material. Each chromosome now consists
of two sister chromatids.
• G2 phase. Metabolic changes assemble the cytoplasmic materials necessary for mitosis
and cytokinesis.
• M phase. A nuclear division (mitosis) followed by a cell division (cytokinesis).
• The period between mitotic divisions - that is, G1, S and G2 - is known as interphase.
 In rapidly dividing human cells this whole process takes 24 hours (M ∼ 30 min, G1 ∼ 9 h,
S ∼ 10 h, and G2 ∼ 4.5 h

The cell cycle is divided into four phases:

•G1 phase
•S phase
•G2 phase and
•M phase
Cell cycle illustrated
Meiosis
• Meiosis results in a halving of Mitosis
the chromosome number in (From the Greek word ‘mitos’ means a thread)
preparation for fertilisation
• Mitotic division results in
• Meiosis shuffles genes in new genetically identical eukaryotic
combinations cells (a clone)
• Meiosis results in genetically • Mitosis is the basis of asexual
different cells reproduction
• Meiosis and fertilisation are the
basis of sexual reproduction
Abnormal divisions
Chromosome Structure
 Questions
1. What kinds of cells does mitosis produce?
2. How many chromosomes do human haploid cells have?
3. What kinds of cells does meiosis produce?
4. How many cells are produced when one cell goes through meiosis?
5. How many times are chromosomes replicated during meiosis?
6. How do cells in meiosis get to be different?
7. If an organism’s somatic cells have 36 chromosomes, how many chromosomes
do their gametes have?